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Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Port Miami Tunnel. This page is for a case study on the Port Miami Tunnel, created by Xiyuan Tang, Yitong Zhou, and Yueying Cao. It is part of the GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-002 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) class offered at George Mason University taught by Jonathon Gifford. Summary. Port Miami Tunnel, located in Miami, Florida, is a vital transportation infrastructure project designed to improve connectivity and enhance traffic flow in and out of the Port Miami area. The tunnel was conceived to address the growing congestion and facilitate the movement of goods and people between the port and the surrounding areas. Approved after decades of planning and discussion in December 2007, the project faced a temporary cancellation a year later. However, construction resumed, commencing in May 2010. Subsequently, the tunnel was opened to traffic on August 3, 2014. On a typical weekday, nearly 16,000 vehicles commute to and from Port Miami via downtown streets, with truck traffic constituting 28 percent of this vehicular movement. Beyond facilitating expedited access for trucks and automobiles heading to the port, the Port Tunnel is strategically designed to optimize traffic flow in Downtown Miami. The Port Miami Tunnel enhances accessibility to and from the Port, functioning as a dedicated roadway connector that links the Port with the MacArthur Causeway (State Road A1A) and I-395. This tunnel is accessible to all, catering to both cruise and cargo traffic. Funding and Financing. Funding sources. Total Eligible project cost - $1,072.9 million   Provided by  BNP Paribas, Banco Bilbao Bizcaya Argentina, RBS Citizens, Banco Santander, Bayerische Hypo, Calyon, Dexia, ING Capital, Societe Generale, and WestLB.   Federal Highway Administration' s (FHWA) approval of the TIFIA loan was contingent on the provision and approval of financing from the City of Miami and Miami-Dade County.   MAT Concessionaire LLC   □ Meridiam Infrastructure Finance SARL (Luxembourg) provides 89.8 percent of project equity through Meridiam Infrastructure Miami, LLC. (90% equity partner) □ Bouygues Travaux Public S.A. provides 10.2 percent equity contribution through Dragages Concession Florida, Inc. (10%equity partner) Availability Payment. Besides the $100 million milestone payments during the construction period between 2010 and 2013, FDOT paid MAT  a $350 million final acceptance payment upon construction completion. The concession for the tunnel was structured under an availability payment model, under which the concessionaire would receive ongoing payments over the life of the concession covering capital and maintenance costs. The Maximum Annual Availability Payment is $32.5 million (2009 dollars) The payment is  based on the availability of the road  Deductions are made from this amount if MAT's operation of the facility does not meet prescribed performance standards. 30 years of availability payments during the operating period comes from a combination of federal and state funds. Responsibility for covering these payments is based on a roughly 50/50 distribution between FDOT and the local public agencies. FDOT will provide an estimated $457 million, which will be paid from its annual budget. Miami-Dade County is providing an estimated $402 million. To complete the funding for the project, the City of Miami has agreed to contribute $50.0 million, which is being financed through a Letter of Credit. Institutional Arrangement. Legal Foundations. In 1991, the Florida Legislature, recognizing the public need for “rapid construction of safe and efficient transportation facilities”, enacted Florida Statute§334.30.  The legislation was subsequently amended several times over the next twenty years. With the legislation final amendment in 2004,  FDOT was granted comprehensive authority, with legislative approval, to enter into agreements with private entities to build, operate, own or finance transportation facilities. The 2004 amended version of §334.30 established the following guidelines for PPP contracts: (i) permitted the receipt of solicited and unsolicited proposals; (ii) allowed reimbursements to the private sector through the Toll Facilities Revolving Trust Fund; (iii) refined the guidelines for toll rate setting; (iv) encouraged revenue sharing between the private sector and FDOT; (v) allowed FDOT to use a combination of funding sources for project development, including federal funds; and (vi) limited PPP contracts to 50-years.   In addition, the bill also requires that no more than 15% of the total annual state and federal funds in the State Transportation Trust Fund be allocated for P3 projects. FDOT is required to submit the P3 into either its five-year work plan, or, in cases of projects of more than $500 million dollars, the 10-year strategic intermodal system plan. Major actors. Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT). On the Port of Miami Tunnel project, FDOT is the project’s Grantor and will be entering into a concession agreement throughout an undetermined (approximately 30-50 years) amount of time. The Miami Access Tunnel (MAT) Concessionaire LLC,. Comprised of Bouygues Travaux Publics (France), S.A. Babcock & Brown Infrastructure Group (Australia), and Canadian financing partners (Minnesota Department of Transportation ) Responsible for the design, finance, building, operation and maintenance of the Port of Miami Tunnel in conjunction with FDOT. Narrative of the Case. The Florida Department of Transportation District 6 (FDOT D6) began a study in 1987 for a master plan to improve the traffic circulation and congestions between the Port of Miami and downtown Miami, FL. This sudy included a tunnel connection between two man-made islands, the Watson and the Dodge islands. Though a finding of no significant impact was completed in 1992, the project remained on hold for about 10 years. In 2003, Florida's Turnpike Enterprise (FTE) started POMT Re-evaluation Study to update project documents based on present conditions and examine construction methods for preferred alternative selected in original (Project Design & Environmental Study) In 2005, the FDOT D6 regained its charge over the project and concluded that a bored tunnel under Biscayne Bay was feasible. Pre-construction analyses identified the significant potential risk associated with the tunnel, as a bored tunnel of that size had never been constructed in the U.S. As a result, FDOT began to explore the possibility of developing the Port of Miami Tunnel as a P3 in order to mitigate the state's risk exposure, drawing on Florida's recently strengthened P3 enabling legislation. Discussions with potential bidders regarding this approach were also positive, leading FDOT to initiate procurement of the project as a DBFOM concession in February 2006. In May 2007, FDOT announced its intent to award the concession to MAT, comprised of the Australian investment firm Babcock and Brown and the French construction firm Bouyges, a subsidiary of which would serve as the lead contractor on the project. Once funding commitments from the state, county, and city partners were finalized, a formal award was made in February 2008. However, financing for the project soon became caught up in the market turmoil of that year, which would see the failure of both Babcock and Brown and Lehman Brothers, its underwriter for the project. In late 2008, Meridiam replaced Babcock and Brown as the primary equity partner in the concession. Policy Issues. Unpredictable Geotechnical Conditions. Due to the highly porous and inherently unpredictable geology beneath Biscayne Bay, the Port of Miami Tunnel project poses a significant challenge even for the most experienced tunneling contractors. The unforeseeable ground conditions are likely to result in delays and cost overruns . The final ground model from the ground investigation of the Port of Miami Tunnel indicates the presence of weak, highly porous Key Largo coralline limestone in Layer S7. This led to disputes over the additional costs for pumping extra concrete (i.e., grouting) to allow tunneling to continue.It is evident that FDOT cannot bear this risk alone, and if it were to transfer all the risks of geotechnical condition changes to the private sector, either no one would bid or bid prices would skyrocket. To address these issues, a $180 million geotechnical contingency fund was established as part of the PPP contract to to mitigate extra work costs and delay costs arising out of changed geotechnical conditions during construction.   The risk of increased tunneling cost was therefore shared. The distribution of this fund is as follows: the first $10 million is borne solely by the concessionaire, the next $150 million is borne solely by the FDOT, and the last $20 million is borne solely by the concessionaire. Extra work costs and delay costs for changed geotechnical conditions that exceed $180 million are considered extraordinary geotechnical losses. If the USD $180 million fund is exhausted, the parties would have the right to terminate the contract. Finance challenge. The project was tendered during the most severe period of the global financial crisis. Prior to finalizing financing, Babcock and Brown, which had committed to providing 90% equity, filed for bankruptcy. As a result, it was unable to meet its cash obligations or secure financing. Initially, FDOT considered either reprocuring or canceling the project altogether. To prevent the project from being reprocured and to limit further delays, local and state elected officials lobbied FDOT to allow another company to replace Babcock & Brown as the 90% equity partner in the MAT consortium. Subsequently, Meridiam joined the consortium as the primary equity investor, replacing Babcock and Brown, and completed financial settlement with the project company, MAT Concessionaire, LLC, in 2009. The economic crisis not only impacted private partners but also had significant effects on City of Miami and Miami-Dade County. During the economic downturn, real estate values plummeted, economic activity declined substantially, leading to a decrease in property and sales tax revenues, severely impacting the Miami metropolitan area. Both the City of Miami and Miami-Dade County