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Inclusive Data Research Skills for Arts and Humanities/How do you get funding?. There are various ways to get research funding for arts and humanities researchers. One of the main funding bodies for this field is the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), who have various funding rounds for different purposes Where can I find previously funded projects? Exploring previously funded projects is a great way to discover the types of projects that have been funded. The UKRI gateway (2024) to publicly funded research and innovation is an interactive tool with a search function. Users are able to search for projects by key words, subject, project team members and the project reference. Each project then includes: UKRI has a ‘funding finder’ for searching current opportunities; this is a great place to start looking for funding. Some of these opportunities are very specific, others more general. You can also contact UKRI if you aren’t sure if your project is right for a specific research call. As UKRI is a publicly funded body, all the projects that successfully received its funds can be searched; on this page, you can see who was involved in this project and what institution they were part of when the project was initially funded. https://gtr.ukri.org/ Finding UKRI Funding. UKRI has a ‘funding finder’ for searching current opportunities; this is a great place to start looking for funding. Some of these opportunities are very specific, others more general. You can also contact UKRI if you aren’t sure if your project is right for a specific research call. https://www.ukri.org/opportunity/ Overview of AHRC open grants. As part of the DAReS project, our post-doc researcher prepared this presentation about AHRC ‘open grants’; this can be a good place to start looking for applying for funding and thinking about what stage of research you are at. research funding presentation References. UKRI gateway (2024). UK gateway search page

Inclusive Data Research Skills for Arts and Humanities/What should a research goal be?. What a research goal is not.. In most cases, researchers set goals that are synonymous with a research objective, which is something that sets the destination for the research project itself. These could be thought of as “What does the research aim to achieve.” A research objective needs to follow certain constraints and be agreed upon by all research team members. This could also be a more general statement of the Research Question or hypothesis, generally setting out the direction of travel. This kind of research goal can be helpful as it can help the research team determine what the research outputs and outcomes could be. There is a danger with setting out your destination when starting a research project. As the research object is separate from the research questions, the research objective might anticipate the findings of the project, rather than being open to a range of outcomes from the Research question of hypothesis. Research Outputs can be thought of as (what are the endpoint and work backwards). What is the research trying to achieve? - Social impact - Economic impact - Innovation - Pedagogy "Your research proposal doesn’t need to address all of these!" Research Goals as part of a Research Journey. Thinking more about something more like a research journey, the research goal is something a little different.  Most research goals answer the questions ‘what’ or ‘how’ of the research; “What will we find out?” “How will we conduct the research”. Instead, think of the research goal as a question of ‘Why” and, more specifically “, Why is this important?”.  It is even possible to think of the research goal as, more importantly “, Why is this research important to you?” Pushing back against the objective stance in research, your research goal can be a way of thinking about what makes the research personal to you as a researcher. This can mean that different members of the research project might have different research goals, and that is fine, even good. The research goals can recognise, that as well as researchers, you are also an individual, a person. Your research goal might be: “Working with a new researcher or research group.” “Working with a new partner” “Learning a new technique or tool, or exploring a new discipline.” “Conducting research in a new geographic area.” Why Research Goals? Approaching the research goal in this way, is that you can sperate your success (and a personal evaluation of success) away from outputs you as a researcher might have less control over (paper publications, conference presentation, or even answering the research question). As part of your research journey, your research goals is about moving forward on that journey.

Inclusive Data Research Skills for Arts and Humanities/Guidance on accessibility and good practice. Access is complex and there are multiple approaches to understanding it. Ellcessor (2016) writes:First, access must be understood not in terms of availability, affordability, or choice but in terms of an individual’s ability to engage meaningfully with a medium/technology and its content; second, a hegemonic user position is created by digital media technologies and their usages, and this user position is not neutral but perpetuates an able-bodied norm and contributes to inequalities of access. By this Ellcessor places emphasis on meaningful engagement. Metaphorically, people cannot just be allowed in, they must be able to participate. Second, Ellcessor (2016) draws attention to the fact that digital technologies assume a particular user - usually a white, non-disabled, man. Good inclusive practice means not making this assumption. In addition to accounting for a wide range of users and experiences of the world, good access practice understands accessibility, as practiced within disability communities, as a world-making practice that reshapes the material, digital and social world. Access is not a friction-less, self-evident good, that integrate disabled people into the non-disabled world without questioning the utility and ultimate good of that world. More practically, the first and often most effective tool of access is always communication. Providing whoever you engage with, whether students, other researchers, the public or partners with clear information about where you'll be, what you'll be doing and what will be expected of them is a great starting point. This requires you to think carefully about the assumptions that you make what is involved in an activity. Those assumptions are likely embedded in your culture and quite possibly your assumptions about how bodyminds work. Make sure you've given yourself a lot of time before the thing you are doing. There has to be time for conversation. Then, ask people what they need. Access can be expansive. This can go beyond how people's bodyminds do and don't conform to societal functions. Asking what people's access needs are can be as simple as asking, 'what do you need to do your best work'? Then respond, as best you can, with grace and curiousity. Access often challenges our deeply held and felt understandings of what 'good work' and 'politeness' is. This is challenging, but also part of the joy of access world-making. In digital spaces, Wikimedia is pretty accessible. But all that work to build an accessible website doesn't count for anything if you don't write the alt text. Write the alt text.

Inclusive Data Research Skills for Arts and Humanities/What is the research journey?. What is a Research Journey? If we use "journey" to describe the act and practice of research, then it is logical to assume that the researcher/active subject is travelling within a landscape of knowing. Therefore, building a local body of practice accumulates contest knowability constantly. If we define a body of knowledge as a community of people contributing to the practice's continued vitality, application, and evolution, then the 'journey' of the research is terra-forming, worldbuilding or architecture. Boundaries of knowability and practices must exist in forming this container of 'known'. In Art and Design, practice-based research methodology is widely practised, debated and redefined. It is conventional to consider the duration of practice as a key factor in moderating the hierarchy of competency and accept its vulnerability to social prejudices. In Art and Design, practice-based research methodology is widely practised, debated and redefined. It is conventional to consider the duration of practice as a key factor in moderating the hierarchy of competency and accept its vulnerability to social prejudices. Data, according to BBC Bitesize, is raw facts and figures that make no sense or do not have meaning. Data is words, numbers, dates, images, sounds, etc., without context. In this definition, we must establish an esoteric typology for data in art and design research and research methodologies. The methodology to develop this emergent typology has to place iterative and reflexive deconstructions and reconstructions of standard practices in existing data science and data analytics.

Inclusive Data Research Skills for Arts and Humanities/Self Sustaining Community of Researchers. A Community of Researchers. We are developing a community of researchers to continue the work started by the DAReS project. Reading List: Data and Digital Research Skills for Arts and Humanities Researchers. As part of the community in which we are developing, we have created a reading list that may be helpful for thinking about work related to this project. Conferences and Opportunities. Please add any conferences or opportunities that are relevant to the work of this book

Inclusive Data Research Skills for Arts and Humanities/Storytelling. Storytelling is at the heart of everything we do as artist-researchers. We have explored together how data can tell stories and about data "positionalities" as well as data discrimination, and there is more work to be done on how we make the storytelling around data as transparent and open as possible...

Walking Rugby. Walking Rugby is a much gentler version of the physically demanding game of Rugby. It is played on half of a normal pitch, participants must be walking at all times, and there is no tackling involved, instead a touch of two hands below the armpit or above the waist is used. In some ways, it can be seen as similar in concept to "Walking football" or "Walking netball" where for whatever reason people cannot play the normal high-speed full-contact version of the game they are based on, in this case "Rugby union" It is a good cardiovascular workout and can also help to improve speed, agility, and strength. Plus, it’s an opportunity to meet new people without the risk of getting tackled to the floor, if you don't what to play the outdoors, walking sports like this can be played inside all year round

Walking Rugby/History. Walking Rugby (WR) was started at Reading RFC in late October 2015, in response to enquiries locally to the rugby club regarding the possibility of a game similar to Walking Football which seems to have taken off nationally with some success. Reading WR started with a group of about 8 to 12 people, initially at the Reading Rugby Club on grass, but soon moved indoors to a local sports hall. The group consisted mainly of retired members of the Rugby Club plus others with the flexibility to manage their own working hours. The version of the game that was started was very soon modified, adapted, and has evolved into the current version which we have tried to make identifiably a version of the game of Rugby Football Union.

Walking Rugby/Rules. No running – walking determined by one foot on the ground at any time when in motion No contact – similar to ‘touch rugby’ rules – two hands on shorts is all the contact made which qualifies as a tackle. No Mauls or Rucks or Lineouts Scrummaging – max 3 players per team stood upright and non-contested. Passing backwards or lateral – offside rules apply A try requires no bending – you walk across the try line ball in hand. Additional Rules. Walking Rugby matches are friendly matches played by teams which can be of any gender (including mixed teams). This is an inclusive sport which welcomes players of all abilities and disabilities.<ref name="gamelocker">https://www.wrugamelocker.wales/media/1537/wru3556-walking-rugby-rules.pdf These rules are drafted to allow flexibility when required. To accommodate the inclusive nature of the game, teams /festival organisers may agree on rule changes to suit local conditions and player abilities. The spirit and laws of the 15-a-side game will apply unless detailed below. • There will be no scrums, lineouts, mauls, and rucks. • Tackling, barging, hand-offs and kicking the ball are not allowed. • Players must not run or jog whilst the game is in play. MAJOR CHANGES FROM 15 A SIDE GAME • Matches are played with a size 4/5 ball. • 7 players on the pitch at a time per team. • Unlimited in-game substitutions can be made. A substituted player may return. • Matches are typically 8-12 minutes long and could include a halftime. • All teams should wear a sports kit or bib to identify players. If possible, watches and jewellery should not be worn. • For 7 a side matches, we advise a pitch size of about a quarter of a full-size rugby pitch. However, pitch size can be varied based on available space and player numbers. FESTIVAL LOGISTICS Veterans Touch Rugby Rules – 20223 • With the aim of the game to maximise accessibility, team captains and referees can agree on adjustments to apply for that match to take into account disability, age, or infirmity. • Starting play: • At the start and after a try, a free pass from the middle of the pitch. • If the ball goes into touch, restart with a throw from where the line crosses. • In all other instances, tap the ball with foot or knee and then walk or pass. • The ball must be passed backwards or transverse. • The defending team aim to touch the player with the ball. A touch should be two-handed from shoulders down to shorts, including arms. • If the attacking team has not scored within 6 touches - the ball is turned over to the opposition who restart where the 6th touch happened. • A player scores tries when at least 1 foot is placed on or after the try line. • If a player is touched whilst crossing the line, a try is scored provided, the line is reached or crossed by completing the step being made when touched. • A penalty try will be awarded if an infringement stops a try being scored. • If the ball goes to the ground without a knock-on the player nearest to the fallen ball may pick it up and continue play. The opposing team should not interfere with the pick-up. The Game. The referee is the sole judge of fact and law. They are encouraged to try and make the games flow freely and can make allowances for the abilities and skills of players. • Advantage should be used where possible. • Touches made by players infringing the rules can be discounted from the 6 touches rule, or the referee may reset the 6 touches and let the game flow or award a penalty. • Referees may also ignore infringements which do not materially affect play. • A neutral referee is preferred, and teams attending a festival may be requested to provide a person(s) who can act as a referee for matches involving other teams. • Touches should not be robust and consider the strengths/frailties of the player being touched. • Touched players may complete the pace they were in the process of making whilst touched and then must pass the ball within 3 seconds, without further movement. • If a player carrying the ball is touched and then travels more than this the referee should call play back to where the touch was. Play restarts with the same player in possession – touches are not reset. • The player making the touch must retire 1 pace, setting the offside line for their team. • If the defender making the touch interferes with the pass from the touched player, the attacking team have 6 fresh touches. Touch Tackles. Veterans Touch Rugby Rules – 20225 • In the event of Offside, foul play, forward pass or knock the non-offending team restarts where the incident occurred and/or the 6-touch count is reset. • Foul play. Normal 15-a-side rules apply plus: • No running or Jogging at any time. • No pushing, barging, or dangerously making a touch. Including handoffs, walking straight into, or backing into an opposition player. • Tackler/Defender interfering with pass after a touch or not retreating. • Grabbing another player, trying to wrestle the ball away from them (by hitting the ball, snatching, or ripping). • The referee may ask that players who are deliberately and repeatedly infringing be substituted by their team. • The referee has the discretion to allow advantage and: • For minor infringements they could just exclude touches made by infringing players from the 6 touches count or deduct 1 from the existing touch count. • For more material infringements where the referee is still not stopping play the 6-touch count can be reset from where the advantage occurs. Infringements. • When an Offside line is created all players in a team must try and retire into an onside position. • An Offside line is created as follows: • If a touch occurs the player making the touch must step back 1 metre and this sets the offside line for their team (or on their try line if closer). • At all restarts the attacking team have an offside line where the restart is; the The defending team have an offside line 2m nearer to their try line (or on their try line if closer). • If an offside player makes a touch it is excluded from the 6 touches count. If they also obstruct play the referee can reset play where the obstruction took place or play advantage by resetting the touch count. • Onside defenders may advance once the ball has been tapped or passed. • The Offside line lasts until the team with the ball has completed a pass or moved 2m with it. • In open play all players are onside

A-Level Maths & Further Maths. Introduction. This book covers both A-Level Mathematics and Further Mathematics. It is separated by content and topics, rather than by different exam boards. The A-Level Mathematics and Further Mathematics specifications were updated following reforms in the UK for GCE A-Level examinations. This new book is to cover all the changes in content and compile information from the previous wikibook that makes references to older specifications (specifically 2013 and earlier). The new specifications are linear and replaced module-based A-Levels. The first exams of the current specification were in 2017. The majority of core content is set by the UK Department for Education and is assessed by exam boards, all of which add various amounts of additional content to exams. The current exam boards are AQA, Edexcel, OCR, OCR (MEI), CCEA, WJEC and CIE.

A-Level Maths & Further Maths/Algebraic Expressions. Fractions. Fractions are something that you should be comfortable using at this level, and should be second nature. Recall that formula_1 is true, but in general formula_2. It should also be reminded that the denominator cannot be zero. Factorising Expressions. A factor is a number or variable that appears in multiple parts of an expression; it can be 'taken out' to help simplify an expression. For example, formula_3 has a factor of formula_4, so the expression can be simplified to formula_5. Expanding Expressions. Expanding expressions basically reverses factorising. It is easy to make a mistake when expanding brackets, so care should be taken. A common example is formula_6, where many students make the mistake of suggesting it is formula_7. Another important one to remember is the difference of two squares: formula_8. Indices. There are some basic rules to remember when working with indices: formula_9 formula_10 formula_11 formula_12 formula_13 formula_14 formula_15 These will be revisited when looking at logarithms. Surds. Surds are expressions involving square roots. Like indices, the basic rules are: formula_16 formula_17 formula_18 formula_19 Rationalising the Denominator. By definition, square roots are irrational. This makes them difficult to work with, especially when they are in the denominator of a fraction, when trying to simplify expressions. To help with this, we use the process of 'rationalising the denominator'. To do so, we multiply the numerator and denominator by the same number, as formula_20, so we avoid changing the value of the fraction, but still change the numbers we are working with. Example. To rationalise formula_21 the full working out would be formula_22.

A-Level Maths & Further Maths/Polynomials. Polynomials are expressions involving powers of a term, often x, where the power is two or more. A power of 1 would be a linear expression, and zero would make it a constant (just 1). They should become easier to understand as you work through them. Quadratics. Quadratics should be a familiar term from GCSE learning. Quadratic equations are algebraic equations which involve a squared term, and often a linear and constant term. The first skill you need to have is to factorise quadratics. An example of the method to do so is below. Example. Factorise formula_1. If you can recall from GCSE, you may look for two numbers that add together to make 6, and multiply to make 8. If you thought of 4 and 2, you would be correct. This method works for all quadratics where the coefficient of x2 is one, such as formula_2. You just need to find the two factors, then split the x term, and factorise the first and last two terms, as below. formula_3 What about when the coefficient isn't one? You may be able to take the coefficient out as a factor of the whole expression. If not, split the middle term and try to factorise; while this gets harder with bigger coefficients, it will always work, and you'll get better with more practise.

Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. e4/2...dxe4/3. Nc3/3...e5. = Blackmar-Diemer Gambit (BDG): Lemberger Countergambit= 3... e5. Black has advanced their pawn to e5 and offers a pawn transfer. If White takes the e5 pawn, then Qxd1 forces White to either give up the right to castle with Kxd1 or undevelop the knight with Nxd1. However, there are better options such as Nxe4, encouraging Black to take d4 with the queen and make a queen trade, or Nge2, declining the countergambit and protecting the d4 pawn. Traps. The Sneiders attack with Qh5 can lead to a winning position on the 6th move with Nd5?!, with most opponents going Qd7? and blundering Qe5+! and Nxc7!. However, there are players who refute this with a counterattack of their own with Nf6, leading to a queen exchange with both knights capturing the opposing queens. Theory table. 1. d4 d5 2. e4 dxe4 3. Nc3 e5

History of Ukraine/Before Kyivan Rus’. The first people to settle the land north of the Black Sea were Neanderthals around 45000 B.C. Archeological findings of Homo Sapiens in Ukraine date back to the Late Paleolithic Period (30-10 thousand B.C.). They left many us many wall paintings. They used stone to create knives, spearheads, harpoons, as well as bones to create sewing needles and fishing hooks. People in the Mesolithic Period mastered the arts of weapon manufacturing, hunting and fishing. People during the Neolithic Period practiced animal husbandry. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture was the most famous culture of Ukraine during the Copper Age (4-3 thousand B.C.) They settled the forest-steppe between the Danube and the Dnipro rivers. They lived well organized lives, and practiced agriculture and cattle breeding, as well as crafts, in particular pottery. Some of their cities had a population of over 15,000 people. Archeologists have found in Ukraine the remains of many cultures from the Bronze Age. People began to live in tribal groups, as well as create complex mechanisms. During this period pastoralists were separated from plowmen. The Cimmerians were a nomadic nation of warriors that were driven out of the Pontic steppes by the Scythians during the 8th century B.C.. The Cimmerians were mentioned in the Bible as savage warriors. The Greeks began founding colonies in Crimea during the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.. Some Greek colonies include Chersonsus (near current Sevastopol), Theodosia (current Feodosiia), Panticapeum (near current Kerch). The most famous colony was Olbia. Archeological evidence suggests that the area of the city was at its peak 120 acres, and it had a population of more than 10,000 people. The city was a democracy, and had a temple to Apollo Delphinios, an acropolis, and stone walls. The Greeks of Ukraine and the local Scythians traded and intermarried, which have rise to a population which combined Greek and Scythian traditions. The steppes of Souther Ukraine have many burial mounds of Scythian kings with luxury items made of gold. The oldest book on the history of Ukraine was written by Herodotus, the father of history. He described the founding myth of the Scythians, claimed that according the their account, they are the youngest nation. He divided them to horsemen and agriculturalists. He also considered the land near the Dnipro river the most productive in the world. It is still consider to this day to be among the richest in the world, which is why Ukraine is called the “breadbasket of Europe”. The coast was settled by Greeks and Hellenized Scythians. The Sarmatians came from the East and replaced the Scythians who controlled the trade route between the agricultural regions and the Greek colonies. They ruled the Pontic steppe until the 4th century AD. The trade between the Ukrainian hinterland and the Greek colonies stopped, and the Scythians formed a new kingdom in Crimea, which they called Scythia Minor. The security and prosperity of the Greek colonies was undermined by the conflict between the old and new masters of the steppe, and the appearance of trade routes to Greece from the Middle East secured by the conquest of Alexander the Great, and later the Roman Empire. The Romans gained control of the northern shores of the Black Sea in the 1st century BC, however had hostile relations with barbarian neighbors which caused a lack of security. The region never fully recovered, and due to fear of war, the Greek colonists knew little about their neighbors. Ukraine has once again become the edge of Western civilization. The Eastern border of Ukraine was the Eastern border of Europe, until the maps of Europe were redrawn in the 18th century by the Russian Empire, and the border was moved to the Urals. During the Sarmatian period, Christianity was first spread in Ukraine. According to tradition, Saint Andrew the Apostle spread the Gospel near the Black Sea and across the Dnipro River. In the 3rd century AD, 2 new positions were established - the Scythian and Bosporus Bishops, as parts of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Strabo, the author of “Geographies”, claimed that the Iszugrs and Roxalani were “wagon dwellers”. He complained about the ignorance in regard to the people who lived farther north. Ptolemy wrote about a European Sarmatia and an Asian Sarmatia, which reflects not only the imagined line between Europe and Asia, but also civilizational frontier. The relationship of the Romans with the peoples of the Ukrainian steppes were defined by a mix of war and trade. The Goths and the Huns who were key in the invasion and fall of the Western Roman Empire lived in or passed through Ukraine. The Huns were replaced by Turkic speaking-tribes in the sixth century. The Slavs, as opposed to the groups mentioned above, entered the scene in Ukraine and refused to leave. They probably came to Europe somewhere between the seventh and third millennium BC, however during most of their history, they were unknown to Mediterranean authors who were ignorant of inhabitants of the forested areas north of the Pontic steppes. They showed up in the borders of the Eastern Roman Empire en masse in the early sixth century. Jordanes, a Byzantine author of Gothic ancestry, divided the Slavs to two major groups: Slaveni and Antes. The Sclaveni lived between the Danube and the Dniester, while the Antes lived between the Dniester and the Dnipro. Linguistic evidence suggests the homeland of the Slavs was in Volhynia and Prypiat marshes of Ukraine. By the time of Jordanes, they moved to the steppes and created a serious problem of Emperor Justinian the great. Justinian, who attempted to restore the entire Roman Empire (East and West), decided to go on the offensive on the Danube front. After multiple victories, he added “Anticus” to his imperial title, which means conqueror of the Antes. After Chilbudius, the commander in charge of the conquest, was killed, Justinian returned to defending the border along the Danube. The Antes pillaged the Byzantine province of Thrace, and took many slaves. After demonstrating their potential, they became defenders of the Empire in exchange for regular payment. The abandoned Greek city of Turris became their headquarters. However, their plot to become legitimate Roman citizens failed. Procopius described the Slavs as tall people, and that their hair was neither blond nor dark, who lived hard lives and cared little for bodily comforts. They went to battle half naked on foot with shields and javelins. They were modest when it came to their private parts. Procopius also described the society as a democracy. Archeological evidence agrees with the description given by Procopius. During the seventh century, Avars invaded the region, and later the Bulgars and the Khazars. The Avars and the Khazars left long lasting bad memories. According to Kyivan Chronicles, the Avars were “large of stature and proud of spirit”, and God destroyed them. They also claimed there was a poverb “They perished like the Avars”. Very little is know about the Slavs who lived in Ukraine before the 10th century. What we do know came from Byzantine and Gothic sources, as well as from later Kyivan chroniclers who saw them as bearers of pagan superstition.

Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...Nf6/2. c4/2...e5/3. dxe5/3...Ng4/4. Bf4/4...Qe7. =Budapest Gambit=

Sylheti/Tautology. Tautology is a linguistic phenomenon, characterized by the unnecessary repetition of words or phrases conveying the same meaning.

Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. e4/2...dxe4/3. Nc3/3...Bf5. = Blackmar-Diemer Gambit (BDG): Zeller Defense = 3. Bf5. Bf5 defends the pawn on e4 and develops the queenside bishop, with intentions of keeping the pawn as it is a thorn to White who can't play Nf3 or Bd3, otherwise the knight/bishop will be taken by the pawn. Responses. White usually responds with 3. f3?!, which attacks the e4 pawn albeit blocking the development of the knight to f3, which can be rectified after exd3. A rare option that is preferred by computers is g4, kicking the bishop away with the intention of creating a pawn storm with h4 and h5, forcing Black to play defensively. Other than that, other options can block pieces from developing, get kicked away by pawns, or just do nothing.

Brain Drain. Brain drain refers to the emigration of highly skilled and educated individuals from one country to another, often resulting in a loss of intellectual capital for the home country. This phenomenon has far-reaching implications on both the source and destination countries, impacting economies, innovation, and social structures.

Reddit. Founded by two college graduates in 2005, Reddit is a social aggregation website that allows users to submit content, which is then voted up or down by other users. Content is organized into specific forums called "subreddits". The more upvotes a submission receives, it will appear near the top of the subreddit, and, if it receives enough, make it to the website's front page. Reddit has been decisive in shaping internet culture and giving rise to popular memes, as well as popularizing crowd-funding and creating the "AMA" interview format. This guide will help new users grasp the functions and culture of the site.

ORCID Advocacy Toolkit/About this book. Origins and purpose. Authoring Guide Gaps page Read about the creation of the wikibook at the Advocacy Toolkit Sprint report page

ORCID Advocacy Toolkit/Platforms that integrate with ORCID. Symplectic Elements. Symplectic is a Certified Service Provider for ORCID Elements offers a range of ways researchers can connect their ORCID account to streamline workflows and share data between the two systems. On logging in to the system researchers are prompted to ‘Connect your ORCID iD’ from the ‘My Actions’ list on the homepage to establish a link from Elements to their ORCID account using OAuth. If you don’t have an ORCID iD yet, you may register for one now. Once linked, Elements will periodically search ORCID for “works” containing a DOI, PubMed ID or Scopus ID and collect trusted metadata from some of other data sources including PubMed, Scopus and CrossRef and automatically associate this harvested data with a researcher’s Elements account. You can manage or revoke permission at any time from Symplectic Elements via: Menu > My Profile > Settings > ORCID Settings, and then clicking on the ‘Revoke authorisation’ link. Revoking authorisation will prevent Symplectic Elements from interacting with ORCID, and your permissions will be changed to 'only use my ORCID iD to support automatic claiming'. EPrints. EPrints is a Legacy Certified Service Provide for ORCID. There are two plugins available which allows users to connect their repository and ORCID accounts. ORCID Support: Basic functionality, providing minimum requirements for storing ORCIDs. ORCID Support Advance: Integration with orcid.org through member API. This requires the ORCID Support plugin to be installed and ORCID membership. This plugin offers the following enhanced features: Users can manage their permissions and connections within the ManageOrcid screen. Users can Create or Connect their ORCID iD to establish the OAuth connection. The documentation is hosted in the EPrints Wiki: https://wiki.eprints.org/w/ORCID_Support

Sylheti/Phonology. Sylheti Phonology is a branch of linguistics that explores the sound system of the Sylheti language. This Wikibook provides an overview of key phonological features, including tone, voice quality, and phonetic analysis. Contributors draw upon various scholarly works to present a comprehensive understanding of Sylheti phonology. = Table of Contents =

Kitchen Remodel/Cabinet installation preparation. This chapter will mostly be relevant for readers who are preparing to assemble and install an Ikea kitchen, but most of the considerations may apply to probably every D. I. Y. kitchen installation. Required skills and tools. With their assembly instructions, Ikea give lists of required tools. Apart from that and in general, I would consider the following items and tools (and the skill to handle them) as essential for the assembly and installation of an Ikea kitchen. Safety first: Measuring: Tools: Other: Other tools that we used but that may not be generally necessary: Item names. I found it very helpful to understand and to acknowledge Ikea's way to identify the different elements of a kitchen. Every single item has… All of this information appears both in the order lists and on the labels that stick on the flat packs in which the components are being delivered. Notice that the 8-digit numbers strictly identify items that are 100% identical. So when there is for example a different color or a different size, there will also be a different number. Before an Ikea kitchen can be assembled and installed, there will be an awful lot of sorting, organizing, inventory and allocating with those parts. My own kitchen included no less than 80 different types of products (288 parts altogether, but 80 different 8-digit-numbers). Focusing on the 8-digit numbers helped me a lot to stay on top of things. At some point, I figured that we could ignore the first three digits and give the items nicknames, based on only the last 5 digits, because at least in our case they were all unique. Inventory of parts. Inventory on delivery is typically stressful, because the delivery people understandably want to finish their job and to get a signature as fast as they can. We had a small number of pieces missing in a delivery once, and even though we had confirmed a complete delivery by our signature, we didn't find it a problem to complain subsequently. Ikea proved to be rather accommodating, they sent us the missing parts with a later delivery with neither a fuss nor a charge. But meticulous inventory is crucial and has to be done at some point. I did it multiple times and used the opportunity, too, to organize the items in a way that I would later, during assembly and installation, find them easily. One good criteria for organization, beyond the 8-digit numbers, is the Ikea name ("Sektion", "Utrusta", etc.). It cannot be stressed enough that the parts need to be stored at a place where they are safe from damage, namely from water. We had just moved to California, and oblivious about the regional hazards, we had put everything in the garage, not expecting torrential rain and sudden heavy water penetration into that space. So we lost a few pieces. By the way, unpacking on delivery is not advisable. Unpacking will limit your possibilities to return unneeded items and it will add an enormous risk that parts will get lost or untraceable or inidentifyable. Assembly drawings. With no less than 22 cabinets to put together, I found it prudent to prepare us with detailed assembly drawings for each row of cabinets. Those drawings gave exact information about the required cabinet frame, legs, drawers, shelves, doors, hinges, drawer fronts and other components, all identified through their 8-digit number. I also prepared a detailed pattern for the required cover/filler panels. Our kitchen planner had suggested two white panels, but later we figured that we wouldn't need them. We returned those. The grey panels, too, required some deviation from what we originally had thought. But mapping the panels out saved us definitely avoidable waste of material and allowed us to return one unused grey panel, too. Floor marking. Since we had decided to install our cabinets first and to lay the tiles later, we had the great opportunity to draft our kitchen floor plan (cabinet frames only) directly on the floor. The floor was concrete and I could use a Sharpie pen. If there would have been tiles already, I would have used masking tape. If you are planning complicated things like a peninsula, this in-situ mapping can be both extremely helpful and quite a challenge, because often a space is not 100% rectangular, and then an executive decision may have to be made between pest and cholera: is it more important to you to set up your rows of cabinets in an impeccable right angle or do you rather want to perfectly align them with the walls? At the end, the difference won't even be noticeable, probably, but floor marking is clearly the time for decision making.

Kitchen Remodel/Cabinet assembly and installation. In this chapter, I would like to give some impressions of our Ikea kitchen assembly and installation, and to share some of the experiences that we made. If I am mentioning possible mistakes and hazards, you can be assured: we experienced every single one of those, first hand, by our own fault, so I know what I am talking about. By the way, this chapter is not meant to replace a thorough study of the printed instructions that come with every product. Those are very clever, and they can even be found online. Cabinet frame assembly. I'll begin with a health advice. The flat packs are heavy, namely those that contain high cabinets. Early on, we decided not to lift them, let alone to carry them from our storage place in the garage into the kitchen space. Instead we unpacked the content in the garage, as needed, and lifted or carried only single panels. By the way, the packs need to lie flat for unpacking; if you open one while it is standing upright, you may build yourself a booby trap. Base cabinet frames consist of two side panels and a bottom panel; high cabinet and wall cabinet frames include a fourth panel at the top. The material is particle board with melamine foil and plastic edging. Like many other Ikea furniture, the "Sektion" frames are being assembled with cam lock nuts and screws, and with wooden dowels. The back panel is made of fiber board, with a plastic foil face on the side that shows. It is thinner than the frame panels and sits in routed channels where it is firmly secured by a large number of small nails. Make sure that you set up your assembly space on a soft surface, like a large rug, to prevent the panels from being scratched up. Every cabinet frame pack includes a bag of small parts; I found it very helpful never to empty those on the floor, but strictly into a designated bowl where they would not get lost. While a small cabinet frame can probably be assembled by one person alone (especially after they gathered some experience), I would not attempt to do this with a medium or large one. The parts are heavy and you won't have enough hands to hold everything in place while you also operate your tools. Talking about heavy: the need will arise to move assembled cabinet frames, too. We used a small wooden moving dolly, and at one point, where a very low ceiling height impeded the use of it, we cut a stick of round timber into three 2-foot pieces and put those under our load, in turns, while we gradually pushed the cabinet frame towards its destination. That felt like the ancient Egyptians moving building blocks of a pyramid, only they allegedly didn't know that technique yet. The greatest mistake that can be made during assembly, is to mount a frame askew. This can be easily avoided by setting up the work space on a (floor) surface that is absolutely flat. Equally important is it to be really meticulous about the installation of the back panel. Before it is being nailed in, the frame needs to be straightened, with perfect right angles. Better than using a carpenter's square (which is never big enough) we found it to compare the two diagonals. If they are equal, down to a small fraction of an inch, the frame is standing straight, and those little nails should be hammered in without further ado. Even a slight accidental blow from any side can change the geometry and you may have to start the straightening procedure all over. Putting cabinet frames into place. Legs. The default way to install Ikea's base and high cabinets is to put them on legs. The great advantage of those legs is that they are adjustable in height which allows it to very conveniently straighten every cabinet so that its top is perfectly level and all sides are perfectly vertical. With a conventional base you would have to use shims which I imagine to be a pain, namely at the cabinet's rear end. The legs are made of plastic and very easy to assemble and to attach to the cabinet frame, there is not even a screwdriver needed. They will be quite robust once the cabinet stands in its place, but they can break while the cabinet is still being moved between places, especially if this is being done in a rough or clumsy way. An even more dangerous moment is probably the one when a cabinet frame that has been lying down for assembly is brought up to its upright position. We never had any leg breakage; but Ikea wouldn't point that hazard out in their instruction material, if it didn't exist. When island support brackets (see next section) are being used, hazard can be avoided if you first lift the cabinet frame onto the installed brackets, and only then attach the leg bases and the legs. Wherever there are two adjacent cabinets, Ikea give you the choice to either allot to both of them their own four legs, or to install a shared pair of legs in the center where the two frames touch. An advantage of the latter may be that the height adjustment will be much simpler and quicker. A disadvantage may be that those two legs will bear a load that you as well could distribute over four legs. By the way: if you don't fully trust those legs, you can always install island support brackets in addition, under any cabinet and in virtually any number. Brackets for island support. As I will point out in the next section, "all" Ikea cabinets (wall, base, and high cabinets) are designed to be wall-hung cabinets. So even base and high cabinets do not just stand on feet, but designed to be hung to a wall, too, for additional support. Well, this won't work for every cabinet, namely in the context of a peninsula or island. To create compensation for an omitted wall support, Ikea market brackets for island support, which go also under the name "Sektion". Those are basically blocks of solid pine wood, roughly in the dimensions of a two-by-four. They come with L-shaped steel brackets which have to be screwed into the floor (this may require a hammer drill, depending on the type of floor). After the cabinet frame is in place and level and straightened, the wooden log, which is at first mounted in the lowest possible position, can be brought all the way up and screwed tightly. There is no rule that says that support brackets are only for islands. If you want to, you can mount those under any base or high cabinet. The best spot is probably under the cabinet's "side" panels, because this is where the load attacks. Make sure that neither the log nor the metal brackets stick out beyond the front legs, or else they may interfere with the toe kick. Once the cabinet is in place and well aligned to its neighbors, its bottom piece should be screwed to the wooden log from above. Using the suspension rail. We began our kitchen installation with the sink row, for a number of reasons. One was that the water connections very much determined where to place the sink cabinet (while we were more flexible with the two peninsulas), another was our desire to study and to understand the use of Ikea's suspension rails. The latter serve two purposes: The installation of the rail itself may be quite cumbersome, because many kitchen walls are not as straight as they appear to be. In our case, it took us two full days to get that piece of metal in its final position. It is imperative that the rail is 1. screwed into studs (not just into drywall), and that it sits 2. at the correct height, 3. perfectly horizontal, and 4. perfectly straight. You may need to use shims to avoid bending. To install and to align the cabinets, they need to be hung into the rail while adjusting the height of the individual legs. Once two adjacent cabinets are in their final positions and well aligned, they need to be screwed together (screws for that are included, too). When you do this, make sure that you don't occupy any of the predrilled holes that you may need later for drawers or shelves. Back-to-back base cabinets. When cabinets cannot be hung into a rail, because they are standing back-to-back to each other in an island or peninsula, they can be mounted back to back with a special "assembly kit for kitchen island". This sounds grand, but is mostly a piece of softish particle board that can be cut to size. This product is probably most useful if the cabinets that stand back-to-back are of equal width. If the brackets that would be screwed to it don't align at all, you may as well return the kit to the store and rely on other methods to attach those two rows of cabinets to each other. Back-to-back high cabinets. Yes, high cabinets can be installed back-to-back, too! We did this with our oven/refrigerator row, which is standing back-to-back to our main pantry row. Omitting a wall between those saved us some precious and actually badly needed space. But still, we had to leave a little gap for the electrical and water connections. Instead of Ikea's assembly kit, we used a 2-by-4 beam to hold the upper ends of the high cabinets and to support the "wall" cabinet that hovers above the fridge. High cabinets without a suspension rail. Another factor that may make it impossible to use the suspension rail is the ceiling. If it is very low, it may be difficult to coax a high cabinet in its position. We had such a situation in the case of our "extra", two narrow high pantry cabinets which were supposed to go into a custom-built recess. Since those would not be difficult to align in any case, we omitted the rail and simply screwed them to the adjacent walls, to the ceiling and to each other for stability. Cover and filler panels. Preliminary remark. Exact planning of the use of cover/filler panels requires an inspection and measuring of the material that has been delivered. At least in my case, the panels came in slightly inconsistent thickness although they were all announced as 5/8 ". In some cases, we had to modify our original designs and to add some underlayers. Installing a 47" corner cabinet. The installation of a 47" corner cabinet requires some sort of a filler. Without it, there would be interference of the corner cabinet's door and the drawers/door of the adjacent cabinet. Ikea don't give instructions how to do it, probably because there are multiple possible ways to do it and because the requirements may not always be the same. Our own preference was to make it simple and space-saving, so we came up with this solution: Annotation: We didn't align the rear end of the left cabinet and the left side of the 47" corner cabinet (4th image), but remove the corner cabinet a little from the wall; therefore the asymmetry in the filler scheme (3rd+5th image). The reason why we did this is that the 47" cabinet is part of a peninsula; its row (47" cabinet + dishwasher + a 18" cabinet) had to match the length of the cabinet row on the rear side of the peninsula (6th image). Installing two base cabinets in a right angle. Most people would probably not position two standard cabinets in a right angle but rather use a corner cabinet instead. But we did (because we found a way to access the – otherwise "dead" – corner space from the other side of the peninsula) and therefore needed another filler panel scheme. Without fillers, we might not have been able to open those drawers. This is what we did to prevent any interference and to make the corner look pretty: Covering cabinet frame sides. I am not sure what you would do if the color of your cabinet front matches the color of the front elements (drawer fronts and doors). In my case, it did not match, and we had to cover a small number of cabinet frame sides that otherwise would have shown a white surface while everything else is dark grey. Covering those is very straightforward, you just cut pieces of filler panel to size and screw those on from the inside of the cabinet frame so that the screw heads aren't visible. Make sure to not only cover the cabinet frames, but the sides of your drawer fronts and doors, too. When the decision is made to extend a cover panel all the way down to the floor, the question may arise if this should be done before or after floor installation. We found it much easier to do the flooring first and the panel installation later. Covering a simple gap. If a gap between a cabinet and a wall is only a fraction of an inch (a few millimeters) wide, it can mostly be left as it is. But we had one that was almost 2 inches (5 cm) wide and wanted it to be covered. Although it may be easier to do this right after the installation of the cabinet frame, while it is still fully accessible with no countertop in the way, we found that it still wasn't a problem to do this later. When a gap between a cabinet and a wall is to be covered, there is fundamentally the question if you want to extend the cover all the way to the floor or whether you want to leave the toe kick space open. We decided for the latter and simply extended the toe kick panel to the wall (4th image). Covering a complex gap. More need for custom use of filler panels came up in our kitchen project in the area above the refrigerator. Ikea don't offer a cabinet frame of the dimensions that would have filled that space, so we had to compromise and buy a frame that was a bit too high and a bit too narrow. The height problem was easy to fix, we just cut off a bit from the side pieces, from the back piece, and from the door. A more daring problem was the gap. In order to fill it, we built a custom box. The challenge was to design something with only "good" sides of filler panel pieces showing, no raw particle board. So we designed the following: Shelves, drawers and pull-outs. Shelves, drawers and pull-outs can be installed as soon as a cabinet frame is in its final position and properly attached to all elements (adjacent cabinet frames, wall, ceiling, island support, etc.) to which it needs to be attached. Corner cabinet shelves and carousels even "have" to be installed early, namely as long as the interior of the cabinet is still accessible from the top. Shelves. Utrusta shelves are being mounted with pins that are included in the package. Make sure you open the bags which contain the pegs carefully, the pegs are small and have a tendency to escape at least "my" hands and to get lost, especially in the mess of a construction site. I lost at least half a dozen, some of them never to be found again, and there is no good substitute for them. I ended up ordering extras from Ikea, the product number is 101532. Ikea give them out without charge, in the store and by online order, but it may take a while until you get them. Utrusta shelves are the standard shelves which have to be ordered in addition to the cabinet frames. Apart from those, there is also one support shelf included in every high cabinet frame. Those Sektion shelves come with special pins which are not only pushed into the predrilled holes, but also screwed for additional tightness. There are also additional little plastic braces in the shelves where the pin locks in (3rd image). You can mount a Sektion support shelf at any height you want, although they are obviously designed to sit not too far from the center for best structural support. Since the cut-out in the shelf that holds the pin is a bit deeper than in an Utrusta shelf, a Sektion support shelf will sit a fraction of an inch lower than an Utrusta shelf. This is important to know if you experiment with custom positioning of elements; so if a Sektion shelf gets into your way by just a tiny bit, you can try an Utrusta shelf instead. Drawers. Drawer assembly and installation was one of my favorite parts of installing an Ikea kitchen, although there is a cornucopia of stupid mistakes that can be made. On any account, I will be a good idea to both scrupulously follow Ikea's instructions and be well rested and fully focused when you tackle this task. The good news: unless you really break anything (which is unlikely), any mistake that is being made can be reverted and fixed. Drawer base assembly. The assembly of a Maximera drawer begins with the rear piece, the two trapezoid side pieces, and the bottom plate. (The front piece is a different product and comes one step later.) It may be helpful to understand how the side pieces lock into the rear piece – although you will possibly push them in successfully a dozen times before you figure you want to "understand" the mechanism –, this is why I included the following pictures. It is a simple plastic clasp, comparable to a sprung clothespin, at the end of the side piece that locks onto a little bar in the rear piece. If you believe you made a mistake pushing a side piece in, you can pull it back out, using moderate strength (and possibly giving the clasp a little straddle), without causing any damage. Drawer front assembly. Maximera drawers come without a drawer front and need to be complemented with one: either a regular front element product like for example "Voxtorp", or – in the case of a nested drawer or a drawer behind a door – an "Utrusta" front. "Utrusta" drawer fronts match the color of the cabinet frame. Both come with detailed instructions which should be followed carefully to avoid unpleasant surprises when you are ready to install the drawer in a cabinet frame. The most common mistake that can be made is not to consider the fact that bottom drawers need to have a slightly different front piece mounting than drawers which sit in higher positions. When we assembled multiple drawers in one session before installing them into a cabinet frame, we found it very helpful, too, to earmark the "bottom" drawers so that we wouldn't mix them up with other drawers. Special situations. Interference with hinge cut-outs. Ikea don't offer elements which are specifically for doors and specifically for drawer fronts. Every front element can fundamentally be used for both purposes. But all larger elements come with round cut-outs in their rear sides which are designed to hold door hinges. If they are not used for hinge installation, they can be covered with a plastic cap. But if such a front element is used as a drawer front, chances are that the bottom hinge cut-outs will interfere with the drawer assembly. Ikea therefore offer a special kit ("Utrusta" "Fixture for mounting door on drawer"; product # 002.807.55) which does not only include support for an otherwise wobbly high drawer front, but also a set of plastic plugs that can be inserted and mounted into the cut-outs and holes and thereby make it possible to properly attach brackets even in this awkward position. Flipping or modifying an Utrusta drawer front. There is a default mount for "Utrusta" drawer fronts which is described in Ikea's instructions. In some cases, it may be advisable to deviate from that and to either turn the front upside-down (images) or to drill custom holes. This applies in particular when you work with custom configurations, when a normally mounted front piece would get in the way of another element or wouldn't leave enough space for your fingers to open the drawer. In such cases it may even become necessary to cut a front piece to a lower height (I simply turned the piece with the cut/ugly edge to the bottom where it wouldn't be seen).<br clear=all> Drawer installation. Drawer installation is a rather straightforward process. The most important thing about it is to meticulously follow the instructions that Ikea give in their manual, namely to use the indicated screw holes both in the slide and in the interior of the cabinet frame. Any improvisation may lead to a situation where the drawer will either not close or leave a gap. Using custom holes rather than the predrilled cabinet frame holes is fundamentally possible, but the only application for this is custom-positioning of interior drawers (nested drawers, drawers behind a door). If you feel the default holes don't work for your regular drawer, it is most likely you who made a mistake. When the drawer slide is properly installed and positioned and the drawer, too, is properly assembled, it should be easy to bring them together. Pull the slides out (it doesn't even need to be all the way, but do it symmetrically), set the drawer on top (make sure it is well centered and roughly horizontal) and then carefully push it forward into the cabinet. It should easily lock in, and then run smoothly, both ways, and close completely without a problem, even if you don't manually push it all the way in. If it doesn't, take it out and try again. Over time, you have a good chance to foster a sure instinct how to do this. Both locking a Maximera drawer into the slides and removing it from there is not a matter of strength or of tricks but of experience and of sensitive fingertips. It is certainly a good idea to start learning with the smallest drawer that you have until you got the hang of it. You may even discover that one specific member of your household has a genius for these operations while others don't. After installation the drawer fronts can be adjusted through the mechanism in the side pieces. We never had to. The images above show drawer slides for 15" deep cabinets (2nd thru 5th image) and for 24" deep cabinets (1st, 6th and 7th image). Pull-outs. The most important thing to know about Ikea's pull-out fittings for 12" cabinets is that they can be custom-assembled. The two drawers (one is high, the other medium) can be swapped, and both can be mounted at any height, depending of the height of what you want to store in this cabinet. If you want, you can even omit the side bars. The mechanism that links both drawers together at their rear ends consists of two parts which are designed to be joined in different ways so that the length is variable. But since those variations are not continuous but in defined increments, it makes a lot of sense to first put everything together, as a test – the two drawers "and" the joined link mechanism –, and only then to finally decide on the exact position of the upper drawer (the lower drawer should always sit in its default position, that is: as low as possible). I naively did it the other way around and ended up joining the link mechanism with a custom hole, bolt, and nut, rather than the much more elegant default way. On any account, the custom-assembly of a pullout is one of the trickiest and most complex operations in the installation of an Ikea kitchen; it requires a lot of very careful measuring and thinking and full concentration, and is probably best done in a team. But it is absolutely worth it. The installation of a pull-out fitting for 47" corner cabinets is well described in the product instruction. The only thing that I can add to that is that both trays can be adjusted in height, within limits. In my own kitchen, it found it helpful to deviate from the default installation and to lift both trays to higher positions. So I have three levels of storage space instead of only two. The pull-out-mechanism works fine, but it still lacks the convenience and simplicity of a drawer. So I use it mostly like a set of shelves, with everyday stuff in the front, and the depths of the trays assigned to things that are not being used every single day. By the way, the door of the 47" corner cabinet can be installed both ways, with the hinges at the inner side (which is probably more convenient in most cases) or at the outer side. Doors and hinges. Hinge installation starts with the hinges being mounted to the door. This part doesn't require tools, the hinge is simply being plunged into the round cut-out (1st image; make sure you get it all the way in), and then press the flap down (2nd image) to tighten it. I don't have too much finger strength and found it helpful to cover the flap with a piece of cardboard or soft wood while pressing it down, that made it easier for me to make that reluctant thing budge. In case you need to open it again: that is no problem either, but you will need some strength and possibly a metal spatula or wide screwdriver, too. The next step is the installation of the hinge bases in the cabinet frame. Make sure you know where the front of the little thing is (it is where the two little grippers are). The last step is to attach the hinges (which are already mounted to the door) to their bases. This is best done by two people: one holding the door in the right position and the other (preferably the stronger person) clicking the hinge tips into place, one by one. They should latch easily, with a little pressure and a characteristic click sound. If you, for any reason, need to remove them again, that is possible, too, just apply a little strength. No tool needed. But better don't revert the assembly without necessity, at least I managed to maltreat one hinge so badly that it became unusable. Theoretically, the door installation can also be done the other way around: First the hinge bases and hinges installed to the cabinet frame, and only then the door attached to the hinges. We tried both variations and found the first described method much easier to perform than the latter. All images above show a 153 degree hinge. The installation of a 110 degree hinge works identical. One remark: The 153 degree hinges are so cool, they are really tempting to fool around with upon unpacking. Don't hesitate to study the functionality, as long as you don't overdo it. But if you fold them all the way together, don't be too surprised if you figure that it will require a certain strength to straighten them again. But no worries, it isn't too difficult. About the installation of a hinge for a horizontal door isn't much to say, only follow Ikea's instructions and be aware that the maximum opening angle can be adjusted. Toe kicks. The toe kick panels can only be installed after all flooring work is finished. I found it useful to map all my cabinets out in a drawing, together with the delivered toe kick panels (1st image). When this is been done on a computer screen or on paper ahead of time, before the toe kick installation begins for real, you will have more time to make good decisions about the use of your material. If piecing on is unavoidable, the seams should be at positions where they will only get a minimum of attention. In our case, the map also revealed that our kitchen designer had supplied us with more material than we needed. We could return it to the store without a problem. We used a miter saw to cut the toe kick panels, with masking tape over the cutting lines to preserve clean edges. If you don't have a miter saw, a hand saw will certainly do just as well. Our biggest challenge were the toe kicks in the refrigerator/oven row and in the pantry where the ceiling is so low that we had to cut the cabinet legs to custom length. Consequently, we had to trim the toe kick panels, too, which is fundamentally not a problem; only if you cut off too much, this will destroy the channel which has to hold the clasp that embraces the cabinet leg.

Visual physics and mathematics/Pythagoras and the origin of harmony. The waves propagate but the sphere and the air around it oscillate around their equilibrium position and do not propagate. A vibration, or oscillation, is a periodic movement, a movement that returns to its starting point and starts again. The period formula_1 is the duration of the repeating movement, the duration of a round trip. The frequency formula_2 is the number of periods per unit of time, therefore the inverse of the period: formula_3 If the unit of time is the second (s) then the unit of frequency is the Herz (Hz). The movement above has a period equal to 3 s and a frequency equal to 1/3 Hz. Even circular motion is an oscillation: The human ear perceives as sounds vibrations whose frequency is higher than a few tens of Herz (the lowest sounds) and lower than approximately 20,000 Hz (the highest pitched sounds). The fundamental mode of vibration of a string is the widest and the slowest: a single belly and no node. Its period is proportional to the length of the string: Pythagoras discovered that musical chords appear when the lengths of the vibrating strings are in simple ratios (for strings that are equally taut and have the same mass per unit length). Numbers are the cause of music which is the cause of everything that is, since all beings dance and sing. Numbers are therefore the cause of everything that is. “Everything is number” is the principle of the Pythagoreans.

Visual physics and mathematics/Gravitation. The force that causes the balls to fall to the ground is the same as the force that keeps the Moon in its orbit. Satellites and projectiles all obey the same law, the law of universal gravitation. The orbits of the planets. Gravitation holds the planets in their orbits around the sun. The trajectory of a mobile in free fall depends on its initial velocity vector: But masses subjected to gravitation which have the same velocity vector and which pass through the same point always have the same trajectory: This is why Saturn has rings: The law of universal gravitation. "Two masses exert a gravitational force on each other proportional to the product of their masses divided by the square of their distance. The two forces, that exerted by A on B and that exerted by B on A, are in the direction of the line which connects the centers of the two masses A and B and they are always attractive." Gravitation between two balls Two balls attracted to each other by gravity bounce off each other. The gravitational field. A field is a physical quantity that can vary at every point in space at every instant. For example, temperature is a field. The law of universal gravitation says that a mass formula_1 continuously produces a gravitational force field formula_2 throughout space: formula_3 where formula_4 is the vector which goes from the mass formula_1 to the point considered, formula_6 is its length, formula_7 is the unit length vector in the direction of formula_4 and formula_9 is a constant which depends on the choice of units of measurement. The force formula_10 exerted by a gravitational field formula_2 on a mass formula_12 is formula_13 So the force exerted by a mass formula_1 on a mass formula_12 is formula_16 On Earth, the weight of a body is the gravitational force that the Earth exerts on it. The formula_2 field is like a mathematical intermediary to calculate the force exerted by one mass on another. The gravitational force exerted by two masses on a third is the sum of the forces exerted separately by each of them. Two stars revolve around each other. According to Newton's theory, the force of gravitation is everywhere. It is a force field that fills all space. This field can be derived from a scalar field, the gravitational potential field, here represented by a gradation of colors. The white lines are the lines of force, the lines that always follow the direction of the gravitational force. The equality of inertial mass and gravitational mass. According to the theory of relativity, there is no instantaneous interaction at a distance. One mass cannot therefore instantly exert the force of gravitation on another. The force propagation time must be taken into account. This is why the law of universal gravitation is only a first approximation. To calculate the effects of gravitation more precisely, we need the theory of general relativity. Einstein's big idea in 1908: if an elevator falls in free fall, its passenger is weightless for the duration of the fall, until the elevator crashes to the ground. Stephen Hawking in a plane that simulates a free fall To understand this big idea, one needs to know the following theorem: If a body is subject only to gravitation, its acceleration does not depend on its mass. Proof: according to the law of gravitation, the force formula_10 exerted by a gravitational field formula_2 on a mass formula_1 is formula_21. According to the fundamental law of dynamics, this force formula_10 produces an acceleration formula_23 such that formula_24. So formula_25, whatever the mass formula_1. In formula_24, formula_1 is the inertial mass, or coefficient of inertia. It is the inverse of the acceleration produced by a unit force. In formula_21, formula_1 is the gravitational mass, or gravitational charge. It is equal to the force exerted by a unit gravitational field. Newtonian physics does not impose the equality of inertial mass and heavy mass. They could be different. As with the electric field, the gravitational field could cause different accelerations on different bodies at the same point, if the gravitational mass (the gravitational equivalent of the electric charge) was different from the inertial mass. The equality of inertial mass and gravitational mass means that the acceleration of an elevator in free fall caused by gravitation is always equal to that of its passenger. This is why the passenger cannot observe the effect of gravity in a free-falling elevator. Everything happens as if it were not subject to any force, as if it were weightless. We feel our own weight, because we feel the force that the ground exerts on our feet. We feel the weight of a body that we carry, because we feel the force it exerts on our hands, or on our back. But these forces of repulsion between the ground and our feet, or between our hands and a heavy body that they carry, are not forces of gravity, but electric forces produced at the contact surface between bodies which repel each other. According to general relativity, we cannot feel the force of gravity because it is not a force. The force of gravitation does not exist. There is no force, as Newton believed, that pulls us downward. There is only the force of the ground that pushes us upwards. The floor of a free-falling elevator exerts no force on the passenger's feet, who is therefore not subject to any force, as in weightlessness. The choice of reference frame. According to Newton, the passenger in a free-falling elevator is subject to the force of gravity. According to Einstein, it is not subject to any force. The difference comes from the choice of frame of reference. A reference frame is a rock, or any solid body, in relation to which we can locate ourselves and make distance measurements. By placing three perpendicular planes on the rock, we can identify all the points in space with the three numbers x, y, z which measure their distances from these three planes. It is assumed that an event occurs once on the rock. This event defines the time t = 0. We can then identify the instants t of all the events with the duration which separates them from the instant t = 0. A frame of reference therefore makes it possible to identify all the events in space-time with four numbers, t, x, y, z. The measurement of speeds and accelerations depends on the choice of reference frame. If we measure the accelerations on a moving merry-go-round, the result is not the same whether the reference frame is the ground or the merry-go-round. There are some reference frames better than others. The ground reference frame is better than that of the merry-go-round for studying forces. A rock that does not rotate in relation to the stars is better than a rock that rotates. We can tell the difference between a rock that rotates on itself and another that does not rotate on itself without looking at the stars. All we need to do is place two masses linked by a spring. If the rock rotates on itself and if its axis of rotation is not parallel to the spring, the two masses are separated by the rotation. Good reference frames for measuring forces are all rocks which do not rotate on themselves and which are not subject to any force. They are called inertial frames. Moving masses which are not subject to any force: According to Newtonian physics, inertial frames are all at rest or in uniform rectilinear motion relative to each other, because gravitation is considered a force. A movement is uniform rectilinear if its trajectory is a straight line and its speed is constant. According to Einstein's theory of general relativity, inertial frames are all rocks that do not rotate on themselves and are in free fall relative to each other, because gravitation is not considered as a force. The movement of the Moon around the Earth is a free fall. More generally, all bodies that exert no force on each other are in free fall relative to each other, because gravitation is not considered a force. Falls in air are not free falls because of air friction. Falls in the void are free falls. The difference between Newtonian physics and general relativity comes from the choice of the inertial frames. According to general relativity the reference frame of the ground is not inertial, because it is not in free fall. It is equivalent to the reference frame of an accelerating rocket: We feel gravity because we are accelerated relative to a free-falling frame of reference. A rock that does not rotate on itself, free falling in a tunnel that passes through the center of the Earth, is a good reference frame for measuring the forces inside the Earth. See also. Relativity E = m c²

Visual physics and mathematics/Fluid dynamics. The Venturi Effect. The gradation from white to blue represents an increase in pressure. The pressure is lowest where the pipe is narrowest. This isn't very intuitive, especially if we think of a crowd passing through a narrow door. But we explain it by reasoning about the forces experienced by an element of the fluid. To pass through the constriction, it is first accelerated, as if pushed from behind. The pressure behind it is therefore higher than the pressure in front of it. After passing through the constriction, it is braked. The pressure in front of it is therefore higher than the pressure behind it. The place of constriction is therefore a minimum of pressure. Why do planes have wings? The angle of attack (the inclination of the wing relative to the horizontal, here greatly exaggerated compared to a realistic situation) requires the air to flow more quickly above the wing than below. As with the Venturi effect, the acceleration of the air imposes a reduction in pressure. The pressure below the wing is therefore higher than the pressure above it. This is why planes are carried by their wings. Perfect flow around a cylinder. Just in front of the cylinder, the fluid is almost still. So it was slowed down. The pressure on the front of the cylinder is therefore higher than the pressure upstream, as expected. Just behind the cylinder, the fluid is also almost still. It is therefore accelerated to join the flow downstream. The pressure on the rear of the cylinder is therefore higher than the pressure downstream, as one would not expect. If the fluid is without viscosity, the pressures on the rear and on the front of the cylinder compensate each other exactly and the cylinder is therefore not dragged by the flow, as if one could put one's legs in a torrent without being dragged towards downstream, or if a projectile could pass through the air without being slowed down. To explain the drag force, viscosity (the force of fluid friction) and turbulence must be taken into account. A Karman vortex street. Half a million hard disks bounce off each other and an obstacle to their flow. The Magnus effect. How to surprise an opponent? By sending him a spinning ball. Demixing. A million hard disks bounce off each other. There are no forces of attraction, only repulsion. The two colors represent molecules of two species. Between two molecules of different species, the rebound distance is greater than between two molecules of the same species. This is enough to cause molecules of the same species to come nearer, the two fluids to separate and a line tension to appear between the two phases. The line tension in this two-dimensional fluid is the equivalent of the surface tension (the tension that makes drops, bubbles, and flat liquid surfaces) in three-dimensional fluids. Intermolecular forces of attraction are therefore not necessary to cause surface tension to appear. Pressure and altitude. A 2D gas of hard disks bouncing on each other, initially at rest, collapses under the effect of gravity and reaches an equilibrium situation where the pressure decreases with altitude. Archimedes' thrust Hard disks subject to gravity bounce on each other. The large yellow disk experiences greater pressure at its base than at its top. This is why it is carried by the fluid like a hot air balloon. Archimedes' thrust is the sum of the pressure forces exerted on a solid immersed in a fluid. In a fluid in equilibrium under the effect of gravity, it is directed upwards. If the solid is also in equilibrium, the Archimedes' thrust is exactly equal to its weight, which is also the weight of the volume of fluid occupied by the solid.

Visual physics and mathematics/Relativity. The paradox of the race after the light. Light travels away from us at 300,000 km/s. If a rocket goes at 200,000 km/s to chase the light, the light still moves away from the rocket at the speed of 300,000 km/s, and not at 100,000 km/s as one might expect. We can never catch up with light or change its escape speed. The speed of light in a vacuum is a universal constant: it is the same for all observers, whether they are on Earth or in a rocket. The contraction of lengths, the slowing down of clocks and the relativity of simultaneity are enough to show that the paradox of the race after light does not lead to a contradiction. Relativistic wheels. All moving solids are contracted in the direction of their movement. This effect is appreciable when their speed approaches that of light. This is the contraction of Fitzgerald. It is a consequence of the geometry of space-time, discovered by Einstein with his theory of relativity. A hoop which rotates on itself so quickly that the speed of its circumference approaches that of light therefore has a smaller diameter than the same hoop at rest. The same goes for a wheel, if its spokes are much softer than its circumference. If the wheel turns on itself, its spokes do not undergo Fitzgerald contraction, because their movement is perpendicular to their length, but they can be compressed by the pressure of the circumference. If a wheel rolls on the ground with a speed close to light, the base of the wheel is not contracted, because its speed is zero relative to the ground. On the other hand, the top of the wheel is strongly contracted: "Remark:" Light is not the only way to form images. The imprint of a foot on wet sand is an image of the foot. A printing house produces images daily by contact. In the animation above, it has been assumed that the images of the wheels are obtained by contact (for example by projecting their shadow on a wall of photodetectors in contact with them), not through an eye or another optical system. Spatio-temporal measurement devices. A rigid ruler, or a compass, makes it possible to measure the distance between its extremities by comparing it to other distances. A rigid ruler is therefore a device for measuring a length, or a spatial interval. The important point is that the ruler is rigid, so that the measured distance is always the same. Spatio-temporal measurement devices can be designed on the same model. A simple clock is such a device. It allows to point two events which are always separated by the same duration. One can also use two clocks fixed to the same rigid support, each being used to point a certain event. If the device that triggers the two clocks is regular, the spatio-temporal interval between the two pointed events can always be the same. Such devices make it possible to measure spacetime in the same way that rigid rulers make it possible to measure space. An interval is timelike if it is on the path of a massive material point. It is lightlike if it is on the path of a ray of light in vacuum. All other intervals are spacelike. When an interval is spacelike, there is always an inertial frame for which its extremities are simultaneous events. Spatio-temporal measurement devices measure the three kinds of intervals. A single clock is sufficient to measure timelike intervals. Two clocks fixed on a rigid ruler and suitably synchronized make it possible to measure spacelike or lightlike intervals. All lightlike intervals are equal. The theory makes it possible to assign a real number to all spatio-temporal intervals, timelike, lightlike and spacelike, or more precisely to their square. Timelike intervals in particular are all equal to zero and therefore all equal to each other. This is a priori surprising. This means, for example, that the spatio-temporal interval between the emission of a photon and its reception three meters away is equal to the interval between its emission and its reception three light-years away, as if the advancing photon never departed from its starting point. Isn't it wonderland? Spatio-temporal measurement devices and the slowing down of clocks allow to understand this counterintuitive result. Imagine a rocket launched towards a star three light-years from Earth. A photon is emitted at the rear of the rocket and received at the front, three meters away, from the point of view of the rocket, so a tiny fraction of a second later. But because of the slowing down of clocks, what lasts a tiny fraction of a second from the point of view of the rocket can last three years from the point of view of the Earth, provided that the rocket is fast enough. The same spatio-temporal device measures both a lightlike interval of three light-years and a lightlike interval of three meters. It thus establishes their equality. The paradox of double contraction of lengths. Can a long moving beam enter a barn shorter than it, since its length is contracted in the direction of its movement ? But the barn is also contracted in the direction of its movement : If Y is in motion relative to X, it is contracted in the direction of its motion from X's point of view. But if Y is in motion relative to X, X is also in motion relative to Y, and it is also contracted in the direction of its motion from the Y's point of of view. If for example AB and CD are two rigid rules of the same length when they are at rest and which slide over each other, CD is shorter than AB from AB's point of view: A---B C--D and AB is shorter than CD from CD's point of view: A--B C---D This is the paradox of the double contraction of lengths. To understand why this paradox does not lead to a contradiction, we must take into account the relativity of simultaneity: Let E, F and G be three immobile points, such that F is the midpoint between E and G and EF = 3 m. Let P, Q and R be three points with the speed v with respect to EFG. We assume that at time t= 0, P, Q and R coincide with E, F and G respectively: E---F---G P---Q---R Suppose that a light flash is emitted at F at time t= 0. At time t = 10-8 s, it arrives simultaneously at E and G, from the point of view of EFG , because EF = FG. At this instant P, Q and R have moved: E---F---G -P---Q---R From the point of view of PQR, the flash emitted at Q at time t = 0 arrives simultaneously at P and R, because PQ = QR, but it does not arrive simultaneously at E and G, because at the instant when it arrives at G, QE is larger than QG, and the flash has therefore not yet arrived at E. The simultaneity of two events therefore depends on the point of view. What is simultaneous from the point of view of an observer is not necessarily so from the point of view of another moving observer. Simultaneity is not absolute but relative. This is why this theory is called the theory of relativity. Let AB and CD be two rigid rules of the same length when they are at rest and which slide over each other. From the point of view of AB, at the instant when C passes through A, D has not yet arrived at B. This is why CD is contracted with respect to AB from AB's point of view: A---B C--D From CD's point of view, at the instant C passes through A, D has already passed through B. This is why AB is contracted with respect to CD from CD's point of view: A--B C---D The relativity of simultaneity therefore resolves the paradox of the double contraction of lengths : [[[[File:Pole-and-barn-paradox.svg|390px]] The paradox of the double slowing down of clocks is similar to the previous one: a clock I moving in relation to a clock H is slowed down from the point of view of H. But from the point of view of I, it is the clock H which is slowed down with respect to I. The relativity of simultaneity is sufficient to show that this paradox does not lead to a contradiction. If b is a clock is at the periphery of a rotating disk, it is slowed down compared to a clock a which remains at the center: [[File:Clocks-on-rotating-disc.svg|390px]] But the situation is not symmetrical between a and b, because there is an inertial reference frame where a is always at rest, but there is none for b. This is why an astronaut who makes a long, very fast trip could return to Earth several centuries after her twin has died. The same goes for relativistic hoops and wheels. There is no inertial frame of reference where their periphery is always at rest. The situation is not symmetrical between an observer at rest in relation to the center of the hoop and who does not rotate on himself, and an observer who rotates on himself with the hoop, because the frame of reference of the second is not not inertial. This is why a hoop that rotates on itself is really contracted compared to the same hoop that does not rotate on itself. The contraction of lengths, the slowing down of clocks and the relativity of simultaneity are enough to show that the paradox of the race after light does not lead to a contradiction, because the measurement of the speed of light depends on the measurement of lengths , durations and simultaneity. The measuring instruments on board the rocket are contracted and slowed down as the rocket accelerates, and the measurement of simultaneity is modified. This is why light can always maintain the same speed relative to the rocket: [[File:Lorentz transformation of trains of flashing lights.gif]] All the lights on a single train flash simultaneously from the perspective of an observer resting on the train, but they do not flash simultaneously to an observer watching the train pass. The propagation of light is represented by the movement of the orange lines. If the length of a train is the unit of length and the period of the flashing light, the unit of time, then the speed of light c = 1. One can see that moving trains are contracted, that moving clocks are slowed down, and that light always has the same speed equal to one, regardless of the observer's point of view, at rest, or in a moving train. [[File:Lorentz transformation of trains of flashing lights 2.gif]] Space-time diagrams of an encounter between two trains of flashing lights On these space-time diagrams, space is represented by the horizontal direction, time by the vertical direction. Points on the same vertical are events that occur at the same location. Time flows upwards. Points on the same horizontal are events that occur at the same time. If c = 1, the propagation of light is represented by lines inclined at 45° (here the orange lines). All these diagrams can be obtained from just one of them by a Lorentz transformation: formula_1 formula_2 where formula_3 is the coefficient of expansion of durations. formula_4 is the coefficient of contraction of lengths. formula_5 is the relative speed of the two frames of reference which determine a Lorentz transformation. The addition of speeds. If B is going at speed u relative to A and if C is going in the same direction at speed v relative to B, then C is going at speed u+v relative to A. This theorem of addition of speeds is a theorem of Newtonian physics, which ignores the contraction of lengths, the slowing down of clocks and the relativity of simultaneity. If we take these three relativistic effects into account, the speed addition theorem becomes: If B goes at speed u with respect to A and if C goes in the same direction at speed v with respect to B, then C goes with speed (u + v)/(1 + uv/c2) relative to A, where c is the speed of light. If v = c, (u + v)/(1 + uv/c2) = (u + c)/(1 + u/c) = c, the speed of light relative to at A is therefore always equal to the speed of light relative to B, whatever the speed of A relative to B. See also. [[Electricity and magnetism/E = m c²|E = m c²]] [[Visual physics and mathematics/Gravitation|Gravitation]]