faced difficulties in fulfilling their financial commitments. At the time of financial closure, the City of Miami was trying to offset a $118 million deficit, thus delaying the approval of a $50 million letter of credit intended for project funding. Although the City of Miami's financial commitment was approved in December 2007, a second approval was required before September 25, 2009. Specifically, approval of the city and county's financial commitments was a condition for the TIFIA loan. The extension of the financing deadline allowed the project to proceed, and the City of Miami approved the project's letter of credit on October 8, 2009. Financing was completed on October 15, 2009. Miami-Dade County initially needed to provide $600 million for the project. This amount was calculated based on the estimated project cost of $1.2 billion, split evenly with the U.S. Department of Transportation. In 2006, the county developed a financing plan of approximately $489 million. As part of this plan, the county explored the possibility of tunnel tolls. However, the cruise industry at the Port of Miami opposed this tolling method, as it would increase both their employees' actual costs and an additional fee per cruise ticket for customers. After the estimated total project cost was reduced to $900 million, the county's contribution was reduced to $402 million. Lessons Learned/Takeaways. The POMT was the second availability payment P3 project to reach financial close in the United States. It is innovative in several aspects, providing valuable lessons for the construction industry at large and the PPP market in particular. Risk allocation is a key focus. In general, the Availability Payment scheme will emphasize transferring sufficient risk， including significant construction and operating risk, to the Concessionaire and discouraging non-performance. All risks not expressly assumed in part or whole by FDOT are assumed by the Concessionaire. In addition, FDOT recognizes the unique nature of the Project’s geotechnical risk and the need to allocate it appropriately between FDOT and the Concessionaire. While in many PPP projects involving construction, most of the construction risks are allocated to the construction contractor, tunnel projects may entail particularly high risks related to unforeseen ground conditions, delays, and cost overruns. The upfront consideration of significant construction and financial risks through the establishment of a contingency fund enabled a satisfactory outcome when these risks materialized during the construction period. In this project, risks that were beyond the control of either party were shared, which had a positive impact on the working relationship between the parties.  It ensured a fair and optimized risk allocation and helped maintain a positive relationship between the parties. Government support and cooperation between different levels of government are also critical for large projects like POMT. This support and cooperation began in the project structuring phase, where funding was provided by federal, state, county, and city sources, with the City of Miami also granting land access. Given the decision not to charge tolls, ongoing funding from government departments is crucial. Joint funding, continuous involvement, and political support from the four different levels of government (federal, state, county, and city) have helped overcome challenges during construction.

Czech/Nouns/Case/Nominative. =Nominative Case in Czech (1st)= The nominative case is the base form, and the form you will find in the dictionary. It is used as the subject, with some other verbs and after the preposition než "than". Uses. After Prepositions. = References =

Cherokee/Inflection Tree. The inflection tree shows the possible inflections for the general Cherokee verb, first branching out at the selection of the stem. There are up to (and typically exactly) five possible stems for each verb, which should be memorized for each verb. More detail on this can be found on other pages. [Note: provide specific link.] The stem options are indicated as the bold headings followed by Roman numeral identifiers in parentheses. Below each stem are listed its subsequent options for inflection. Present (I). Present (Continuous) Completive (II). (Remote) Past Future Imperative Absolute Future (including Certain Imperative) Future Future Perfect "Various Derivational Inflections" Actual/Normal DVB (vvqi) Nominalization (Type CMP) (BMA 459 but doesn't recognize tonic): Resultative Noun or Adjective (tonic) "Perfect Nominal" (u/judoorange123, BMA 459 but fails to distinguish from actual/normal DVB nominalization) (-vvhi/-vvqi, SH and atonic) Incompletive (III). Habitual (Remote) Past Progressive Absolute Future (including Certain Imperative) Future Progressive Agentive Noun (with NOM and SH) Actual/Normal DVB (vvqi) Nominalization (Type INC): Action Noun (SH on vv, tonic) Immediate (IV). Present Imperative Immediate Past Irrealis Immediate Future Infinitive (V). NOM NOM2 DVB?? (which one? see tonicity) ??? does this exist as BMA passingly declared?

Cherokee/Learning Tips. Below are some tips to keep in mind when learning Cherokee.