Visual physics and mathematics/Quantum Physics. Quantum physics can be summarized by a single great principle, the principle of superposition of states: Any physical system which can be in the states formula_1 and formula_2 can also be in a state formula_3 where formula_4 and formula_5 are any complex numbers. The same principle can be phrased in an equivalent way : The space of states of any physical system is a complex vector space. As far as we know the validity of the superposition principle is not restricted : any physical system. There is not any boundary between quantum systems, which obey the superposition principle, and classical systems, which would not. All known systems are fundamentally quantum systems, because they are all made of quantum particles. The principle of superposition has three immediate consequences: Spin and entanglement are difficult to represent visually. On the other hand, wave-particle duality can be shown easily, because it is enough to show waves: This animation shows the quantum state (the wave function) of an initially very localized particle. Luminosity represents the probability of presence. The color represents the phase of the wave function. A particle can propagate like a wave packet by spreading out slowly: A particle can also be in a state of superposition of two wave packets: A quantum particle can therefore interfere with itself. The interference pattern of a particle with itself can be observed: Or simulated by calculation: There is something crazy in this universal validity of quantum superposition. Suppose that formula_1 and formula_2 are states of the moon in two different places. If the moon is in the state formula_8), it seems to be in two different places at the same time. This should be a general phenomenon. With quantum superposition, any system can be simultaneously in as many places as one wants. Could Don Juan multiply his affairs in a quantum way ?

Visual physics and mathematics/Chua system. The Chua system is a system of three ordinary differential equations ("Differential equations, dynamical systems and an introduction to chaos", Hirsch, Morris William., Smale, Stephen, Devaney, Robert Luke, 2004): For example b=28 and a =15.4 It is a deterministic three-dimensional flow: All trajectories converge towards an attractor: It is a strange attractor because it is chaotic. A moving point circulates on the 8 in a way that seems disordered: a few turns on the left part of the 8 then a few turns on the right part and so on, but the number of turns on each part is unpredictable. A zoom on the Chua attractor: The attractor varies depending on the parameter a:

Visual physics and mathematics/Percolation. To model percolation (how a fluid passes through a porous material for example), we can randomly distribute bonds on a square network. p is the proportion of bonds among all possible links. As long as p < 1/2, the bonds do not percolate. A fluid passing through them cannot go very far. The material is not porous. But as soon as p is greater than 1/2, paths as long as desired appear: When p = 1/2, we obtain a fractal structure. It is a structure which retains its structure when we change scale:

Visual physics and mathematics/Vibrations. A body can have many modes of vibration. Vibration modes of a circular drum: A mode of vibration of a square plate:

Visual physics and mathematics/Shock waves. A shock wave generally obeys the Lax conditions: the speed of small perturbations behind the wave front is greater than the speed of the wave front which is itself greater than the speed of small perturbations in front of the wave front: Such shock waves are said to be compressive. All shock waves are expected to be compressive. Peter D. Lax proposed his conditions as universal conditions for a mathematical theory of all shock waves. If the Lax conditions are not verified, the wave front is expected to gradually spread out and therefore a shock wave can never form. However, we can observe, in exceptional conditions, shock waves which do not obey the Lax conditions: Such shock waves are said to be undercompressive.

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Bc4/2...a6. =Bishop's Opening: The Sideline 2...a6?!= 2...a6?! doesn't have a variation name. It can't be considered serious because white gains a large advantage after 3. Nc3! (or "3. Nf3"). Although it threatens ...b5, this move is timid and not a good option against the Bishop's Opening. 3. a4, though strange, gains space in the queenside "and" stops 3...b5. While 3. a4 is not as good as 3. Nc3 and 3. Nf3, it also refutes 2...a6?!.

Unicode/Obsolete blocks. = Block section = Great blocks in the Unicode Standard. New blocks. Some blocks proposed by Unicode, sometimes never rare: Rare. Some blocks used by blockquote. By other references, from Java, by qidim from wikilink: Some different references used by open centre by others, by kim in some results "pao" da meja no lais "pao" da meja no lais Notes. Timi* Pososjj sjs amaidii

Flora of New York/Carex Species Index. "Carex" species list from 2024 New York Flora Atlas. Species in bold type are deviations from the New York Flora Atlas.

Visual physics and mathematics/Crystal structures. A very little grain of salt. Each line represents a bond between two ions in a crystal of NaCl (sodium chloride = ordinary salt). Blue and green distinguish the two kinds of ions. It is a centered cubic crystal. Each Na+ ion is surrounded by 8 close neighbors Cl-. Likewise, each Cl- ion is surrounded by 8 close neighbors Na+. Two nearby ions always have opposite charges, because opposite charges attract each other while charges of the same sign repel each other. Crystal galaxies. What would we see if we were small enough to be inside a crystal and see its atoms as stars, or if we looked up at the sky in a crystal galaxy? Cubic galaxy Diamond sky A bright line of stars reveals that the line of vision (the line from the center of the eye to the center of the object) is in a plane of stars. These planes are like the faces of a precious stone: The simple cubic structure. The simple cubic structure is the simplest crystal structure: The repetition of the same. The simple cubic structure is a stack of cubes in the three directions of space. A crystal structure is obtained by the repetition of the same cell, not necessarily cubic, in one or more directions of space. A crystal structure can be in two dimensions: A stack of identical spheres has the structure of a crystal. A frieze has the structure of a one-dimensional crystal: The face-centered cubic structure. This structure is obtained by repeating a face-centered cubic cell: The diamond structure. This structure is obtained by repeating the following cell: Promenades inside a diamond:

Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...g5/2. f4/2...f5/3. e4. Sprite Countergambit. This is quite a joke, and has mostly been rarely played! 1.g4 g5 2.f4?? f5?? 3.e4??

Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...g5/2. f4/2...f5/3. e4/3...e5. Fanta Countergambit. This is quite a joke, and has mostly been rarely played! 1.g4 g5 2.f4?? f5?? 3.e4?? e5?? Statistics. 1683 games. White Win Rate: 32%. Draw Rate: 30%. Black Win Rate: 38%.

Visual physics and mathematics/Heat. An initially cold bar is heated at one of its ends. It is assumed that its side walls are thermally insulated. The heat diffuses along the length of the bar: The black line represents the temperature.

Flora of New York/GCG-21. Global "Carex" Group: Roalson EH, Jiménez-Mejías P, et al (2021) A framework infrageneric classification of Carex (Cyperaceae) and its organizing principles. Journal of Systematics and Evolution 59:726–762. Main Article - Appendix

Flora of New York/FNA-sect. }. Carex" sect. "} in: Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico, 25+ vols. New York and Oxford. Vol. 23.

Haskell/Solutions/Category theory. Which law implies transitivity? Formally, transitivity of a partial order is defined as: for any formula_1, formula_2, and formula_3 if formula_4 and formula_5 then formula_6. In the category defined by a partial order this translates to: for any objects formula_1, formula_2, and formula_3 if there exist morphisms formula_10 and formula_11 then there exists a morphism formula_12. This is guaranteed by the second law of categories, i.e., that they are closed under composition. Indeed, the last morphism is a composition of the first two. Why does adding an arrow break category laws? Let's consider what must be the result of the compositions formula_13 and formula_14. Notice that since formula_15 and formula_16 then formula_17 and given that there is only one morphism from formula_18 to formula_18, namely formula_20, it follows that formula_21. Using similar reasoning we can show that formula_22. Now, let us consider the composition formula_23; substituting formula_21 into it yields formula_25, which can be simplified to formula_26 using the third law of categories. However, the first law of categories states that this composition should be equal to formula_27, yet formula_28.

Reddit/Subreddits. Subreddits are individual forums organized around a specific topic. All subreddits begin with a lowercase "r" followed by a slash, then the name of the subreddit. Each subreddit has its own group of moderators and are subject to their own rules. To join a subreddit, click "join" (or "subscribe" if you are using old Reddit). When you return to your homepage, posts from your subscribed subreddits will be listed. The more subreddits you have joined, the more diverse your front page will appear. Click the "joined" button ( or the "unsubscribe" button if you are using old Reddit) to leave a subreddit.

Learn Baybayin. Introduction. Baybayin (ᜊᜌ᜔ᜊᜌᜒᜈ᜔), was the pre-colonial Tagalog writing system that is a direct descendant of Kavi, the script used to write Old Javanese. It has seventeen characters where three of them are vowels "(a, e/i, o/u)". Note:</br> Baybayin script is an 'Abugida', not an 'Alphabet'. An abugida differs from an alphabet by the fact that in an abugida, any diacritics written above or below a character changes its readings. Baybayin then and now</br> Baybayin eventually died out as the Latin alphabet introduced by the Spaniards continued to be imposed in the colonial era. Nowadays, that script is used mainly for aesthetic purposes; on the Philippine banknotes, Philippine passport and sometimes in the logos of some Philippine agencies. Many Filipino politicians wanted to make it the national writing system of the Philippines. Many Filipinos are now learning it as a hobby. Exercise. Learn how to read and write Baybayin script, so you can practice reading and writing Baybayin.

Learn Baybayin/Practice. Try to transliterate these Tagalog words from Baybayin scripts into Latin alphabet. Try to transliterate these Tagalog words from Latin alphabet into Baybayin script.

Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing. Kindly refer to the introduction for the full character chart. Each letter has a vowel sound. By default, Baybayin letters are consonants with an inherent vowel "a". To produce another vowel sound, a special mark (known as a "kudlít") is placed either on the top of the character (for "E" and "I" sounds) or at the bottom (for "O" and "U" sounds). The kudlít does not apply to stand-alone vowels, as they have their own characters. In the original form, stand-alone consonants (consonants without the vowel sound) could not be formed. This was particularly hard for Spanish friars, who were working on translating books into Tagalog. In 1620, Father Francisco Lopez rectified the problem by inventing his own kudlít in the form of a cross sign ("+") that removed the vowel sound. The kudlít functions exactly the same way the virama functions in the Devanagari script used to write Hindi. This is called TAGALOG SIGN VIRAMA by Unicode. Exercise. After learning how to read and write the Baybayin script, you can now practice reading and writing Baybayin.

The Wikimedia movement/back cover. <ns>0</ns> <revision> <parentid>4368547</parentid> <timestamp>2024-02-27T16:35:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ottawahitech</username> </contributor> <comment>not sure why this was inserted between the "doctorate degree" and the "lecturer"</comment> <origin>4374876</origin> <model>wikitext</model> <format>text/x-wiki</format> In the shadow of the Wikipedia project, and for a little over twenty years now, a social movement has been developing that is virtually unknown to the public, known as the Wikimedia movement. Its vision of the future is of a world in which every human being can freely take part in the sharing of knowledge. Responsible for almost a thousand websites, the best-known of which are the different language versions of Wikipedia, the movement also brings together hundreds of user groups, regional, state or thematic associations, scattered around the world. Wikimedia is also the only non-profit player in the top 50 most visited sites on the Web. A simple fact that allows us to affirm, to this day and in the Webspace, that this movement has become the most visible expression of the values of freedom and sharing perpetuated during the digital revolution, following the influence of the Counterculture of the 1960s. After presenting the origins of the movement and its quest for the free sharing of knowledge, this book provides a comprehensive overview of its organization. We discover how hundreds of bodies, mostly made up of volunteers, developed while retaining a large measure of autonomy. A new specificity of the movement, which ultimately inspires the desire to imagine differently, a humanity confronted with the challenges of an ever-changing world. holds a doctorate in political and social sciences, is a free-culture activist and is a lecturer in anthropology at UCLouvain University. He holds several administrative positions within the Wikimedia movement, which he has been observing in a participatory way since 2011. Before writing his doctoral thesis on the Wikimedia movement, he was the author of a master's thesis entitled "", in which he describes the organization of the free encyclopedia in French.

Chatbots For Social Change/Beliefs/Introduction. Selected bibliography: What are beliefs? Motivated reasoning Where do beliefs come from?

Windows Vista/Special Folders. Several places on your hard drive are called special folders. These folders appear with different icons (a blue file-folder instead of a beige one, usually) and have special meaning to the operating system. You, the user, are supposed to store files within one of these folders according to their type (photos and other picture files in Pictures, movie files in Videos, and so on). However, nothing stops you from keeping these files in your Documents folder if you choose to do so. To see all the special folders, go to Computer, double-click the C: drive, double-click Users, and then find and double-click the subfolder with your name. (If you are the only person who uses this computer, there will be only two directories: yours and Public.) This is called your user profile folder, and it is a special folder in and of itself. Here are the different special folders and their purposes:

Cherokee/Vowels. Vowel Sounds The Cherokee language includes six vowel sounds. In the beginning and middle of a word, only one of the vowels is nasalized. The last vowel of the word is always nasal. These vowels cannot be combined to form diphthongs. Notable Features of Final Vowels Remember that three phenomena occur on word-final vowels in Cherokee. First, the final vowel in a word (i.e. the final syllable) is short in length and takes a special high-falling tone specifically used on final vowels and nowhere else. (On the five-number pitch indication system it is represented by “43”.) Only a handful of words are exceptions to this, and when they are introduced they will be marked accordingly. However, for the vast majority of words that do follow this rule, you will notice that none of the orthographies mark the final syllable for tone, for the tone is predictable. Second, note that the final vowel of a word is nasalized. /v/ is already nasalized, so in final position it is unaffected (simply keeping its nasalization), but the other five vowels become their nasalized versions. Third, final vowels are often dropped in speech. If the consonant preceding the final vowel is /h/—in other words if the final syllable starts with /h/—then that whole syllable can be dropped Vowel Length Along with tone, Cherokee vowels also have length as a property. Vowels can be short or long in Cherokee. The distinction is important and has implications for morphology (i.e. the part of grammar dealing with how words change form). Many current resources unfortunately ignore the length distinction. If you speak American English, vowel length may be difficult to grasp since it is not a contrastive feature. (Australians might have a better instinctive grasp of it—compare the short vowel in “cut” with the long vowel of the same quality in “cart”; alternatively compare “ferry” and “fairy”.) Nonetheless, if you wish to develop proficiency in Cherokee, internalizing vowel length distinctions is a must. As an exercise, I recommend clapping each syllable while saying a word (or in lieu of saying a word) to consciously hear the rhythm of the word. Long vowels get a long clap (or clap-and-hold) and short vowels get a short clap. In this book, long vowels are written with double letters as an the "ii" of "giihli," meaning dog. By convention, vowels with the superhigh tone are written here with a single letter and the tilde diacritic. This is because vowels with this tone are always long, so there is no need to distinguish length in writing, hence just a single letter. E.g. "õsda," meaning good. Similarly, vowels with the lowfall tone are also always long. In pronominal prefixes, these vowels are written with single or double letters depending on the underlying vowel length before a phonological process assigns the tone. Otherwise, when the vowel does not occur in a pronominal prefix, double letters are always used, since the underlying length is less important.

Cherokee/Consonants. The Cherokee language has 13 main consonants. Most sonorant consonants also have one (or in the case of [ʥ], two) devoiced form which occurs when adjacent to "h." Stops. [ʔ], often used to separate adjacent vowel sounds; often used between the syllables in the English interjection “uh-oh” [g] which is also aspirated to make [kʰ]; resembles the sounds used in the English “get” and “kit” [gʷ], a labialized velar stop which is also devoiced as [kʷʰ]; for many speakers, especially in modern-day Oklahoma Cherokee, the articulation of this consonant is weakened and pronounced as [ɣʷ ~ w]. This consonant is usually pronounced like the sounds in the English words “iguana” and “question,” but sometimes is pronounced more closely to the sound in the English word “wear.” [d], a voiced alveolar stop, can also be aspirated as the devoiced [tʰ]. This sound can be pronounced like the sounds in the English words “dam” and “taboo.” Nasals. [n] and its voiceless allophone [ʰn̥]; pronounced like the sound in the sound in the English word “no,” though there isn’t an English example of the devoiced form of this consonant. [m], which is rarely used outside of loan words; pronounced like the sound in the English word “moon.” Fricatives. [h]; resembles the sound in the English word “hair” [s], more commonly pronounced [ʂ ~ ʃ] in the Eastern dialect; pronounced like the sounds in the English words “silent” and “shook” Affricates. [ʥ], a voiced alveolo-palatal affricate, which has two voiceless equivalents in Oklahoma Cherokee: [ʨ] or a voiceless alveolar affricate [ʦ]. Occasionally, [ʥ] may be pronounced as [ʣ], a voiced alveolar affricate, though this is uncommon in Oklahoma Cherokee. This sound is more common in some communities in North Carolina Cherokee, along with the voiceless [ʦ]. However, in the Snowbird community, [ʥ] and [ʨ] are retained. These sounds are pronounced like those in the English words “jaguar,” “cheat,” “tsunami,” and “dead zone,” respectively. [dɮ], a voiced lateral affricate, which may be devoiced as [tɬ], commonly pronounced simply as a lateral fricative [ɬ]. In the Eastern dialect, this consonant is merged with the alveolar affricate. There is no English equivalent to this sound, which is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the roof of one's mouth and letting air pass over the sides of the tongue, making a “slurpy” version of the sound one might hear in English words like “beetle.” Approximants. [l] with a voiceless allophone [l̥], often pronounced as a lateral fricative /ɬ/; an extinct dialect of Cherokee used an alveolar tap [ɾ] resembling the Spanish "r". This sound pronounced like the sound in the English word “letter” [w ~ ɰ] and devoiced as [ʍ]; pronounced like the sounds in the English word “wait” and “whip” [j] and its devoiced equivalent [j̥ ~ ç]; pronounced like the sounds in the English word “you” and the interjection “hyah!”

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...d6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...Nf6/5. Nc3/5...g6/6. Be2. This variation is a variation of the Sicilian tradition of the dragon. White wants to make a great defence in kingside.

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6/2. Bc4/2...d5. 2...d5. One of the main drawbacks of playing 2. Bc4 in the French. D5 move attacks the Bc4.

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6/2. Qe2/2...c5. Chigorin Variation. White develops the queen to e2, an active square that can attack the king later. c5 stops d4 while maintaining control of the center. A good move: Nf3. 3. Nf3 Nc6 4. g3 is mainline. Ex.: Carlsen, Magnus vs Xiong, Jeffery: French Defense: Chigorin Variation • lichess.org

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6/2. Qe2. Chigorin Variation. White develops the queen to e2, an active square that can attack the king later. A good move: c5.

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6/2. Qe2/2...c5/3. Nf3. Chigorin Variation. White develops the queen to e2, an active square that can attack the king later. c5 stops d4 while maintaining control of the center. Nf3 develops the knight to its natural square while making an e5 blockade impossible without d6. A good move: Many viable options such as Nc6.

Canadian Refugee Procedure/Chairperson Guidelines. Chairperson Guidelines. The IRB has issued a series of Chairperson Guidelines relevant to the work of the refugee divisions, the most commonly dealt with being "Guideline 3: Proceedings Involving Minors," "Guideline 4: Gender Considerations in Proceedings," "Guideline 8: Accessibility to IRB Proceedings," and "Guideline 9: Proceedings Before the IRB Involving Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression, and Sex Characteristics". History of the Chairperson Guidelines. This use of guidelines has a long history in the Canadian refugee determination system. Canada issued a “Guideline for Determination of Refugee Status” in 1970 to give immigration officers criteria for selecting refugees overseas. In the 1980s, prior to the founding of the IRB, the Minister issued new guidelines which provided that the benefit of the doubt be given to claimants. In 1993, the "Immigration Act" was amended to give the Chairperson the authority to issue guidelines. The amendment to the legislation came into force on February 1, 1993. The Board then issued guidelines on the handling of gender-based asylum claims the next month, in March 1993. In 1996, the IRB adopted guidelines on child refugee claimants, reportedly the first such policy initiative of its kind adopted by any state system. The year following the introduction of the IRPA, in 2003, the IRB Chairperson issued Guideline 7 on the Conduct of a Hearing, which created a new order for questioning during an RPD hearing. The new order of questioning in a hearing of a claim for refugee protection was that, if the Minister was not a party, any witness, including the claimant, would be questioned first by the RPD and then by the claimant’s counsel. Much later, in 2017, the Board implemented guidelines on the adjudication of claims involving Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity and Expression (SOGIE). That guideline was expanded to become the present "Guideline 9: Proceedings Before the IRB Involving Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression, and Sex Characteristics" in 2021. The following is a list of the guidelines, including those that have been revoked: See further: Canadian Refugee Procedure/History of refugee procedure in Canada#Juridification of the refugee system and broader interpretations of the refugee definition. IRPA Section 159. Section 159 of the "Immigration and Refugee Protection Act" reads: The Chairperson's guideline‑issuing and rule‑making powers overlap. Section 159 of the IRPA, "supra", sets out the Chairperson's guideline-issuing powers. Section 161 of the IRPA concerns the Chairperson's power to make rules: Canadian Refugee Procedure/161 - Functioning of Board and Division Rules. As the IRB "Policy on the Use of Chairperson's Guidelines and Jurisprudential Guides" notes, "the Chairperson's guideline‑issuing and rule‑making powers overlap." That policy goes on to state that "that the subject of a guideline could have been enacted as a rule of procedure issued under paragraph 161(1)(a) of the IRPA will not normally invalidate it." It cites the Federal Court of Appeal’s reasoning in "Thamotharem v. Canada" as support for this proposition. See further: Canadian Refugee Procedure/159 - Duties of Chairperson. Some of the guidelines are to be taken into account in a procedural, not a substantive manner. Some of the guidelines are to be taken into account in a procedural, not a substantive manner, others are to be taken into account in both ways. For example, the "Chairperson Guideline 3" on proceedings involving minors was formerly to be taken into account in a procedural, not a substantive manner: "Zidan v Canada." That version of the "Chairperson Guideline 3" concerned the fair conduct of a hearing and not deficiencies in the claim itself: "Newton v Canada". That was true until the guideline was overhauled on October 31, 2023, as the present version now concerns substantive matters as well as procedural ones.   When guidelines can and should be considered. Not mentioning the guidelines will not be fatal to a decision where the record demonstrates compliance with them. The guidelines are intended to ensure that claims are heard with compassion and sensitivity. Demonstrating compassion and sensitivity in the reasons, and an acknowledgement of the individual’s profile, may show that the guidelines were properly considered. Even where the RPD has not mentioned the guidelines in its reasons, the RPD will not have erred where it has respected the intent and spirit of them in the case at hand. One RAD panel reaching this conclusion commented: "I note that the Appellant does not point to any evidence that the RPD was insensitive or inappropriate in its questions, or that it conducted the hearing in a way that was insensitive to the Appellant’s emotional state or her well-being." As such, the RAD held in that case that despite not mentioning the guidelines in the original decision, this was not a basis on which to overturn the decision in and of itself. The failure to specifically mention a guidelines does not mean that it was not considered. On appeal to the RAD, a claimant should point to a specific issue regarding the RPD’s application of a guideline and explain how the alleged failure to consider the guideline led to an erroneous finding. In contrast, however, where a panel has not meaningfully applied the guidelines, the decision should not generally be considered a reasonable one and the courts have frequently returned matters to the Board for redetermination. The guidelines may only be applied where their subject is at issue in the proceeding or claim. In "Elisias v. Canada," the court held that the Chairperson’s Guideline 4 on gender could not be applied in the case because a fear of persecution based on gender was not alleged and there were no facts to support such persecution or other difficulties specific to the female applicant’s gender:[23]  The applicants further argued that the RPD failed to [translation] “properly consider” Guideline 4. In that regard, they asserted that since they no longer had any permanent status in Brazil, they would be forced to return to Haiti. They submitted that the RPD ought to have examined whether the female applicant would have some protection in Haiti, given that she had been targeted by Lavalas supporters as the spouse of the applicant. They criticized the RPD for failing to ask the female applicant any question about this and for having made no mention of Guideline 4 in its reasons. [24]  The Court finds this argument to be without merit. [25]  The female applicant never claimed a fear of gender-based persecution and there is no evidence of such persecution or of any specific difficulties related to her gender. Guideline 4 does not apply to every situation in which a woman seeks protection. The gender of the female applicant must play a role in her fear of persecution. In this case, the fear of persecution is solely based on her association with the applicant’s father in his past political activities. It was not a question of gender-based persecution or discrimination. Moreover, the Court did not detect any insensitivity towards the female applicant. A division should not refuse to apply guidelines because of a lack of credibility. The Federal Court has held that it is circular reasoning to impugn a claimant's credibility – and thus her claim about the abuse she had endured – and then use that finding to support a position that the Gender Guidelines did not apply because of the lack of evidence that warranted the application of the Guidelines. However, this question of credibility is distinct from whether the evidence indicates that a provision of a guideline is relevant. For example, section 7.13 of the gender guideline notes that women from certain cultures where men do not share the details of their political, military or even social activities with their spouses, daughters or mothers, may find themselves in a difficult situation when questioned about the experiences of their male relatives. The Federal Court has upheld a RAD finding that this portion of the guideline was not relevant where an applicant never claimed she was unable to specify her son’s political activities and instead testified that her son had never been politically active. The Board can consider guidelines where a claim involves the "secondary victims" of persecution of a group identified in the guidelines, such as parents affected by a child's gender-related claim. The Refugee Appeal Division has concluded that "Although the Chairperson’s Guideline 4 addresses the primary victim of rape, I find that the secondary victims, in this case the parents, must benefit from a certain sensitivity and appropriate understanding on behalf of the decision-maker when he questions them about this". That was a case in which the primary victim of the gendered persecution was not a party to the refugee claim, but the RAD nonetheless, on the basis of, "inter alia", insensitive questions that had been posed to these parents, remitted the matter to the RPD for reconsideration and ordered that "The RPD must take into consideration the Chairperson’s Guideline 4 in the adjudication of this case." An identification of vulnerability will generally continue to apply to a redetermination of a claim. Section 5.1 of the previous version of the "Chairperson’s Guideline 8" noted that the identification of vulnerability would usually be made at an early stage in the process. In "Conde v. Canada", the court considered a case where a claimant was designated as a vulnerable person, the Board's decision was overturned on judicial review, and at the redetermination of their claim, the panel considered whether they should continue to be recognized as vulnerable. In that case, the court noted that the Board "revoked" the claimant's vulnerable person status at the commencement of the new hearing redetermining the claim, implying that the fact that the claimant had been accepted as a vulnerable person at previous hearings meant that he should presumptively continue to be recognized as such at this new hearing. In this way, the effect of a vulnerable person designation appears to mirror the Board's rules for appointing a designated representative for a claimant, which also continue to apply to subsequent proceedings before the institution: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 20 - Designated Representatives#RPD Rule 20(6) - What proceedings the designation applies to. The RAD need not refer to a specific portion of a guideline where it is not raised on appeal. The RAD need not refer to a specific portion of a guideline where it is not raised on appeal. For example, several of the guidelines describe intersectionality and state that Members should apply an intersectional approach in all proceedings to which the guideline applies, based on the evidence of the proceeding. That said, the Federal Court has indicated that the RAD cannot be criticized for not assessing whether an RPD analysis was insufficiently intersectional where the RPD conclusion was not challenged before the RAD. Medical evidence and the consideration of guidelines. A medical diagnosis is not required for gender-related factors to be relevant in explaining a claimant’s difficulties in giving evidence. Footnote 31 of the former Gender Guidelines stated that "In "R v." "Lavallee", the Court indicated that expert evidence can assist in dispelling these myths and be used to explain why a woman would remain in a battering relationship." That said, nowhere do the Gender Guidelines state a medical diagnosis is required for gender-related factors to be relevant in explaining a claimant’s difficulties in giving evidence. If a panel refuses to take into account the guidelines and gender in assessing a claimant's evidence on the basis that they have not provided a professional diagnosis, they will have acted on the basis of an irrelevant consideration. While expert evidence is helpful to the Board, it is not necessary and the Board may identify any individual as vulnerable even in the absence of expert evidence on point. Although an expert report or other independent credible evidence is the preferred way to prove vulnerability, it is not obligatory. The absence of expert evidence will not necessarily lead to a negative inference concerning vulnerability; the Board must consider whether it was “reasonably possible” to obtain such evidence, per para. 8.6 of the former version of the guidelines. As Janet Cleveland notes in an article on point, in several cases the IRB has concluded that a person was vulnerable based on a letter from counsel describing behaviour consistent with mental health problems. She states that there have also been cases in which the Board recognized the person as vulnerable and ordered an early hearing on its own initiative based simply on the claimant’s BOC form as well as behaviour observed by Board staff. The Board should not expect revised or updated expert evidence without reason. In "Conde v. Canada", the claimant had submitted two medical reports, dated one and six years prior to the hearing. The claimant had been designated as a vulnerable person by a previous panel of the Board. The Board's previous decision had been overturned on judicial review and remitted to the Board for redetermination. On redetermination, the RPD revoked the claimant's vulnerable person status, stating "I considered both the psychological assessment of Dr. Devins dated October 9, 2013 and the updated psychological assessment dated January l1, 2018. The RPD was not provided with more up to date psychological assessment for this second re-determination." The court stated that, with respect to the panel's decision, "there was no reason, given the previous psychological evidence and the acceptance of the [applicant] as a vulnerable person at previous hearings, to expect that he needed to provide more psychological evidence without notice. Clearly, this was procedurally unfair." As such, if a panel comments on a psychological report being dated, the panel should provide a reason as to why the passage of time reduces the weight that is properly attributed to the report. Credibility, implausibility and demeanour. The Division is required to consider the guidelines where there are inconsistencies in testimony and the applicant has suffered abuse. If a woman has suffered abuse and has inconsistencies between her testimony and her BOC narrative, the RPD is obliged to weigh the evidence with the Gender Guidelines in mind. It is a best practice for the Division to show that it has considered the guidelines while it is making credibility findings, and not to simply consider them in a separate section at the end of its reasons. In "Okpanachi v. Canada", the Federal Court found that the Board had erred when it did not do so:Here, the RAD did not even refer to the Gender Guidelines in its credibility analysis, let alone assess why the omissions cannot be explained by the factors set out in the Gender Guidelines, before accepting the RPD’s conclusion on credibility based on the omissions. As such, I find the RAD has not taken into account the Gender Guidelines “in a meaningful way” when it adopted the RPD’s credibility finding based on the omissions in the BOC.However, it is not necessarily an error for the guideline-driven analysis to be separated physically in a particular decision from a credibility analysis: such a conclusion would focus unduly on form over substance. The guidelines do not create mandatory checklists when making credibility determinations where potential vulnerabilities are not present. Several of the guidelines comment on credibility determinations. For example, the guideline on Proceedings Involving Minors states that credibility determinations must be made on a case-by-case basis and take into consideration a list of factors. That said, guidelines or other publications which seek to make decision-makers aware of possible vulnerabilities and responses to trauma are not a checklist for credibility assessment when those potential vulnerabilities are not present.

Chatbots For Social Change/Literature Review. The landscape of academic research is rapidly evolving with the integration of digital tools, offering unprecedented opportunities for conducting literature reviews. This guide explores the synergy between Google Scholar for initial searches, Sci-Hub and preprint repositories (arXiv & bioRxiv) for accessing research papers, Pyzotero for literature management, and PaperQA for engaging with and understanding literature. These tools collectively streamline the literature review process, from the discovery and organization of materials to the synthesis and comprehension of scientific knowledge, transforming the traditional approach to literature reviews in academia. = Google Scholar: Initial Literature Search = Google Scholar serves as the foundational tool for initiating the literature review process. It is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines. By leveraging Google Scholar, researchers can effectively identify preliminary sources of relevant literature, including articles, theses, books, and conference papers. Enhancing Searches with LLMs. While Google Scholar does not offer an API for automation, the search process can be significantly enhanced through the use of Large Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT, or custom Bing LLM tools. These models can assist in refining search queries to increase relevance and precision, as well as in summarizing search results to quickly identify the most pertinent studies. Manual Search Tips. To maximize the efficiency of Google Scholar searches, researchers should: Google Scholar's integration into the literature review process sets the stage for a comprehensive and informed exploration of academic work, providing a solid foundation from which to expand research through additional tools like Sci-Hub, arXiv, bioRxiv, Pyzotero, and PaperQA. = Sci-Hub & Preprint Repositories: Accessing Research Papers = Following an initial literature search with Google Scholar, Sci-Hub and preprint repositories like arXiv and bioRxiv become crucial for accessing the full text of research papers. These platforms collectively offer unparalleled access to a vast array of scholarly literature, including articles that are otherwise behind paywalls or not yet published in peer-reviewed journals. Sci-Hub: Unlocking Paywalled Research. Sci-Hub is a repository that provides free access to millions of research papers. It is especially useful for obtaining articles that are not freely available, making it an essential tool for researchers worldwide. arXiv & bioRxiv: Early Access to Research. arXiv and bioRxiv are preprint servers that host articles submitted by researchers before they have been peer-reviewed. These platforms are particularly valuable for staying up-to-date with the latest research findings. Integrating Access for Comprehensive Literature Reviews. Combining Google Scholar's search capabilities with the direct access provided by Sci-Hub and preprint repositories ensures a thorough and expansive literature review process. Researchers can: This approach enables researchers to gather a wide-ranging collection of scholarly materials, ensuring their literature review is as exhaustive and up-to-date as possible. = Pyzotero: Literature Management and Organization = Once relevant literature has been identified and accessed, the next step in the literature review process involves organizing and managing these resources efficiently. Pyzotero, a Python client for the Zotero API, is an invaluable tool for this phase, offering automation and integration capabilities that streamline the management of bibliographic data. Overview of Pyzotero Capabilities. Pyzotero connects to Zotero's comprehensive reference management service, enabling researchers to programmatically interact with their Zotero libraries. This integration facilitates a variety of tasks: Enhancing Literature Review with Pyzotero. Integrating Pyzotero into the literature review workflow offers several advantages, enabling researchers to: Practical Usage Examples. Utilizing Pyzotero effectively requires basic knowledge of Python programming. Here are some practical ways researchers can incorporate Pyzotero into their workflow: from pyzotero import zotero z = zotero.Zotero('userID', 'userType', 'apiKey') items = z.top(limit=5) for item in items: print(item['data']['title']) By leveraging Pyzotero for literature management and organization, researchers can significantly enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of their literature review process, ensuring a well-organized and comprehensive examination of scholarly works. = PaperQA: Engaging with and Understanding Literature = PaperQA represents a cutting-edge approach in utilizing Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) models for engaging with scientific literature. It is an agent-based system designed to answer questions by finding relevant papers, gathering text from those papers, and synthesizing this information into coherent answers with references. This system is particularly beneficial for conducting literature reviews, enabling a more systematic and efficient exploration of scientific knowledge. Integration into Literature Review Process. Integrating PaperQA into the literature review workflow offers several advantages: PaperQA's modular design and use of RAG for scientific question answering exemplify how AI and machine learning tools can significantly enhance the literature review process, offering a comprehensive, efficient, and interactive approach to understanding vast amounts of scientific literature.

Italian/Grammar/If sentences (Periodi ipotetici). = If sentences (Periodi ipotetici) = Introduction. If sentences, also known as conditional sentences or periodi ipotetici in Italian, are sentences that express a hypothetical situation and its consequences. These sentences are formed by combining a condition (if clause) with a result (main clause). The condition portrays an unreal or uncertain situation, while the result expresses the outcome that would occur if the condition were met. Structure. Italian conditional sentences consist of two clauses: the dependent clause (if clause) and the independent clause (main clause). If clause (dependent clause). The if clause establishes the condition or hypothesis of the sentence. It typically begins with the conjunction "se" (if) but can also start with "qualora" (if) or "nel caso in cui" (in the case that). The verb in the if clause is in the present tense indicative or, less commonly, in the present subjunctive or imperfect subjunctive. Main clause (independent clause). The main clause presents the consequence or result of the hypothetical situation. It describes what would happen if the condition in the if clause is fulfilled. The verb in the main clause is in the present conditional tense or, less frequently, in the imperfect indicative tense. Types of If Sentences. There are four types of if sentences in Italian, each indicating a different level of probability or possibility. These types are classified as follows: Type 1: Present Real Conditional. Type 1 conditional sentences refer to possible or likely events in the present or future. They convey a realistic condition and outcome. In this type, both the if clause and the main clause are in the present tense indicative. Example: Se studio, ottengo buoni voti. (If I study, I get good grades.) Type 2: Present Unreal Conditional. Type 2 conditional sentences express hypothetical situations that are unlikely or contrary to reality in the present or future. The condition is considered to be possible but improbable. The if clause is in the imperfect subjunctive, while the main clause is in the present conditional. Example: Se avessi più tempo, viaggierei di più. (If I had more time, I would travel more.) Type 3: Past Unreal Conditional. Type 3 conditional sentences relate to unreal or impossible events that could have happened in the past. The condition is contrary to reality, as it implies an impossible change in the past. The if clause is in the pluperfect subjunctive tense, and the main clause is in the past conditional tense. Example: Se avessi studiato di più, sarei riuscito a superare l'esame. (If I had studied more, I would have passed the exam.) Mixed Type Conditional. Mixed type conditional sentences combine elements of both present and past unreal conditionals. They express situations with unreal conditions in the past and present consequences. In these sentences, the if clause is in the pluperfect subjunctive, and the main clause is in the present conditional. Example: Se avessi vinto alla lotteria, comprerei una casa al mare. (If I had won the lottery, I would buy a beach house.) Conclusion. Italian conditional sentences (periodi ipotetici) allow us to discuss imaginary or uncertain scenarios and their corresponding outcomes. By understanding the structure and the different types of if sentences, learners can express various levels of probability and possibility in Italian conversations and writing. It is essential to grasp the appropriate verb tenses and moods to construct well-formed and grammatically correct conditional sentences.

Italian/Grammar/Verbs Tenses and Moods. Introduction. This page provides an overview of Italian verb tenses and forms. Italian, like other Romance languages, has a rich verb conjugation system that includes various tenses and modes. Verb Forms. In Italian, verbs can take different forms depending on the subject, tense, and mood. Indicative Mood. The indicative mood of a verb express facts, statements, and reality, actions or states that are considered factual. It is the most commonly used mood in Italian. The indicative mood has several tenses. Present tense. The present tense () is used to describe ongoing actions or habitual events. It gives information about the present moment. For example: "Io mangio" (I eat). Imperfect tense. The imperfect tense () expresses ongoing or repeated actions in the past. It describes past events without a specific beginning or end. For example: "Io mangiavo" (I used to eat). Past tense. The past tense () describes completed actions that happened in the past. It is formed by combining the auxiliary verb "avere" or "essere" with the past participle of the main verb. For example: "Io ho mangiato" (I have eaten). Trapassato prossimo tense. The remote past tense () is used to express actions that occurred before another past action. It is formed by combining the imperfect tense of the auxiliary verb "avere" or "essere" with the past participle of the main verb. For example: "Io avevo mangiato" (I had eaten). Trapassato remoto tense. The past perfect tense () emphasizes actions that happened significantly before another past action. It is formed using the third person singular of the remote past tense of the auxiliary verb "avere" or "essere" combined with the past participle of the main verb. For example: "Io ebbi mangiato" (I had eaten). Future tense. The future tense () expresses actions that will occur in the future. It is formed by adding the appropriate endings to the infinitive form of the verb. For example: "Io mangerò" (I will eat). Subjunctive Mood. The subjunctive mood is used to express doubt, possibility, necessity, desires, uncertainty, subjective opinions or hypothetical situations. Here are the four tenses in the subjunctive mood: Present subjunctive. The present subjunctive () is used to express doubt, uncertainty, or hypothetical situations in the present. For example: "Che io mangi" (That I eat). Imperfect subjunctive. The imperfect subjunctive () expresses doubt, uncertainty, or hypothetical situations in the past. For example: "Che io mangiassi" (That I ate). Past subjunctive. The past subjunctive () describes actions that may or may not have occurred in the past. It is formed by combining the present subjunctive of the auxiliary verb "avere" or "essere" with the past participle of the main verb. For example: "Che io abbia mangiato" (That I have eaten). Past perfect subjunctive. The past perfect subjunctive () describes actions that might have happened before another past action. It is formed by combining the imperfect subjunctive of the auxiliary verb "avere" or "essere" with the past participle of the main verb. For example: "Che io avessi mangiato" (That I had eaten). Conditional Mood. Present tense. The conditional present tense () is used to express hypothetical situations or polite requests. It is formed by adding the appropriate endings to the infinitive form of the verb. For example: "Io mangerei" (I would eat). Past tense. The conditional past tense () describes actions that would have happened in the past if certain conditions had been met. It is formed by combining the conditional present of the auxiliary verb "avere" or "essere" with the past participle of the main verb. For example: "Io avrei mangiato" (I would have eaten). Other Verb Forms. There are various verb forms used in Italian grammar: Participle. The participle () is used to form compound tenses and passive constructions. It can be either present () or past (). For example: "mangiante" (eating), "mangiato" (eaten). Gerund. The gerund () is used to express ongoing actions. It is formed by adding the appropriate endings to the stem of the infinitive form of the verb. For example: "mangiando" (eating). Infinitive. The infinitive () is the base unconjugated form of the verb. It does not indicate any tense or mood. For example: "mangiare" (to eat). In Italian, infinitive verbs usually end in -are, -ere, or -ire. For example: "parlare" (to speak), "leggere" (to read), and "partire" (to leave). The infinitive form is used in various situations, such as the base form of the verb: "Mi piace "ballare"." (I like to dance.) This article provides a brief overview of the verb tenses and forms in Italian grammar. Understanding these forms is essential for mastering the Italian language. Further study and practice are recommended to fully grasp the nuances and usage of each tense and form. Conclusion. Italian grammar offers a wide range of tenses and verb forms that enable precise communication and expression. Understanding these forms and their usage will greatly enhance your fluency and communication skills in Italian.