Chatbots For Social Change/Theory of Conversation/Conversation in Practice. Besides the armchair theorists treated in the last section, it will be instructive for us to turn our attention to the strategies which professional practitioners in conversational techniques have uncovered to better perform their duties. Examples include therapists, mediators of conflict and discord, political speech, salesmen, negotiators, educators, coaches and mentors, and healthcare professionals, to name a few. There is no shortage of areas where individuals have to use conversation to get something done, and in these areas we should find their learned strategies to be a helpful guide to the nature of conversational interaction in general. This section will treat a wide variety of strategies, typologies, and theories developed in different aims over history to solve practical problems with conversation. It is by no means exhaustive, and being in the format of a WikiBook, I encourage enlightened readers to contribute their own knowledge-bases where appropriate. Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy. was a pioneering psychologist who developed in the 1940s and 1950s, a revolutionary approach at the time that emphasized the humanistic aspects of psychology. Rogers believed in the inherent goodness and potential for growth within every individual, a stark contrast to the deterministic views of human behavior prevalent in his time. His work focused on the importance of the therapeutic relationship as a facilitator for personal development and healing. Rogers' theory was built on the idea that people have a self-actualizing tendency - an innate drive towards growth, development, and fulfillment of their potential. By providing a supportive and understanding environment, therapists could help clients unlock this potential. His approach introduced several core principles that have influenced not just client-centered therapy but also many other counseling theories, including motivational interviewing: Rogers' emphasis on the client's perspective, autonomy, and the therapeutic relationship's quality laid the groundwork for the development of approaches like motivational interviewing, which similarly prioritize empathy, collaboration, and the elicitation of personal motivation for change. Motivational Interviewing. Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2013). Motivational interviewing: Helping people change (3rd ed). Guilford Press. This book is a fantastic introduction and exposition of a method for clinical psychology developed by clinical psychologists and , called , or MI. Although the Wikipedia article, and certainly the textbook, offer a comprehensive summary of this strategy, it is worth summarizing some of the main principles here for reference and comparison to other conversational strategies. These strategies are based on the principle that the true power for change lies within the client, and the method's effectiveness has been demonstrated across various settings, including healthcare, addiction treatment, and counseling. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. (CBT) stands as a counterpoint to and , offering a more structured and directive approach to therapy. Developed by in the 1960s, CBT is based on the premise that dysfunctional thinking leads to negative emotions and maladaptive behaviors. The goal of CBT is to identify, challenge, and modify these negative thoughts and beliefs to improve emotional regulation and develop personal coping strategies that target solving current problems. CBT's core principles include: While CBT's focus on cognitive processes and direct intervention contrasts with the non-directive, empathetic approach of Rogers' therapy and the ambivalence-focused nature of Motivational Interviewing, it complements these methods by offering an alternative pathway for clients whose needs may be better served by a more structured approach. The diversity of therapeutic approaches highlights the complexity of human psychology and the necessity of tailoring interventions to meet individual client needs. Crucial Conversations: Navigating High-Stakes Discussions. "" (2nd Edition), edited by Kerry Patterson, provides a framework for handling conversations where opinions differ, stakes are high, and emotions run strong. The book outlines strategies to ensure these crucial conversations can lead to positive outcomes, rather than misunderstanding and conflict. Here are the key strategies outlined in the book: These principles are designed to facilitate open, honest exchanges that can resolve conflicts, build stronger relationships, and lead to Schemas for Leading Group Discussions. Group facilitation is a crucial skill for guiding discussions, ensuring productive dialogue, and achieving desired outcomes. Below are central concepts related to effectively leading group discussions within the context of group facilitation: Recommended References Political Conversation. Political conversation is a critical domain of communication that encompasses discussions on societal issues, policy-making, governance, and more. It seeks to foster a structured, respectful, and constructive dialogue among diverse viewpoints to better understand societal challenges and develop actionable solutions. Below are key principles and practices essential to the theory of political conversation: Notable Methods and Initiatives To foster healthier political conversations, several methods and initiatives have proven effective: References These foundational principles, alongside innovative methods and initiatives, offer a framework for engaging in more constructive, inclusive, and fact-based political conversations: These principles and references highlight the importance of fostering a healthy political conversation as a cornerstone of democracy, encouraging participation, understanding, and collaboration among all sectors of society.

Pikmin franchise strategy guide/Wildlife of Pikmin. Wildlife of Pikmin refers to the creatures which inhabit the Pikmin series of Nintendo GameCube video games. The creatures include enemies which attack, eat, kill, or otherwise harm Pikmin, creatures who do not interact with Pikmin, and other creatures who may benefit Pikmin. The creatures are listed in alphabetical order based on which fictional family to which they belong. The fictional groups themselves are developed in the stories of both games of the Pikmin series, and associated printed materials. The names of the enemies were more or less codified in "Pikmin 2", and they are listed alphabetically according to the naming conventions used in that game. Creatures which had their names changed between "Pikmin" and "Pikmin 2" are alphabetized by their name, but in "Pikmin 2," but the original name is also given. Amphituber Family. These creatures, which resemble terrestrial frogs, are among the more dangerous enemies encountered in the "Pikmin" series. Rather than eating Pikmin, Amphitubers spring into the air and crush Pikmin. Amphitubers appear in both "Pikmin" games. Amphitubers are encountered in or near water. Arachnorb Family. As a group, Arachnorbs resemble the Daddy long-legs, and seem to have no eyes, mouth, ears, or any distinguishing characteristics. Pikmin are unable to carry any part of their bodies, since they all explode into dust after being defeated. Arachnorbs drop pellets or ingested objects upon defeat. In "Pikmin 2" it is shown that they are capable of making webs. Blowhog Family. These exhibit a wide range of behaviors and attacks, and are found in many areas of both "Pikmin" games. Their main method of offense is to propel some sort of attack at their enemies from their trunk. Blowhogs do not eat Pikmin. As they have the genus sus, this would mean they are related to pigs. Breadbug Family. The Breadbug family contains several species, including proper Breadbugs, as well as the Dwarf Bulborbs. The Dwarf Bulborbs are Breadbugs who have developed carnivorous tendencies, and which use coloration to mimic the larger Bulborbs of the Grub-dog species. Due to the similar coloration and behaviors, Dwarf Bulborbs and the biologically separate Bulborbs they mimic often share the same territory and ally with each other. Bulborb (Grub-Dog) Family. Bulborbs are the most common and dangerous Pikmin enemies. They comprise many species and can be found in all areas of both Pikmin games, other than the Forest Navel from the first "Pikmin". The methods needed to attack and defeat them are as varied as the environments they inhabit. It is often necessary to hand-select Pikmin squads to attack Bulborbs. The large size of Bulborbs and their ferocious nature necessitates careful planning when attacking. Most Bulborbs (except the Emperor Bulblax, Spotty Bulbear (In "Pikmin 2") and Water Dumple) are nocturnal and as such can be found sleeping. Emperor Bulblax spend their time in the ground with their eyes open, watching actively for Pikmin, only ever emerging to devour their food. Spotty Bulbears can be found wandering set patrols and will actively hunt Pikmin groups, often trailed by Dwarf Spotty Bulbears. Water Dumples spend their time in damp areas and will actively chase and hunt down Pikmin that come near. Dweevil Family. Dweevils are spider-like creatures that protect themselves by picking up an item, usually a dead body or treasure, and carrying it on their back, mimicking the object. Except for the Volatile Dweevil and Titan Dweevil, they are typically non-violent, only ever shooting elements in defense. All species are only found in "Pikmin 2". Dweevils can only be attacked when not carrying objects on their back. In order to attack and defeat non-Volatile Dweevils, the objects they are carrying must first be dislodged. If the proper type of Pikmin is not at hand, Dweevils can be attacked by the player-controlled captains. Flint Beetle Family. Flint beetles are rare creatures in both "Pikmin" games and contain only a few species. They are generally harmless to Pikmin, but are known to carry treasures in their stomachs and are generally distracting to Pikmin. They usually live underground and appear above ground when something comes near. Flint beetles do not produce any seeds or pokos. Killing them is difficult, but possible; it requires the Ultra-Bitter Spray and many Purple Pikmin. Jellyfloat Family. The Jellyfloats are a group of species which resemble