Italian/Grammar/Modifiers (Suffixes). Introduction. In the Italian language, modifiers are often used to change the meaning or add information to a word. One common type of modifier is a suffix. Suffixes are added to the end of a word and can alter its grammatical function, create new words, or provide additional information about the word. Understanding Italian grammar modifiers, specifically suffixes, is essential to mastering the language. This article explores different types of suffixes commonly used in Italian and their respective functions. Types of Suffixes in Italian. Italian suffixes can be divided into several categories based on their function. Here are some of the most common types. The last vowel changes for gender and number agreemment. Diminutive Suffixes. Diminutive suffixes are used to indicate smallness or affection. They are typically added to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Some common diminutive suffixes in Italian are: Augmentative Suffixes. Augmentative suffixes are used to indicate bigness, intensity, or contempt. Similar to diminutive suffixes, they are added to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Common augmentative suffixes include: Adjective-Forming Suffixes. These suffixes are used to derive adjectives from nouns or verbs. They provide additional information about the quality or characteristic of the noun or verb. Common examples include: Verb-Forming Suffixes. Verb-forming suffixes are used to create new verbs from existing nouns or adjectives. They often indicate the action related to the noun or adjective. Some common verb-forming suffixes in Italian are: Adverb-Forming Suffixes. Adverb-forming suffixes are used to create adverbs from adjectives or nouns. They modify the verb, adjective, or other adverb to express information such as intensity, time, or manner. Common adverb-forming suffixes include: Conclusion. Italian grammar modifiers in the form of suffixes play a significant role in the language. By understanding the different types of suffixes and their functions, learners of Italian can enrich their vocabulary and better comprehend the nuances of the language. Practice using suffixes in context, as they can often reveal important information about a word's meaning or enhance its descriptive quality. This article has provided a brief overview of some commonly used Italian grammar modifiers (suffixes), but there are many more to explore and incorporate into your language skills.

Italian/Grammar/Adverbs. An adverb is a word or phrase that modifies or describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb. In Italian, adverbs play an important role in adding detail to a sentence and expressing various aspects such as time, place, manner, degree, and frequency. This chapter will provide an overview of Italian adverbs, including their forms, usage, and common examples. Forms of Adverbs. Italian adverbs are generally derived from adjectives by adding the suffix "-mente" to the feminine singular form of the adjective. For example, the adjective "veloce" (fast) becomes the adverb "velocemente" (quickly). However, not all adverbs are formed by this pattern. Some adverbs have irregular forms, while others are identical to their corresponding adjectives. For instance: In addition to these regular and irregular forms, there is a group of adverbs that have unique forms and do not derive from adjectives. Examples of this group include "bene" (well), "male" (badly), "presto" (quickly), "tardi" (late), and "mai" (never). Usage. Italian adverbs are versatile and can be used in various ways to modify different parts of speech. Here are some common usage patterns: Modifying Verbs. Adverbs in Italian often modify verbs, indicating aspects such as manner, frequency, time, or degree. They usually come after the verb they modify. For example: Modifying Adjectives. Adverbs can also modify adjectives to express the degree or intensity of the adjective. In this case, they usually come before the adjective. For example: Modifying Other Adverbs. Similar to their usage with adjectives, adverbs can modify other adverbs to show the degree or intensity. Again, they typically come before the adverb they modify. For example: Common Adverbs. Italian has a wide range of adverbs, each serving a specific purpose. Here are some commonly used adverbs in Italian:

Italian/Grammar/Sentence Structure. Simple Sentence Structure. A simple Italian sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject is the entity performing the action, while the predicate contains the verb and provides information about the subject. For example: Subject ("Soggetto"): "Maria" Predicate ("Predicato"): "sta leggendo un libro." ("is reading a book.") Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) Sentences. In Italian, most sentences follow the Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) structure. This means that the subject usually comes before the verb, and the verb is followed by the object. For example: Subject: "Luca" Verb: "ha commprato" ("purchased") Object: "una nuova macchina" ("a new car") This SVO structure is the most common sentence order in Italian, providing a clear and straightforward way of expressing actions and their performers. Indirect Object Placement. When a sentence contains both a direct object and an indirect object, and the indirect object is a pronoun, the indirect object is usually placed before the direct object. For example: Direct Object: "il libro" ("the book") Indirect Object: "a Marta" ("to Marta") Sentence: "Marta mi ha dato il libro." ("Marta gave me the book.") In this case, the indirect object "mi" (to me) precedes the direct object "il libro" (the book). Some verbs with structure different from English. Mi piacciono i libri. This sentence translates to "I like books" in English. The verb "piacere" is used in a different way than the English verb "to like". It is more accurately translated as "to be pleasing to". So, the sentence "Mi piacciono i libri" literally means "Books are pleasing to me". Ad Anna serve un ombrello. This sentence translates to "Anna needs an umbrella" in English. The verb "servire" is used to express need. The preposition "a" is used to indicate to whom the need applies. So, the sentence "Ad Anna serve un ombrello" literally means "An umbrella is needed by Anna". Mi manchi tu. This sentence translates to "I miss you" in English. The verb "mancare" is used to express missing someone or something. Similar to "piacere", "mancare" is used in a way that the subject and object are reversed compared to English. So, the sentence "Mi manchi tu" literally means "You are missing to me". Position of Nouns and Adjectives. The normal order of a noun phrase in Italian is noun adjective, which is opposite to English where the adjective precedes the noun. For instance, while in English they say "a red car," in Italian it would be expressed as "una macchina rossa." Agreement and Matching. Moreover, it is important to note that in Italian, adjectives must agree in gender and number with the noun they modify. This means that the adjective must display the appropriate masculine/feminine and singular/plural endings to match the noun it describes. This agreement is a fundamental aspect of Italian grammar, and the incorrect use of adjective endings can lead to confusion or inaccuracy. Position of Possessive Adjectives. In Italian, possessive adjectives are generally placed before the noun. For example, "my house" is translated as "la mia casa." However, in certain cases, possessive adjectives can be placed after the noun, usually for emphasis or poetic effect. This usage is less common and might differ in regional variations. The article is usually required before possessive adjectives. Position of Demonstratives and Indefinite Adjectives. Demonstratives and indefinite adjectives, such as "this," "that," "any," and "every," also usually come before the noun in Italian. For example, "this book" is translated as "questo libro," and "any problem" is expressed as "qualsiasi problema." Position of Numeral Adjectives. Numeral adjectives, indicating quantity or order, usually precede the noun in Italian. An example is "cinque ragazze" (five girls).

Italian/Grammar/Direct and Indirect Speech. Introduction. Direct and indirect speech are important linguistic concepts used to report statements made by others. In Italian, like many other languages, certain adjustments are necessary when transforming a direct speech statement into an indirect one. This article aims to explain the rules and techniques for reporting direct and indirect speech in Italian, including tense changes, pronoun changes, and other grammatical adjustments. Direct Speech. In direct speech, the exact words spoken by someone are reported within quotation marks. For example: The sentence above is an example of direct speech. It indicates that Marco said the specific words "Vado al cinema." Indirect Speech. Indirect speech refers to reporting what someone said without using their exact words. In Italian, when transforming direct speech into indirect speech, several changes may be required to adapt to grammar rules and maintain coherence. Tense Changes. When converting direct speech to indirect speech, tense changes often occur. The general rule is to shift the tense back one step. Here are some examples: 1. Present tense: The present tense in direct speech is usually transformed into the imperfect tense in indirect speech. This is done by shifting the verb tense back one step. For instance: In the example above, "Ho fame" (I am hungry) is the direct speech. The present tense of "Ho" is transformed into the imperfect "aveva" (he was) in the indirect speech. 2. Past tense: When a direct speech statement is in the past tense, it is often transformed into the pluperfect tense in indirect speech. This tense shift is important for maintaining chronological accuracy. For example: In the example above, "Sono andato al mare ieri" (I went to the seaside yesterday) is the direct speech. The past tense "sono andato" (I went) is transformed into "era andata" (she had gone) in the indirect speech. 3. Future tense: The future tense in direct speech is generally transformed into the conditional tense in indirect speech. This maintains the intended meaning while adhering to grammatical rules. For instance: In the example above, "Andreò al concerto domani" (I will go to the concert tomorrow) is the direct speech. The future tense "andrò" (I will go) is changed to the conditional "sarebbe andata" (she would go) in the indirect speech. Pronoun Changes. In addition to tense changes, pronouns may also require adjustments when transforming direct speech into indirect speech. Here are some examples: 1. First-person pronouns: First-person pronouns in direct speech usually change according to the subject of the reported speech. They are transformed into third-person pronouns in indirect speech. For example: In the example above, "Vieni con me al cinema" (Come with me to the cinema) is the direct speech. The first-person pronoun "me" is changed to "lei" (her) in the indirect speech. 2. Third-person pronouns: Third-person pronouns in direct speech usually remain the same in indirect speech, as long as the subject remains unchanged. However, if the subject changes, the pronoun should be adjusted accordingly. For instance: In the example above, "Luca ama Marta" (Luca loves Marta) is the direct speech. The third-person pronouns "Luca" and "Marta" remain the same in the indirect speech. Grammatical Adjustments. Other grammatical adjustments may be necessary when transforming direct speech into indirect speech. For example: 1. Adverbs and adjectives: Adverbs and adjectives in direct speech generally don't require changes in indirect speech unless they refer to a specific time or place. In such cases, adjustments should be made. For instance: In the example above, "Domani sarò felice" (Tomorrow I will be happy) is the direct speech. The adverb "domani" (tomorrow) is transformed into "il giorno seguente" (the following day) in the indirect speech. 2. Conjunctions and connectors: When introducing indirect speech, it is common to use conjunctions or connectors such as "che" (that). These words help indicate that the reported speech is not a direct quotation. For example: In the example above, "Detto questo" (Having said that) is the introductory phrase in direct speech. It is transformed into "che detto quello" (that having said that) in the indirect speech. Conclusion. Reporting direct and indirect speech in Italian involves adjusting tense, pronouns, and other grammatical elements to maintain coherence and adhere to language rules. Understanding these techniques is essential for accurately conveying others' words or thoughts. By following the guidelines provided in this article, you can confidently report direct and indirect speech in Italian.

Italian/Lessons/Lesson5. Lesson 5: Al Ristorante – At the Restaurant Summary: In this lesson, students will learn key phrases and vocabulary that will help them navigate a restaurant setting in Italian. They will practice ordering food, asking for the bill, and interacting with the waitstaff. By the end of this lesson, students will be able to confidently dine out in an Italian-speaking country. Conversation Piece 1: Situation: Ordering food at a restaurant. Waiter: Buongiorno! Avete prenotato? Student: No, non abbiamo prenotato. Vorremmo una tavolo per due, per favore. Waiter: Certamente. Seguitemi, per cortesia. Student: Grazie. Conversation Piece 2: Situation: Asking for the bill. Waiter: Desiderate il conto? Student: Si, per favore. Waiter: Ecco a voi. Saranno 25 euro. Student: Grazie. Posso pagare con la carta di credito? Vocabulary: - Il ristorante: the restaurant - Il menù: the menu - Il cameriere, La cameriera: the waiter, the waitress - Il cibo: the food - L'antipasto: the appetizer - La pasta: the pasta - Il pesce: the fish - Il formaggio: the cheese - Il dolce: the dessert - La bevanda: the drink - La birra: the beer - L'acqua: the water - Il vino: the wine - Il conto: the bill - La carta di credito: the credit card Exercises and Challenges: 1. Match the following vocabulary words with their English translations: - Il ristorante - Il menù - L'acqua - La birra - Il dolce - Il conto 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate vocabulary: - Vorrei ordinare un ____ di spaghetti. - La ____ è fredda, per favore. - Chiamate il ____ per pagare. 3. Role-play the following scenarios using the vocabulary and phrases learned in this lesson: - Ordering food for a group of friends at a restaurant. - Asking for recommendations from the waiter for a vegetarian dish. - Requesting the bill in Italian. Lesson Review: 1. What are some key phrases to use when ordering food at a restaurant? 2. How do you ask for the bill in Italian? 3. Provide three examples of Italian dishes mentioned in this lesson. 4. Write a short dialogue between a student and a waiter, where the student is ordering a pizza and the waiter is recommending a wine. By completing this lesson, students should gain the skills necessary to confidently communicate and navigate a restaurant setting in Italian. Practice frequently and continue building vocabulary to enhance your language learning journey. See also Italian/Vocabulary/Food

Italian/Lessons/Lesson6. Lesson 6: La Famiglia - The Family Summary: In this lesson, you will learn how to talk about your family members in Italian. You will learn the vocabulary to describe different family relationships and practice using them in conversations. Additionally, you will learn some common phrases related to the family. Conversation Pieces. 1. Conversation 1: Laura: Ciao! Come stai? Marco: Ciao Laura! Sto bene, grazie! E tu? Laura: Bene anche io. Presentami la tua famiglia, per favore. Marco: Certamente. Lei è mia madre, Maria. Maria: Piacere di conoscerti, Laura. Laura: Piacere mio, signora. E lei è tua sorella? Marco: No, lei è mia zia. Si chiama Anna. Laura: Molto bene. E tuo padre? Marco: Mio padre si chiama Paolo ed è in viaggio di lavoro. 2. Conversation 2: Alessandro: Ciao Sara, vorrei conoscerai la tua famiglia. Sara: Ciao Alessandro! Lui è mio fratello, Giuseppe. Giuseppe: Ciao! Alessandro: Piacere di conoscerti, Giuseppe. E lei chi è? Sara: Lei è mia sorella Giulia. Giulia: Salve! Alessandro: Piacere mio, Giulia. E i tuoi genitori? Sara: I miei genitori sono in vacanza. Vocabulary. - Madre: mother - Padre: father - Sorella: sister - Fratello: brother - Zia: aunt - Zio: uncle - Bambino: boy/child - Bambina: girl/child - Nonno: grandfather - Nonna: grandmother - Genitore: parent - Famiglia: family - Conoscerti: to meet you - Viaggio: trip - Lavoro: work - Vacanza: vacation Exercises and Challenges. 1. Match the following family members in Italian with their English translations: 1. Madre a. Aunt 2. Sorella b. Sister 3. Nonno c. Father 4. Zia d. Mother 5. Fratello e. Grandfather 2. Translate the following sentences into Italian: a. My brother is studying at the university. b. Our grandparents live in Rome. c. I have two sisters. d. Where are your parents? e. Is your aunt coming to the party? 3. Write a short paragraph introducing your family members in Italian. Include at least five sentences. Lesson Review. 1. What are the Italian words for mother, father, sister, and brother? 2. How do you say "aunt" and "uncle" in Italian? 3. Translate the following sentence into English: "Mia sorella lavora in un ristorante." 4. Write five family relationship vocabulary words in Italian. 5. Describe your family members using at least three different vocabulary words learned in this lesson.

Italian/Lessons/Lesson7. Lesson 7: Navigating Around the City Summary: In this lesson, students will learn how to navigate around the city in Italian. They will learn common phrases and vocabulary related to asking for directions, giving directions, and using public transportation. Conversation Piece 1: Marco: Scusi, mi può dire dov'è la stazione ferroviaria? Giulia: Certamente! Vai dritto per due isolati e poi gira a sinistra. La stazione sarà sulla tua destra. Conversation Piece 2: Luca: Mi scusi, dov'è la fermata dell'autobus per il centro città? Marta: La fermata dell'autobus è di fronte al supermercato. Prendi l'autobus numero 10 e scendi alla seconda fermata. Conversation Piece 3: Luca: Scusa, puoi aiutarmi? Sono un po' perso. Anna: Certamente! Di che hai bisogno? Vocabulary: - Scusa/Scusi: Excuse me - Dov'è: Where is - Stazione ferroviaria: Train station - Vai dritto: Go straight - Gira a sinistra: Turn left - Sulla tua destra: On your right - Fermata dell'autobus: Bus stop - Prendi: Take - Supermercato: Supermarket - Centro città: City center - Scendi: Get off - Fermata: Stop - Aiutarmi: Help me - Perso: Lost - Certamente: Certainly - Di che hai bisogno?: What do you need? Exercises and Challenges: 1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate vocabulary words: a. Mi scusi, ________ la stazione ferroviaria? b. Prendi l'autobus numero 5 e ________ alla terza ________. c. Vai ________ per tre ________ e poi ________ a destra. 2. Role play: Practice asking for directions and giving directions with a partner using the vocabulary and conversation pieces from this lesson. Final Lesson Review: 1. What are the common phrases used for asking for directions in Italian? 2. How do you say "go straight" in Italian? 3. Where is the bus stop to the city center according to Marta? 4. Fill in the blank: "La stazione ferroviaria sarà ________ tua ________." 5. Role play: Imagine you are lost in a city and need to ask for directions to the nearest museum. Practice the conversation with a partner using the vocabulary and phrases learned in this lesson. 6. How do you say "lost" in Italian? 7. List three vocabulary words/phrases related to giving directions. Note: This lesson can be supplemented with additional vocabulary and exercises based on the specific needs and interests of the learners. See also Italian/Vocabulary/Travel

Italian/Lessons/Lesson8. Lesson 8: Prenotare un Hotel - Booking a Hotel Summary: In this lesson, the student will learn how to book a hotel room in Italian. They will learn useful conversation pieces, vocabulary related to hotel reservations, and practice exercises to reinforce their learning. Conversation 1: [At the hotel reception] Receptionist: Buon giorno, posso aiutarla? (Good morning, may I help you?) Student: Buon giorno, vorrei prenotare una camera per questa sera. (Good morning, I would like to book a room for tonight.) Receptionist: Certamente, per quanti giorni? (Sure, for how many days?) Student: Per cinque notti. (For five nights.) Conversation 2: [Confirming the reservation] Student: Ho prenotato una camera a nome di Smith. (I have booked a room under the name Smith.) Receptionist: Va bene, signor Smith. Abbiamo una camera disponibile per lei. (Alright, Mr. Smith. We have a room available for you.) Student: Grazie! Quanto costa la camera per notte? (Thank you! How much does the room cost per night?) Receptionist: La camera costa 100 euro a notte, colazione inclusa. (The room costs 100 euros per night, breakfast included.) Vocabulary: - Prenotare una camera: To book a room - Notte: Night - Giorno: Day - Camera: Room - Colazione: Breakfast - Disponibile: Available - Nome: Name - Euro: Euro Exercises and Challenges: 1. Translate the following phrases into Italian: - I would like to book a room for two nights. - Do you have any rooms available? - How much does a double room cost per night? - Is breakfast included? 2. Create a dialogue between a receptionist and a student where they discuss a hotel reservation, using the vocabulary provided. 3. Practice speaking by pretending to book a hotel room in Italian. Use the conversation pieces as a guide and try to improvise using the vocabulary you learned. Lesson Review: 1. What is the phrase for booking a room in Italian? 2. How do you say "night" in Italian? 3. Provide three vocabulary words related to hotel reservations. 4. How would you ask if there are any rooms available? 5. Write a sample conversation between a student and a receptionist, discussing a hotel reservation.

Italian/Lessons/Lesson9. Lesson 9: Fare Acquisti - Shopping. Summary. In this lesson, you will learn how to shop and make purchases in Italian. You will be introduced to common phrases and vocabulary related to shopping, as well as practice exercises to reinforce your knowledge. Conversation Pieces. 1. At the clothing store: - Customer: Buongiorno, posso provare questa maglietta? (Good morning, can I try on this t-shirt?) - Salesperson: Certamente, i camerini sono là. (Certainly, the fitting rooms are over there.) 2. At the grocery store: - Customer: Mi scusi, dove posso trovare il pane? (Excuse me, where can I find the bread?) - Employee: È nel reparto dei prodotti da forno, al fondo del negozio. (It's in the bakery section, at the back of the store.) Vocabulary. 1. Italian Clothing Vocabulary: - pantaloni (m) - pants - gonna (f) - skirt - camicia (f) - shirt - scarpe (f) - shoes - cappotto (m) - coat - maglia (f) - sweater - calze (f) - socks 2. Italian Grocery Vocabulary: - frutta (f) - fruit - verdura (f) - vegetables - carne (f) - meat - pesce (m) - fish - formaggio (m) - cheese - pane (m) - bread - latte (m) - milk Exercises and Challenges. 1. Fill in the blanks with the correct clothing items: - Ho bisogno di un nuovo __________. (I need a new sweater.) - Voglio comprare un paio di nuovi __________. (I want to buy a pair of new pants.) - Hai visto una __________ che ti piace? (Did you see a skirt that you like?) 2. Match the Italian grocery vocabulary with their English translations: - frutta - bread - carne - fruit - pesce - meat - formaggio - cheese - pane - fish Lesson Review. 1. How would you ask a salesperson if you can try on a shirt? 2. How do you say "skirt" in Italian? 3. List three types of clothing items in Italian. 4. Translate the following phrase into Italian: "Where can I find the meat?" 5. Match the Italian grocery vocabulary with their correct English translations.

Italian/Vocabulary/Weather. Il meteo = "the weather" Il clima = "the climate" Il tempo = "the time/weather" La temperatura = "the temperature" La previsione = "the forecast" La neve = "the snow" La pioggia = "the rain" Il sole = "the sun" Il vento = "the wind" La nuvola = "the cloud" L'umidità = "the humidity" La tempesta = "the storm" Il temporale = "the thunderstorm" Il cielo = "the sky" Il caldo = "the heat" Il freddo = "the cold" Il gelo = "the frost" La nebbia = "the fog" Il sole splende = "the sun is shining" C'è il sole = "it's sunny" È nuvoloso = "it's cloudy" C'è vento = "it's windy" Piove = "it's raining" Nevica = "it's snowing" Fa caldo = "it's hot" Fa freddo = "it's cold" È umido = "it's humid" È nebbioso / C'è la nebbia = "it's foggy" C'è la tempesta = "there is a storm" C'è il temporale = "there is a thunderstorm" Il tempo è bello = "the weather is nice" Il tempo è brutto = "the weather is bad" Mi piace il sole = "I like the sun" Non mi piace il freddo = "I don't like the cold" Lasciamo che il tempo decida = "let's leave it up to the weather" Quando piove, uso l'ombrello = "when it rains, I use an umbrella" Mi serve una giacca per il freddo = "I need a jacket for the cold" Mi piace il clima mediterraneo = "I like the Mediterranean climate" Durante l'estate fa caldo in Italia = "During the summer, it's hot in Italy" Sono allergico al polline, quindi la primavera non è il migliore periodo per me = "I am allergic to pollen, so spring is not the best time for me"

Italian/Vocabulary/Health and Medical. In caso di emergenze mediche:. - L'ambulanza = "the ambulance" - Il pronto soccorso = "the emergency room" - Il medico di emergenza = "the emergency doctor" - Il numero di emergenza = "the emergency number" - Ho bisogno di aiuto! = "I need help!" - Sto male = "I'm feeling unwell" - Mi fa male = "It hurts" Il dottore:. - Il medico = "the doctor" - Il paziente = "the patient" - La visita medica = "the doctor's appointment" - La ricetta = "the prescription" - Il referto medico = "the medical report" - Il sintomo = "the symptom" - La febbre = "the fever" - Il mal di testa = "the headache" - Il mal di stomaco = "the stomachache" - La tosse = "the cough" - Il raffreddore = "the cold" - Il dolore = "the pain" Discussione dei sintomi:. - Ho il naso congestionato = "I have a stuffy nose" - Ho la nausea = "I feel nauseous" - Ho la diarrea = "I have diarrhea" - Mi fa male la gola = "My throat hurts" - Mi sento debole = "I feel weak" - Soffro di allergie = "I suffer from allergies" - Sto tossendo = "I am coughing" - Ho il bruciore di stomaco = "I have heartburn" - Ho la pressione alta = "I have high blood pressure" - Mi sento stanco = "I feel tired" Farmacia:. - La farmacia = "the pharmacy" - Il farmacista = "the pharmacist" - Il medicinale = "the medicine" - La confezione = "the package" - Le pillole = "the pills" - La dose giornaliera = "the daily dose" - Le istruzioni = "the instructions" - Senza prescrizione = "over-the-counter" - Ho bisogno di un antidolorifico = "I need a painkiller" - Mi serve un antibiotico = "I need an antibiotic" See also Italian/Vocabulary/Human Body

Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/Lipids lab. LIPIDS LAB The borders of cells and organelles are made of lipids. To understand how membranes can work, we will mix oil and water and show that they don't mix. Then we will use detergent to show how oil and water can be mixed. This is how soap is used to kill bacteria, viruses, and other microbes. It is also how membrane proteins like channels and pumps can fit themselves into membranes for membrane transport. SUPPLIES Small bottles with cap oil water food coloring hand dish soap INSTRUCTIONS 1. Pour oil the bottles. 2. Add food coloring to the water 3. Pour water into the bottle. 4. Shake the bottles to mix the oil and water. 5. Observe the formation of micelles and lipid bilayers. 6. Watch how oil and water separate. 7. Add 3 drops of detergent to one of the two bottles. 8. Mix the two bottles and watch as both begin to separate.