terrestrial jellyfish, and which possess unique means of attack. All Jellyfloats attack by sucking Pikmin into their bodily cavities. Because Jellyfloats are transparent, the devoured Pikmin can be seen being digested by the Jellyfloat, which is a very long process that can take many minutes. If the Jellyfloat is killed quickly enough, any Pikmin which have been sucked up can be saved. All Jellyfloat species appear only in "Pikmin 2". Jellyfloats don't produce any seeds or divide any pokos. Lithopod Family (Cannon Beetles). Cannon Beetles are an insectoid form of life named for their distinctive method of attack, which involves the inhalation of air to expel boulders from their intestinal tracts. Cannon Beetles ingest these rocks as food, and obtain nourishment from the rocks by means of specialized bacteria which inhabit the beetles' intestines. If disturbed, it will spit the rocks back out in an attempt to fell its attacker. The Armored Cannon Beetle appears only in "Pikmin", however, its larvae appear only in "Pikmin 2". Mandiblard Family. These bug-like creatures live in underground burrows, emerging when they sense the presence of food, namely, Pikmin. Members of the Mandiblard family also eat wooden bridges constructed by the Pikmin. All Mandiblards appear in both "Pikmin" games. Mollusking Family. These creatures, which resemble water-dwelling slugs, appear near only in or near the water and devour multiple Pikmin at a time. One species appears only above ground, the other appears only in caves. Both of these creatures appear only in "Pikmin 2". Snavian Family. Snavians, or Snagrets, are snake-bird hybrids, with the head of a bird and a serpentine body. A Snagret's diet consists mainly of Pikmin. Snavians burrow underground and then emerge suddenly to surprise their prey. When defeated, the snakelike body of the Snagret explodes and all that remains is the head. They are invulnerable to electricity, water, and fire but can be poisoned by consuming white Pikmin. There are two main species of Snavians. Scarpanid Family. Scarpanids (better known as snitchbugs) are insects found in many areas of both Pikmin games, which simply interfere with the player and their Pikmin rather than harming either outright. They come in two varieties, The Swooping Snitchbug and The Bumbling Snitchbug, which exhibit different bahaviors, but similar objectives. References. "Piklopedia" refers to the pseudo-encyclopedic, in-game reference guide provided to the player in "Pikmin 2." The "Pikmin" Ending Sequence runs post-game. Pictures of this sequence are located at the Pikmin Wikia

Pikmin franchise strategy guide/Snitchbug. A Snitchbug is an insectoid creature from "Pikmin" and "Pikmin 2". They come in two types. Varieties. Snitchbugs come in two varieties, The Swooping Snitchbug and The Bumbling Snitchbug. The Swooping Snitchbug. Swooping Snitchbugs are legless insects with gangly arms and antennas that double as wings for flight. They are not that destructive, nor are they that difficult, but they can be and usually are annoying. The goal of a Swooping Snitchbug is to find Pikmin, bring them in the air, and replant them back into their original leaf form. To defeat a Swooping Snitchbug, you must throw pikmin on the location of his shadow, once enough are on the Snitchbug, he will fall out of the sky. You must next then use the c-stick to move all your hordes of Pikmin. It will be a near instantaneous death. The Bumbling Snitchbug. The Bumbling Snitchbug looks almost exactly like it's swooping counterpart with the exception of his face which is much larger and takes up his body. Instead of going for pikmin however, this pesky critter will try and attack your leaders, like Olimar. If manages to capture you and throw you down, it will give you a substantial amount of damage. Their are two preferred ways in defeating this bug. You can either throw Yellow Pikmin from a distance on him so that your captain is out of his reach, or you can use another leader as bait while the other throws purple pikmin on it, stunning and swiftly killing it. According to the Pikmin 2 website, this snitchbug is often called the Revealing Snitchbug, because it reveals how stupid and incompetent you are for being caught.

Pikmin franchise strategy guide. This Wikibook serves as a guide to video games from the "Pikmin" franchise, including some history and trivia. This also includes recurring enemies, characters, and other subjects within the franchise.

Pikmin franchise strategy guide/Bulborb. The Bulborb is a fictional species of creatures found in the "Pikmin" series of video games. There is several different types of Bulborbs; the most common being the "Red Bulborb" (previously known as the "Spotty Bulborb"). The Bulborbs all share the same role in the Pikmin games; and that is to attempt to eat and kill the Pikmin. Although a single Bulborb can usually easily overcome one or two Pikmin, the Bulborbs' main weakness lies in the fact they do not usually cooperate with one another, and thus, any single one of the Bulborbs can almost always be defeated a large group of the much smaller Pikmin. Bulborbs tend to sleep during the daytime, and thus are vulnerable to surprise attacks by the Pikmin. At night, the Bulborbs tend to gain considerable energy and are therefore generally invulnerable. This forces the Pikmin to have to hide during night, usually within the Pikmin storage facility known as an Onion. There are two different types of Bulborb; those being the Grub-Dog family and the Breadbug family. The Grub-Dog family is both more robust and larger, while the Breadbug family is usually much smaller and only manages to escape falling prey to the Grub-Dog family members by mimicking the appearance of an average Grub-Dog Bulborb. The Bulborbs. Grub-Dogs. Red Bulborb. The Red Bulborb, previously known as the Spotty Bulborb (Oculus Kageyamii Russus), is the most common Bulborb in the Grub-Dog family and is also a highly nocturnal creature, preferring to sleep during the day. Red Bulborbs usually prey on smaller creatures, such as Pikmin, and have a large advantage over their tiny victims due to their large mouth. Red Bulborbs are capable of swallowing several Pikmin at once. The easiest way to defeat these creatures is to attack them from behind with a large group of Pikmin while they are sleeping. Fortunately, their reaction time is slow and you should be able to kill them before they have a chance to wake up and begin a counterattack. Also, cooperation between Bulborbs, even among members of the same species, is nonexistent. This allows much more leeway in planning a strategy to defeat them, no matter in how large a group they live. That is though, unless accompanied by the dwarf versions of themselves, in which the react to the screams of the smaller Bulborbs, running to their aid. Hairy Bulborb. A rare variation of grub-dog, the nocturnal Hairy Bulborb (Oculus Kageyamii Folliculus) spends most of its time sleeping in underground caves and tunnels. Somewhat strange looking, the Hairy Bulborb is completely white and its tail-end is covered with thick white hair. The hairy Bulborb is best suited for arctic and winter conditions and is well protected from the cold. According to the Pikmin game, the Hairy Bulborb is very high-strung and loses all of its soft, fuzzy hair within moments of being startled awake from its slumber. If left alone, the hair will regrow almost as quickly. Similar to the Red Bulborb, the Hairy Bulborb uses its large mandibles to gain advantage over its prey, Pikmin. Orange Bulborb. The rarest of the Grub-Dogs, the Orange Bulborb (Oculus Kageyamii Orangium) is a nocturnal creature that prefers to spend most of its time sleeping in underground caves and tunnels, though it does appear, on seldom occasions, above ground. The most dangerous of all Bulborbs, the Orange Bulborb is a light sleeper and quick on its feet, and awakens and mounts a counterattack three times as fast as all other Bulborb species. Like all other Grub-Dogs, the Orange Bulborb uses its large mouth for primary defense, and head on head engagement will often result in disaster for the attacking party. The most efficient way to defeat these Bulborbs is to throw Pikmin onto its backside in the brief window while it cannot counterattack. Emperor Bulblax. Emperor Bulblax (Oculus Supremus) is the largest member of the grub-dog family with a "long, purple, sticky tongue," and a hard green shell on its back that protects it from Pikmin attacks. The Emperor bulblax may sometimes grow mushrooms on its back known as Blaxcaps for camouflage. Empress Bulblax. The Emperess Bulblax (Oculus matriarcha ) looks like an ordinary Bulborb with a very inflated egg sac. Acting as a queen, she keeps on ceaselessly giving birth to young Bulborbs. In other words, stay away from the rear. Fiery Bulbax. The Fiery Bulbax(Oculus Volcanus) is a strong Bulborb with a flammable waxy coating on its back. this usually makes it immediately deadly to all but red Pikmin but if it can be lured into the water, its fire will be extinguished. Get some blue and attack him while he's in water. p.s.: he is not always in/near water. Spotty Bulbear. The Spotty Bulbear (Oculus Terribillis Dotticum) is a larger, more voracious Bulborb that has a different jaw structure along with a black and red spotted back. In Pikmin 2, it never sleeps which means it moves along a patrol route in order to hunt Pikmin. It also has the ability to regain