Tagalog/Prepositions. Mga Pang-ukol (Prepositions) Introduction. Prepositions play a crucial role in any language, including Tagalog. They function as connective words, linking nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other parts of a sentence. By understanding the usage and meaning of prepositions, learners can improve their language skills and create more accurate and nuanced sentences. Basic Prepositions. In Tagalog, there are several basic prepositions commonly used in everyday conversations. These prepositions establish relationships between various elements within a sentence. Here are some of the most frequently used basic prepositions: Compound Prepositions. Tagalog also uses compound prepositions, which are formed by combining a basic preposition with other words. These compound prepositions provide more specific meanings and nuances. Here are some examples: This is only the first draft, this page must be revised, and other propositions should be included

Polish/Genitive case. The Genitive case in Polish language is used in the following situations: The genitive answers the questions "whose?" ("czyj?"), "of whom?" ("kogo?") and "of what?" ("czego?").

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Be7/4. d4. =Hungarian Defence= 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Be7 4. d4

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Be7/4. O-O. =Hungarian Defence= 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Be7 4. O-O

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...a6. =Italian Game= 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 a6

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...Qf6. =Ruy Lopez - 3...Qf6!?= The move 3...Qf6 is a rare and provocative response to the Ruy Lopez opening. It is part of some of the Ruy Lopez sidelines, where Black defends the e5-pawn with the queen instead of the usual 3...a6 attacking the bishop or 3...Nf6 attacking the e4 pawn. The move 3...Qf6 has the following advantages and disadvantages:

Meitei Culture/Religion. The traditional ethnic religion of the Meiteis is referred to as Sanamahism (or Sanamahi religion), named after Meitei God "Lainingthou Sanamahi", in present day world. During the latter part of the 20th century, it was also used to be called Lainingthouism (meaning, Lainingthou religion). Its common name is Meiteism (or Meitei religion). For being an indigenous religion of Kangleipak (old name of Manipur), it is also known as Kangleism (or Kanglei religion). Lainingthou Sanamahi (or simply Sanamahi) is considered to be the most important god among the countless deities of its pantheon. /Priesthood/, /Rituals/, /Calendar/, /Cults/, /Funerals/

Meitei Culture/Mythology. A collection of myths, belonging to the religious and cultural traditions of the Meiteis, are often termed as "Meitei mythology", or "Meetei mythology", or "Manipuri mythology", or "Kanglei mythology". It includes a vast range of myths, legends, folklore, folktales, about different /Mortal Heroes/, /Mortal Heroines/, /Gods/, /Goddesses/, /Mythical Creatures/ (including /Dragons/), among many others.

Meitei Culture/Philosophy. A system of philosophical thought adhering to Meitei culture is in existence since the last couple of millenia. One of the most remarkable texts of Meitei philosophy is the "Wakoklon Heelel Thilel Salai Amailon Pukok Puya" (shortly known as the Wakoklon). The seven great philosophers, better known as the "Maichou Taret" (literally, seven Maichous), are known for their priceless contributions to Meitei philosophy.

Meitei Culture/Agriculture. Meitei agriculture has a strong relationship with the geography of the Meitei realms. According to ancient sources as well as modern day geological studies, the land of Kangleipak (present day Manipur) was a hilly and mountainous place, once having an oval shaped huge lake (which will later become the present day oval shaped lacustrine valley). During those times, different groups of the Meitei people and other ethnic groups used to live in different parts of the hills and mountains of Kangleipak. In those time, they practised shifting cultivation as their mode of agriculture. However, in due course of time, the water level of the very lake decreased. Due to the formation of passage ways (possibly because of tectonic activities, soil erosion and massive land slides) in some parts of the hills of Kangleipak, the waters of the central lake flowed towards the plains of Myanmar (Burma), passing through the hills and mountains of Kangleipak. This eventually lowered the water level of the lake, thereby forming a lacustrine valley in its former position, though numerous smaller lakes were still present there. This led to the migration of the Meiteis and other ethnic groups (which will all get "Meiteised" in later centuries) from the highlands to the newly formed lowlands of Kangleipak. Thus, their mode of agriculture got transformed into arable farming from that of shifting cultivation. The fertile Imphal valley (also known as Manipur valley) is drained by the Imphal River and her tributaries (the Iril R., the Kongba R., the Nambul R., etc.) which will eventually become the Manipur R. to unite with the Chindwin Irrawaddy River System of Myanmar (Burma) to drain ultimately into the Bay of Bengal in the Indian Ocean. With the flourishing of agriculture in the fertile river banks of the Imphal R. and her tributaries, the civilization of the Meiteis developed.

Chatbots For Social Change/Prototypes/McGail/Beliefs and Why. = Summary = The idea is to keep things incredibly simple, by querying for beliefs, understandings, and identities of conversants, and asking them to clarify what that means to them. This sets up a constrained environment to solidify some aspects of the storage of belief systems, working with possibly conflicting belief systems, and bouncing some off others. The original research design consisted of the following questions: There were other versions of this, but the basic premise is to elicit iterated clarifications, to try to "get to the bottom" of their understandings of their belief systems. The study puts reported understandings, discursive explanation, as primary data to be explained. I think something like this could prove a nice model for a chatbot-based data collection scheme, but need to reflect more on what to do and whether it should be worth it.

Pokémon Red and Blue/Viridian City Gym. You’ve got only one Pokémon Gym left! But where could it be? Think back to the very start of your adventure. There was a Gym in Viridian City, but there was a man standing in front of it saying the Gym is closed. Well, it’s not closed any longer. Fly to Viridian City and enter. If you caught Articuno, be sure to bring it; it wipes the floor with the Gym Leader’s team. Upon entering the Gym, you will discover the return of the directional pads last seen in Team Rocket’s hideout. I wonder if there is a connection… Anyway, start by stepping on the left-facing pads to the left of the entrance, against the wall. There is an enemy Trainer waiting to ambush you if you step on the upper pad. Past him, you will find two pads facing north; it doesn’t matter which one you take, because you’re guaranteed to run into another enemy Trainer when the path curves. After defeating him, you will find a split. The Gym Leader is at the northwest corner of the map. The path to the right looks like it might be helpful. Unfortunately, if you take the path to the right, you will find an enemy Trainer — and he is blocking your way forward. Rats. Go back to the wider area and go south. The directional pads will deposit you at the entrance. All well and good, but we still haven’t found the Gym Leader. It looks like you would be able to take the directional pad pointing north, but you would run into a dead end and be forced back the way you came. There is a small path with another directional pad interfering with your movement, and an item ball on the other side. We need to get that. So take the one remaining path at the northwest to enter a room with no fewer than three enemy Trainers. Defeat them all, but if you think you’ll be able to get to the Gym Leader by walking past them, you’ll be disappointed; that path is a dead-end. Backtrack and take the door at the northeast of this room. Go south here to grab that Revive you saw earlier; then go north. You’ll pass an enemy Trainer, and after that you will finally find the path to the Gym Leader — or not, as the enemy Trainer here will block your path after battling him. After you battle this Trainer, return to the entrance. Take that long straight north path we ignored earlier; with that Trainer gone, you now have an unimpeded path to the Gym Leader. And who is this Gym Leader, you might ask? None other than Giovanni, of Team Rocket infamy. This Gym and the Rocket hideout are the only two places in the game where directional pads appear. Giovanni is rather fond of those. Boss — Giovanni (•4950 reward) This guy talks a good game, but he’s really a pushover. If you teach a Water-type Surf (and it doesn’t even have to be that strong a Water-type; a level-30 Gyarados or Vaporeon would work), you will walk all over Giovanni’s team. If you brought Articuno instead, use that; Giovanni will fall even faster. After you defeat Giovanni, you will receive the eighth and final Badge in the game, the Earth Badge. Possessing this badge ensures that any Pokémon, of any level, from any source, will obey you. You will also receive TM 27 (Fissure), an impractical if impressive one-hit KO move.

Pokémon Red and Blue/Victory Road. Now that you have all eight badges, it’s time to go to the Indigo Plateau and challenge the Elite Four. But first, how do we get there? Go west from Viridian City onto Route 22. You’ll run into your rival here. Boss — Rival Before you leave, be sure that you have lots of Ultra Balls, because we will encounter a legendary Pokémon during the course of our travels. At the west side of Route 22 you will find a large building. Go through it onto… Route 23. The final Route in the game! Yay! And what a disappointment. This Route is extremely large and completely empty. The only patches of tall grass in this Route (towards the end) contain only Spearow, Ekans, and Sandshrew and their evolved forms. These are Pokémon we’ve seen a thousand times elsewhere. However, this Route is one of only two places (the other being Seafoam Island) where you can find wild Ditto. Pick one up if you want. Go north, past each of the security guards. You’ll need to Surf for a bit around the middle of the Route. Despite this area’s general boringness, there are three hidden items to obtain. Somewhere near the small square island in the middle of the water, you will find a Max Ether (although you can only pick it up if you are in the water). Immediately after you reach land again, you will see a patch of tall grass leading to an empty area. If you examine the left tree of this empty area, you will find an Ultra Ball. A Full Restore is hidden near the game’s final patch of grass at the north end of the Route. But you cannot just walk in to the Pokémon League. Trainers desiring to become the very best must prove themselves by traversing Victory Road. Let’s do so. Victory Road proper. You thought Seafoam Island was bad? This cave is even bigger, and the Pokémon here are at an even higher level. Also unlike Seafoam Island, you will find enemy Trainers here, on their journeys through the cave. Here is how you get from one door of this “small building” to the other. Be sure you have a Pokémon that knows Strength, because you’ll need to push more boulders around. Start by going to the left. Follow the path to the end and you will run into your first boulder. This is a kind of “exit only” barricade. If you were to try to push it north, it would get stuck and bar the path permanently. If you are on the other side of this rock, you can push it south for a quick path to the exit (which might be rather important shortly). The way forward is to climb the stairs onto the rocky platform and go east. Easy, right? Unfortunately, Victory Road features barricades, like the run you’ll run into here. The only way to remove these barricades is by pushing switches, but the switches here are too heavy for you to press by standing on them. You will need to move a boulder onto a switch before you can progress further. There is such a boulder right at the bottom of the stairs. Push it to the right, being careful not to knock it against a wall such that you can’t push it in the correct direction. When you get to the switch, a rock inconveniently blocks your being able to push the rock there. Instead, push it up, right, then down, and you will remove the barrier. Follow the path and you will reach a fork. Go to the right and you will find a boulder. Push it forward to find two item balls. The one on the left is a Rare Candy. The one on the top is TM 43. No matter which one you choose, you’ll have to block off the other one with the boulder to get to it. Choose one and double back. If you go left at the fork, you will run into an enemy Trainer. Follow the path past another enemy Trainer to a ladder. Use it. The second floor. When you get here, you will see a boulder to the north; this is another “exit only” boulder. Go south instead. Push this boulder onto the switch, which is at the southwest corner set against the wall. Once you do this, you can go up the stairs and follow that path. You’ll pass an enemy Trainer. Past the second enemy Trainer is the ladder that leads to the exit. Hooray! Except you can’t get to it until you activate another switch. Go down the stairs, then west. You’ll find the switch and, at the end, a Rare Candy. Going east from the stairs leads to a narrow passageway. There is a switch here — but no boulder to go with it. How will you exit the cave? Read on… Past the narrow passageway is a square room with an enemy Trainer and a Full Heal. There is also a ladder here. Ignore it for now and continue at the northwest; you will find another enemy Trainer and TM 17 at a dead end. Now go up those stairs. Go north and you’ll see a boulder; ignore it for now. The east path holds an enemy Trainer and a Max Revive. Go to the north wall, then go west at ways. At the end you will find TM 47 and a switch. Ignore the switch and go down — you’ve got a Legendary Pokémon to catch! This room has an enemy Trainer standing next to a rock, and a Guard Spec past him. This rock contains a free Ultra Ball. Grab it, you’ll need it. Due south of the Guard Spec you will find a Level 50 Moltres. Again, "save your game before battling him". If you defeat Moltres by accident, he will disappear and never return, so restart your game without saving to try again. Once you’ve caught him (if you’re interested), backtrack up that ladder. Backtrack all the way to that lone boulder in the middle of the room. You’ll need to push it north two tiles, then all the way to the left. You will need to guide the boulder through the rocks at the end to depress the switch. Backtrack again to the ladder down to the second floor, then go west and up the stairs on the rocky platform. Defeat an enemy Trainer, then keep going. Were you not to have pushed that rock onto the switch, you would be stymied by a barricade. Keep following the path and you will see two enemy Trainers. Past them is a room with two an “exit only” boulder you can push for a shortcut back. You will find a boulder and a hole. Put one into the other, then jump after it. You’re almost home. Push this boulder all the way to the left onto the switch you saw earlier that had no boulder near it. Once the barricade disappears, follow the ladder path straight to the exit. In the very last room, you’ll find a Full Restore hidden in the rock.

Pokémon Red and Blue/Elite Four. You’ve finally reached the end — the Elite Four, the four strongest Trainers in the entire game. If you can defeat all of them, you will become the new Champion and beat the game. However, there is one caveat to this: you must battle the Elite Four with no access to a Pokémon Center between battles. And if you lose to one of these Trainers, then you must restart your battles back at the beginning. Purchase all the healing items you can afford, grab those Ethers and Elixirs, because this is the one place in the game where PP depletion becomes a real worry, and head on in. Boss — Lorelei (•5544 reward) Your best bet here is an Electric type, so taking Zapdos might be a good idea. Only Jynx would pose a problem to such a strategy (it is Ice/Psychic), so a powerful Fire-type would be a good call. If you have Fighting, that will be super-effective against the Dewgong, Cloyster, and Lapras. Boss — Bruno (•5472 reward) Zapdos will come really handy here also. Just use Drill Peck and you’ll overcome his three Fighting-type Pokémon. The two Onixes can be quickly defeated by copious amounts of Surf. Boss — Agatha (•5940 reward) This boss is kind of a joke. Agatha is notorious for using Dream Eater over and over again when your Pokémon is not asleep, meaning it does nothing. She also switches her Pokémon out more-or-less at random. An Alakazam or Dugtrio would be very powerful here, although you’ll need something non-Ground to deal with Golbat. Boss — Lance (•6038 reward) First of all, the two Gyarados are four-times-weak to Electric. Zapdos should finish them. Otherwise, this may well be your first encounter with Dragon-type Pokémon. If you brought Articuno, then Lance can’t do a thing to stop you. Other Ice-type attacks will be extremely effective. So you’ve defeated the Elite Four. Is your name going to go down in history? Not quite yet… Boss — Rival The Rival will always start with Pidgeot, then Alakazam, then Rhydon. Zapdos would again come in really handy, easily defeating Pidgeot. Anything with Surf can easily take out Rhydon. The Alakazam, on the other hand, is nasty. It knows Recover, so it can restore half of its HP up to twenty times. Furthermore, none of the usual elemental attacks are super-effective against Alakazam; the only Pokémon that would help in this way is, believe it or not, Parasect. Once you manage to defeat those first three Pokémon, the next Pokémon depends on which starter you chose back in Pallet Town. If you chose Charmander, then he has a Gyarados, an Arcanine, and a Blastoise. If you picked Squirtle, he has an Exeggcutor, a Gyarados, and a Venusaur. If you chose Bulbasaur, then he has an Arcanine, and Exeggcutor, and a Charizard. Zapdos works once again against Gyarados. If you picked Sqirtle, then the powerful Ice-type move that probably took down Lance would also be effective against Exeggcutor and Venusaur. Zapdos can be a powerhouse here when using its non-Electric-type attacks. And that, once your rival’s last Pokémon falls, will be that! Congratulations are due; you just beat the game.

Pokémon Red and Blue/Unknown Dungeon. After the credits roll, when you continue your game you will find yourself in your old room in Pallet Town. All your Pokémon are still there and still just as powerful. From here on out, you can rebattle the Elite Four whenever you want. (If you’ve been defeating every enemy Trainer on every map, this is now your only way of acquiring funds.) But there is still one last thing you have yet to do… Fly to Cerulean City. Stop at the Pokémon Center and take out that Master Ball you’ve been saving; you’ll need it. Go north to Route 24, and surf southwest, following the path of the bridge. You will reach a small area with a cave. If you were to access this area any time before becoming the Champion, you would find someone here standing in your way. But now you are the Champion, and you now have authorization to enter the most complex cave in the game. The Unknown Dungeon is a big scary area, filled with high-level wild Pokémon. If you are playing Pokémon Yellow, then no guidance is necessary for this dungeon; it is a simple linear path, back and forth and up and down. If you are playing Pokémon Red or Blue, read on. Go up the stairs to the first ladder, leading up. If you want a PP Up, then go up it and go through the maze; you will emerge at a separate ladder not far from here. Otherwise, ignore it and start Surfing. Ignore the first three ladders you may find. The first one is the out-point of the path to the PP Up; while the second and third ones are the beginning and end of another side path that contains a Full Restore. If you search the area you’ll find a white-colored rock near the third ladder; this contains a hidden Rare Candy. The ladder you want to take is at the very end of the path. Up on the second floor, just follow the maze. No items can be found in any of these dead ends. Once you go back down to the first floor, you will be right next to a ladder going down into the basement. A Max Revive can be found to the east of the ladder. Otherwise, this is then a straight shot to Mewtwo. You will pass an Ultra Ball on the way, but you won’t be needing it. You can find a second Ultra Ball hidden in the white rock at the northeast corner of the map. Boss — Mewtwo Throw your Master Ball and the battle is over. If you used your Master Ball on a different Pokémon, you will find Mewtwo an extremely powerful Pokémon. It makes catching Zapdos seem like a picnic. It has Recover, so this will be a very long battle. The easiest tactic is to try to freeze him by using Articuno’s Blizzard and Ice Beam repeatedly. Once frozen, he will not thaw unless a Fire-type move is used on him, or you use the Haze move.

Pokémon Red and Blue/Saffron City. Now that you have five Badges, it’s time to go explore Saffron City, that big city in the middle of the region that you couldn’t get into. Go to the Celadon City Department Store and buy a drink item from the vending machines on the roof (any one will do). Then go into one of the guard posts at the edge of the city. Give the drink to the guard, and you are granted free access to the city. (You only have to do this once, and then all four of the gates will be available to you.) Team Rocket is back, and they are occupying the city! Team Rocket grunts are blocking the entrance to the Gym and one of the houses in the northwest corner of the city. Oddly, this city has two Gyms, and only the one of the right is blockaded. Consider entering the one to the left. Fighting Dojo. Here, you must defeat five enemy Trainers. All five of them use only Normal-type and Fighting-type attacks, which means that a single Ghost-type Pokémon can defeat every Pokémon in this Gym without sustaining a hit itself. Once the battles are complete, you will be offered a choice of two Poké Balls. One contains Hitmonchan, the other Hitmonlee. Other things in town. The other house you can enter at this point in time is one on the southeast corner of town. Talk to the man inside and you will receive TM 29. Silph Co. Building. This eleven-floor skyscraper is one of the most confusing areas in the game. Inside you will find squares with diamonds on them; these are warp pads. Step on a warp pad and you will be transferred to the other warp pad of that pair, somewhere else in the building. Warp pads are two-way. Take note that on the ninth floor you will find a place to heal your Pokémon, although you need to get the Card Key before you can use it. Getting the Card Key. The first floor is eerily quiet. In the northeast corner is an elevator and some stairs. The elevator can take you to any floor of the building on command. The President of Silph company is being harassed by Team Rocket, and is on the eleventh floor. However, if you go straight up to eleven, you’ll find one enemy Trainer and a dead end. Getting to the President’s office is going to be tricky. Take the elevator to the fifth floor. There’s a Rocket grunt to the very east and a Scientist at the west, near a locked door. Ignore the two warp pads you see. You need only take one warp pad to get the Card Key. At the south end of the hallway, past two locked doors, is a path to the east. Unfortunately, the Rocket grunt here is standing in your way and will not move. Your only choice is to step on the warp pad here. You will end up on the ninth floor. However, we don’t need to stay here. Step right back on the warp pad to be returned to the fifth floor. You can now proceed east. You will find the Card Key sitting on the floor here. With this item, you can open all the locked doors in the building. This long narrow corridor dead-ends in the body of a Rocket grunt. If he moved north to fight you when approached earlier, you can exit that way; otherwise, return to the ninth floor. At this point, you have two choices. You can run Team Rocket out as quickly as possible; for that, skip to the Saving the President section below. Otherwise, you can clear out every floor of the building methodically. Note that we will not be using any warp pads while we do this. Second floor. South of the stairs are a Rocket grunt. Go west and you’ll reach a big open room; there is another Rocket standing between the two tables. To the east of him is a Scientist; past him is a warp pad. To the west of the two big tables are two locked doors; the top one contains a warp pad and TM 36; the bottom one contains a warp pad and a Scientist. Third floor. There are four warp pads in this symmetrical area, one in each of the four corners. The only interesting things on this floor are in the middle. You’ll fight a Rocket, then encounter a locked door on the left. (To the right is a dead end with a warp pad.) Past that door you’ll find a second door. Past that you will be in a room with a warp pad, a Scientist to fight, and a Hyper Potion on the ground. Fourth floor. To the south of the stairs/elevator is a large room containing a Rocket. Follow the path to the left and you’ll find another Rocket in the middle of the room. The room to the right contains a locked door; behind it you will find a Scientist. Behind the locked door on the left you will find a room filled with boxes; you will find a Full Heal, a Max Revive, and an Escape Rope sitting on the floor. (The only thing of interest in the far side of the room is a person, but they’re not a Trainer.) Fifth floor. You’ve already been on this floor, but now you can get through the locked doors you saw earlier. Inside the big central room is a locked door, but there is nothing of interest behind it. In the room on the top-left you will find a Protein; at the far some boxes in the bottom-left room is TM 09. You will find a Rocket at the very top-right corner of the level (although you may have already battled him), a Scientist in the middle room near the locked door, a Scientist near the first locked door, and a Rocket blocking your way to where the Card Key was; you’ve already battled him. Sixth floor. There are a number of people on this floor, but only three of them want to battle you. You will find a Rocket guarding the entrance to the central room, which itself contains no Trainers. You’ll find another Rocket guarding the other entrance, and a Scientist on the left near a locker door. Behind this door you will find an HP Up and an X Accuracy. Seventh floor. You’ll find your first Rocket in the hallway near the stairs. In the locked room behind him you will find TM 03; the room beyond that contains a Rocket and a warp pad. There is a Rocket standing near the counter in the room to the left; there is nothing of interest behind the locked door he is guarding. If you follow the hallway all the way to the end, you will find a Scientist who wants to fight and a Calcium in the corner. You’ll probably notice the sealed-off room in the top-left corner of the floor. You’ll visit this room on the way to defeat Team Rocket’s leader. Eighth floor. You’ll find a Rocket right by the elevator. Follow the path to the left and you’ll find another Rocket standing at a fork in the road. Right is a dead end, so go left, then cut upwards past a warp pad. At the end of this path you will find a Scientist and a warp pad. There is only a warp pad behind this locked door. (As a side note, the warp pads outside and inside this locked room transfer to each other. Not terribly useful.) Ninth floor. As mentioned above, you will find in the bottom-left corner of the area a woman standing near five beds; if you talk to her, your Pokémon will be healed as if you went to a Pokémon Center. There is a Rocket at the bottom of the center hallway next to the locked door, a Scientist in the room to the bottom-right (which can be accessed both through the locked doors and by following the path around the side), and another Rocket guarding the path to a warp pad behind a locked door near the healing lady. Tenth floor. You’re getting to the very top of the tower. On this floor, much smaller than the ones below, you will find a Scientist loitering near the stairs. South of him is a room containing a warp pad and a locked door; all you will find behind it is two more warp pads. Follow the hallway to the left instead, into the room with all the boxes. You’ll have to fight a Rocket to get in, but if you follow the path, you will find a Carbos, a Rare Candy, and TM 26. Eleventh floor. You’ve finally reached the top of the tower! Unfortunately, while the CEO of Silph Company awaits rescue in the center room, you cannot get in there. You’ll have to use warp pads to rescue the CEO. There are no Trainers to battle here. Saving the President. Be sure to heal up before you start out, because you’ll have to face not one but two bosses. You will use warp pads to accomplish this task. Go to the ninth floor, where the healing lady is. There is a door just north of her with a Rocket in it; you will need to step on the warp pad past him. You will appear on the seventh floor — and your Rival is there, itching for a fight! Boss — Rival (•2600 reward) There is another person in the room here. Be sure to talk to this person because they will give you a Lapras if you have an open spot in your party! (Don’t worry if you can’t get the Pokémon now. You can return to receive it shortly.) Step on the warp pad beyond her. You will end up on the eleventh floor, in a different area than what can be accessed via the elevator. One final Rocket defends the President’s office, behind a locked door. Giovanni returns! After you gave him a good trouncing in Celadon City, Giovanni has launched a new plan, which you are currently in the process of ruining. Don’t show him any mercy. Boss — Giovanni (•4059 reward) After you send Giovanni packing for a second time, he and all the Rocket grunts will disappear from the building forever. Talk to the man sitting on the couch; he is the President of Silph Company. He is eternally grateful you terminated the “discussions” he was having with Team Rocket. As thanks, he will give you the most valuable item in all of Pokémon: the Master Ball. No matter what Pokémon you throw at it, the Master Ball will catch it without issue. You only get one of these, ever! Near the door you’ll find a computer on a desk; this works just like the computer in a Pokémon Center. Put the Master Ball in item storage; you’ll want to save it for Mewtwo at the very end of the game. If you couldn’t pick up Lapras because you had six Pokémon with you, you can deposit one here and double back. The Saffron City Gym. Now that Team Rocket has been driven out of Saffron City, there is nothing stopping you from getting your fifth Gym Badge. Sabrina’s Gym is a maze of warp pads. There are seven enemy Trainers here, but you’ll have to get lost in the maze in order to defeat them all. To get to Sabrina from the entrance, take the one warp pad at the entrance, then take the top-left warp pad in the room you find yourself in; take the top-right warp pad in this room; then take the bottom-left warp pad, and you will reach Sabrina. Boss — Sabrina (•4257 reward) After you defeat Sabrina, you will earn yourself the Marsh Badge. Now that you have this Badge, Pokémon you trade into the game up to level 70 will obey your commands. You will also receive TM 46. The Mimic Girl. There is one last thing to do after you have driven Team Rocket out. In the northwest corner of town, a Rocket grunt was blocking a house. Now that you can enter the house, do so, and you will find an annoying person called the Mimic Girl. To speak rationally with her, you must give her a Poké Doll (you can buy one at the Celadon City Department Store). If you do this, she will give you TM 31. You can also find a Nugget hidden on the table near her computer.

PyAnWin/Python Functions. Python functions are blocks of code that perform specific tasks. Let’s explore the key concepts related to functions in Python: Function Definition: A function is defined using the def keyword, followed by the function name and a pair of parentheses. Example: def my_function(): print("Hello from a function") Calling a Function: To execute a function, use its name followed by parentheses. Example: def my_function(): print("Hello from a function") my_function() Function Arguments: Information can be passed into functions as arguments. Arguments are specified inside the parentheses when defining a function. Example: def greet(name): print("Hello, " + name) greet("Alice") Number of Arguments: Functions must be called with the correct number of arguments. Example: def full_name(first_name, last_name): print(first_name + " " + last_name) full_name("John", "Doe") Arbitrary Arguments (*args): If you don’t know how many arguments a function will receive, use *args. The function receives a tuple of arguments. Example: def youngest_child(*kids): print("The youngest child is " + kids[2]) youngest_child("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus") Keyword Arguments: Arguments can be sent with the key=value syntax, regardless of their order. Example: def youngest_child(child3, child2, child1): print("The youngest child is " + child3) youngest_child(child1="Emil", child2="Tobias", child3="Linus") Remember, functions are essential for organizing code, improving readability, and reusing logic. Feel free to experiment with creating your own functions! 🐍

PyAnWin/Python Classes and OOP. ```wikicode Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in Python. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that structures programs by bundling related properties and behaviors into individual objects. Objects represent components of a system, similar to an assembly line where each step processes materials to create a finished product. An object contains data (like raw materials) and behavior (like assembly line actions). Defining a Class: The Blueprint. A class serves as a blueprint for creating objects. To define a class, use the `class` keyword. class MyClass: x = 5 p1 = MyClass() print(p1.x) class Person: def __init__(self, name, age): self.name = name self.age = age p1 = Person("John", 36) print(p1.name) class Person: def __init__(self, name, age): self.name = name self.age = age def __str__(self): return f"{self.name} ({self.age})" p1 = Person("John", 36) print(p1) class Person: def __init__(self, name, age): self.name = name self.age = age def myfunc(self): print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name}") p1 = Person("John", 36) ``` Creating Objects (Instances). Instantiate a class to create objects. Example: ```python p1 = MyClass() print(p1.x) ``` The `__init__()` Function. The `__init__()` function initializes object properties. It's executed when an object is created. Customizing String Representation (`__str__()` Function). Control how an object is represented as a string. Object Methods. Remember, OOP allows you to model real-world entities and their interactions. Dive deeper into classes, inheritance, and more to unlock the full power of Python! 🐍

Flora of New York/Clade Carex.  « Main "Carex" page

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...Qf6/4. d4. =Ruy Lopez - 4_d4!?= The move 4. d4 is an aggressive and risky response to black's move, after Black plays 3...Qf6, a sideline. The idea is to sacrifice a pawn for a strong attack on the black king and the center. The move 4. d4 has the following pros and cons: Disadvantages:. The move 4. d4 is a very sharp and complex move, which requires a lot of calculation and accuracy from both sides. It can lead to many different variations.

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...d5. 3... d5. This suspicious move allows 4.Nxe5 netting a pawn due to pin on the Nc6 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bb5 d5

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...a6/4. Ba4/4...Bc5. 4...Bc5. Black develops the bishop and attacks the f7 pawn 5.Nxe5 is the main move 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Bc5

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...a6/4. Ba4/4...Bc5/5. Nxe5. 5.Nxe5. White sacrifices a knight for a for fork trick however black can play /5...Qh4/ or /5...Qg5/

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...a6/4. Ba4/4...Bc5/5. Nxe5/5...Qh4. 5...Qh4! 5...Qh4! aims to create counterplay instead of losing a pawn to a fork

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...a6/4. Ba4/4...f5. Similar to actual Schliemann Defense. 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bb5 a6 4. Ba4 f5

Electricity and magnetism. This short treatise explains to beginners the fundamental laws of electromagnetism: Coulomb's law and Maxwell's equations. The only prerequisite is to know a little differential and integral calculus. If you already know that formula_1 formula_2, you have a sufficient mathematical level to understand all the calculations of this book, including the proof that /E = m c²/. /Electrostatics/ /Electrodynamics/ /Magnetism/ /Maxwell's equations/ /Light/ /E = m c²/ Thanks. Thanks to everyone who made and donated the images and animations for this book, and especially to .

Electricity and magnetism/E = m c². Light exerts pressure on the surfaces that reflect or absorb it. We can calculate this radiation pressure with Maxwell's equations (1865) because it is a magnetic force exerted by the incident wave on the electric charges that it sets in motion. Lebedev observed and measured this light pressure, in 1900. The pressure exerted by the light shows that it has mass. We can calculate the mass of light using Maxwell's equations. We find formula_1 where formula_2 is its energy. It is often believed that formula_3 is a law of the theory of relativity, but this is false. This chapter gives a proof of formula_3 for light from Maxwell's and Newton's equations. The theory of relativity (1905) shows that all energy has mass, even the kinetic energy of moving masses, not just light. The mass of kinetic energy is not taken into account in Newton's equations. The mass of light. Light has mass. Proof: let us consider two photons of the same energy which bounce horizontally between two mirrors in a stationary box. With each bounce, a photon exerts pressure on the mirror. This is the radiation pressure, which can be calculated from Maxwell's equations. If we set the box in motion by exerting a force formula_5, the acceleration of the box is formula_6, according to Newtonian physics. The speed of the box modifies the pressure that the photons exert on its walls. If the speed of the box is from left to right, a photon which goes from right to left exerts a greater pressure towards the left than the pressure exerted towards the right by a photon of the same energy which goes towards the right. When the box is accelerated, it loses part of its momentum which it gives to the photons which bounce off its walls. It is thus slowed down, transiently, by the photons it contains. A box full of photons is therefore less accelerated than the same empty box subjected to the same force. So a box full of photons has a greater mass than the same empty box. So photons have mass. If we filled a box with 1 kg of photons, we would give it an energy approximately equal to that released by a nuclear bomb. When a nuclear bomb explodes a significant part of its initial mass is transformed into light, particularly X-rays. The speed formula_7 of light is almost equal to formula_8 formula_9 formula_10 formula_11. So formula_12 is almost equal to formula_13. formula_14 formula_15 formula_16 is approximately the energy provided by daily bread. This is a physicist's order of magnitude, not the recommendation of a nutritionist doctor. For a physicist, one is almost equal to two, not for a doctor. The energy released by a nuclear bomb, approximately formula_17 formula_18 is therefore roughly equal to the energy consumed in their food by all human beings during a day. This calculation is made for uranium bombs. Hydrogen bombs are much more powerful. Photons are sometimes said to have zero mass, but this is false, because their energy is mass. We also say that their rest mass is zero, but this is also false, because there is no frame of reference where they are at rest, so their rest mass is not defined. In the equation formula_19, formula_20 for photons because formula_21 but formula_22 has no physical meaning. There is no particle of zero mass, neither at rest nor in motion. Everything that exists in the Universe always has mass. So-called zero-mass particles like photons are not massless particles, but restless particles. There is never an observer for whom they are still. The Higgs boson is sometimes said to give their mass to particles which without it would be massless. But it's wrong. It gives rest to particles which without it would never find rest. Rest mass. The masses of all particles, whether without rest or with rest, always depend on the frame of reference where they are measured. But particles with rest have privileged frames of reference, those where they are at rest. In these frames of reference, they always have the same rest mass formula_22. It is a constant specific to the particle, which is conserved throughout its existence. It is the same for all observers, provided that they measure it with the formula formula_24 where formula_25 is the measured mass, formula_26, formula_27 is the speed of the particle and formula_7 that of light. formula_29 is the coefficient of contraction of lengths in the direction of their movement. Restless particles have no rest mass because they have no frame of reference where they are at rest. Everything that exists has momentum. Everything that exists physically always has momentum. Proof: what exists physically always acts on other beings which exist physically. A being that never acted on other physical beings would never have any effect and could never be observed. It would have no physical existence. When a being acts on another, it modifies its movement, therefore its momentum formula_30 for a body of mass formula_25 and speed formula_32. But the total momentum is always conserved. If one body increases the momentum of another, it loses momentum. If one body decreases the momentum of another, it gains momentum. Therefore a body without momentum cannot act on another and cannot exist physically. The momentum of a photon and any restless particle can be calculated with the formula formula_30 as for all other particles: formula_34 where formula_25 is the mass of the particle and formula_36 its velocity vector. The magnitude formula_7 of the velocity vector formula_36 is the same for all restless particles, in all frames of reference. It's the speed of light. Since everything that exists has momentum, everything that exists has mass. E = pc. If we accept the fundamental equations of the photon, among the first in quantum physics, given by Einstein (1905): formula_39 formula_40 where formula_41 is Planck's constant, we immediately obtain formula_42 because formula_43 where formula_44 is the wavelength of the photon and formula_45 its frequency. We can also prove formula_42 directly from Maxwell's equations, without going through quantum physics, by calculating the energy and momentum of the electromagnetic field. This calculation is given at the end of this chapter using the Poynting vector of an electromagnetic wave. Einstein would not have stated his fundamental equations if he had not first understood Maxwell. E = mc². If we admit that the momentum of a photon is formula_47 where formula_25 is its mass, we immediately obtain from formula_49 that formula_50 is the energy of a photon of mass formula_25. Calculating the mass of a photon trapped in a box shows that indeed formula_52 is the mass of a photon of momentum formula_53. The Doppler effect. To understand the calculation of the mass of light, one needs to know the Doppler effect. We can tell if the police are approaching or moving away by listening to their siren. It is more acute when they approach than when they move away. This is the Doppler effect for sound waves. Consider a machine gun that fires formula_54 bullets per second projected at speed formula_55. formula_54 is the firing frequency. Consider a paper target that moves at speed formula_27 relative to the machine gun. The frequency formula_58 of bullet impacts on the target is not the same as the firing frequency formula_54, because the bullets take less and less time to reach their target, if formula_27 is aimed towards the machine gun, and increasingly longer, if formula_27 is aimed in the opposite direction. This is the Doppler effect for a machine gun. formula_62 Proof: during a duration formula_63, the target travels a distance formula_64, where formula_65 is the absolute value of formula_66. The balls are spaced a distance formula_67. So there is formula_68 balls on the distance formula_64. For the formula_63 duration, the machine gun fired formula_71 bullets. If the target is aimed at the balls, formula_72, and it encounters formula_73 balls. If the target moves away from the bullets, formula_74, and it encounters formula_75 balls. formula_62 is the formula for the non-relativistic Doppler effect. Its proof presupposes the velocity addition theorem of Newtonian physics. A relativistic calculation is more exact, but gives almost the same result, even if formula_77, provided that formula_27 is much smaller than formula_7. If the frequency of light decreases, its color shifts toward red. If the frequency increases, the color is shifted towards blue. The Doppler effect for light changes its color: The farther away the galaxies are from us, the more their light is redshifted, so the faster they move away from us. Hubble's observation of this red shift is therefore proof of the expansion of the Universe. Radiation pressure. Light exerts pressure on the surfaces which absorb or reflect it. It's easy to understand if we take its mass into account, because it behaves like a ball that we catch, if it is absorbed, or which bounces, if it is reflected. Consider a ball of mass formula_25 and speed formula_27 which bounces on a wall which remains stationary. We assume that the speed is perpendicular to the wall. If the ball is perfectly bouncy, its speed after the bounce is exactly equal and opposite to its speed before the bounce. The variation of its momentum is formula_82 The variation of momentum formula_83 for a time formula_84 is formula_85 where formula_5 is the force exerted on the ball: formula_87 So formula_88 The force formula_5 exerted by the wall on the particle is the opposite of the force formula_90 exerted by the particle on the wall. So formula_91 is the integral of the force exerted by the ball on the wall. This integral is proportional to the integral of the pressure exerted by the ball on the wall. The pressure exerted by the ball on the wall is therefore proportional to the product of its mass and its speed. The effect of the pressure exerted by the ball depends only on its momentum. If we vary its mass and its speed without varying their product, the integral of the pressure is the same. A photon of momentum formula_53 has the same effect as a ball of speed formula_27 and mass formula_94. This suggests giving photons a mass formula_52 such that formula_96 If we move towards a ball, we experience greater pressure from it when we receive it, or when it bounces, than if we are standing still. Likewise, the pressure exerted by light on a surface depends on the speed of the surface receiving this pressure. The radiation pressure on a mirror depends on the speed of the mirror in the same way as the pressure exerted by a bouncing mass on a moving wall. Proof : Let R be a reference frame where the wall is stationary and R' a reference frame which goes at speed formula_97 with respect to R. In R', the speed of the wall is formula_98 and that of the ball is formula_99 before the bounce and at the speed formula_100 after the bounce. Its momentum variation is therefore always formula_101 For the same speed formula_102 of the bouncing ball, the pressure exerted on the wall increases as formula_103. The pressure exerted by a photon depends on its momentum formula_53 in the same way as a bouncing ball. According to the fundamental equations of the photon formula_105 According to the Doppler effect formula, if formula_106 is the frequency of a photon, formula_107 is its frequency in a frame of reference of a mirror which encounters it at speed formula_55 formula_109 If the momentum of the photon is fixed at formula_110 the pressure it exerts on a wall which meets it at the speed formula_98 varies as formula_112 in the same way that the pressure exerted by a bouncing ball of speed formula_102 varies as formula_114. This proof is given with the equations of Newtonian physics and the formula for the non-relativistic Doppler effect. The relativistic calculation is more exact and leads to the same theorem. Calculation of the mass of a photon trapped in a box. An horizontal force formula_5 is exerted from left to right, for a short duration formula_116, on a box initially at rest, which contains two photons, initially of the same energy formula_117, which bounce horizontally on its walls. We assume that the force is exerted at the instant formula_118 where the two photons cross in the middle of the box, far from the walls, and that the duration formula_119 is short enough that the photons do not have time to reach the mirrors during formula_119. While it is exerted, the force formula_5 therefore sets the box in motion as if it were empty, since the photons are far from the walls. Let formula_25 be the mass of the empty box. Its speed just after the application of the force formula_5 is formula_124 where formula_125 is the acceleration of the box. When the photons bounce off the mirrors, they slow down the box, because the Doppler effect works in opposite directions for each of them. The photon going from right to left exerts greater pressure than the photon going from left to right. The laws of conservation of energy and momentum make it possible to calculate the speed of the box formula_126 when it is no longer slowed down by the photons it contains. Let formula_127 be the kinetic energy of the empty box, and formula_128 its momentum. Let formula_129 be the total energy of the two photons, and formula_130 their total momentum. formula_131, formula_132 formula_133, formula_134 formula_135, formula_136 formula_137, formula_138 Energy conservation requires formula_139 The conservation of momentum imposes formula_140 Let formula_141 be the momentum of a photon in the box in a frame of reference R' where it is at rest when braking is completed. The momentum of this photon in the reference frame R where the box is moving is formula_142 or formula_143 depending on whether the photon goes from right to left or from left to right. So formula_144 formula_145 So formula_146 Let formula_147 be the mass of the box with its two photons. formula_148 formula_149 is the mass of the two photons in the box. formula_150 formula_151 therefore formula_152 where formula_153 is the energy of a photon in R', after braking the box. If formula_126 tends to zero, formula_153 tends to formula_2. The mass formula_157 of a photon is therefore formula_158 where formula_2 is its energy. When formula_126 is not infinitesimal, this non-relativistic calculation gives a false and absurd result: the initial mass of the photons depends on the force applied to the box. But this calculation ignores the mass of the kinetic energy of the box. This is why we must take the limit where this kinetic energy tends towards zero, to obtain the correct result. The momentum of the electromagnetic field. When an electromagnetic field exerts the Lorentz force on a charge, it varies its momentum. The conservation of the total momentum requires that the momentum of the field varies at the same time and in the opposite direction as the momentum of the particle. We can thus calculate, from Maxwell's equations, that the momentum density of the field is obtained from the Poynting vector: formula_161 formula_162 is the electric field, formula_163 the magnetic field and formula_164 a constant which depends on the choice of units. formula_165 The momentum density formula_166 of an electromagnetic field formula_162, formula_168 is formula_169 For an electromagnetic wave, formula_170 and formula_163 is perpendicular to formula_162 , so formula_173 From Maxwell's equations, Lorentz equation and the conservation of energy, one can calculate that the energy density of the electromagnetic field is formula_174 For an electromagnetic wave: formula_175 so formula_176 where formula_53 is the magnitude of the momentum formula_178 of the field in the volume formula_27. If now formula_2 is the field energy in the same volume: formula_181 The intensity of the electric field radiated by a dipole is represented by color. The arrows represent the Poynting vector. See also. Relativity Gravitation