life after it has been defeated until it eventually revives itself. Dwarf Bulbear. The Dwarf Bulbear(Oculus Terribillis) is just that. A juvenile Bulbear which is too young to develop a patrol route. This causes this young grub-dog to actually follow its parent until it has matured. They also travel in groups Breadbugs. (Pansarus Spp.)Although unrelated to Bulborbs, Breadbugs share a family with miniature versions of Bulborbs (although those Bulborbs aren't actually related to real Bulborbs either). Breadbugs live underground in holes they dig, only leaving to forage for food. Breadbugs are not aggressive to other species, then again, few species are aggressive towards them. Breadbugs have a thick, hard shell that protects them from predators, and are only defeated when sucked into a Pikmin onion (They do not actually get 'sucked in' however. They are just too stubborn to let go of what they are being dragged by, and end up hitting their heads falling back to the ground, therefore hurting themselves) or (In Pikmin 2) by throwing Pikmin at it in great numbers and obtaining a perfect hit on their backs. Dwarf Red Bulborb. Not actually belonging to the Grub-Dog family, the Dwarf Red Bulborb (Pansarus Pseudoculii Russus) is a species all its own with no actual relation to the Red Bulborb. Although similar in physical appearance, the Dwarf Red Bulborb belong in the Breadbug family. Unlike the Red Bulborb, Dwarf Red Bulborbs are not nocturnal and generally prefer the day to the night. These creatures will occasionally form groups and hunt for Pikmin and other smaller creatures to eat. In contrast to the Grub-Dogs, Dwarf Bulborbs in the Breadbug family are much more alert and will attack if they sense the presence of Pikmin. However, since their mouths are much smaller they are usually much less dangerous, at most devouring two Pikmin at a time, whereas the true Bulborbs of the Grub-Dog family can ingest up to six at one turn. Snow Bulborb. Sporting the appearance of a juvenile Hairy Bulborb, this species is actually of no relation to the Hairy Bulborb. Snow Bulborbs (Pansarus Pseudooculii Frosticus) are completely devoid of hair. Their entire bodies are colored white, with the exception of their mouths and noses, and their light blue spots. Snow Bulborbs are also very alert creatures that will sometimes travel in groups. However, they have small mouths and therefore are not as dangerous as Bulborbs belonging to the Grub-Dog family, for the same reasons. Dwarf Orange Bulborb. The Dwarf Orange Bulborb(Pansarus Pseudooculus Orangium), another member of the Breadbug family, is a miniaturized version of the Orange Bulborb. It contains the exact same garish (to quote the Pikmin game) coloration pattern as the Grub-Dog species it imitates, with the major exception that they travel almost exclusively in groups, an can never be found asleep in the daytime. Giant Breadbug. The Giant Breadbug (Pansarus gigantus) does not look like or act like a Bulborb. Instead, it acts like the Breadbug (Pansarus gluttonae), stealing things from Pikmin. Unlike its smaller cousin, who are shaped like bread rolls, this Breadbug is shaped like a loaf of bread. It is the boss of the cave "Glutton's Kitchen" in Perplexing Pool in the game "Pikmin 2", and is perhaps the easiest boss in the series. Others. Bulbmin. A Bulbmin (Parasiticus Pikminicus) is a none relative of the Grub-dogs, but is actually a parasitic Pikmin (that is the story behind the leaf) that has hijacked a Bulborb's nervous system, therefore, leaving it in control of all its host's movement and bodily functions except for its appetite for Pikmin. The reason why the Bulbmin usually chooses a Bulborb as a host is currently unknown. They are slightly smaller, slightly weaker Bulborbs, who have harmless young following them. When beaten, the juvenile Bulbmin go crazy, until you whistle to them. Water Dumple. The Water Dumple (Icthyosa Felinus) is a legless Grub-Dog and cousin of the Bulborb. It prefers water, has no eyes and is blue with pink lips. It eats Pikmin and wogpoles.

English Grammar/Phrases and Clauses/Prepositional Phrases. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Prepositional phrases are groups of words, such as "out of" and "on top of". a) A big truck parked in front of their car. b) The cat jumped on top of the cupboard. c) One girl sits in the middle of the playground and the others dance round her.

Aspies Book/Introduction. This book takes Aspergia's idea of Re-branding Asperger's one step further -- A book about Aspies, by Aspies and for Aspies. It's time to define ourselves. Let's write The Aspies Book. For more information see this post. For more aspie resources see Resources. What is this book about? Let's start with the obvious - nothing is obvious. There is no scientific consensus about what Asperger's Syndrome is. There is even no consensus what 'mind' is or how it works, nor what 'healthy' or 'normal' is supposed to be. Yet for some reason, medical professionals manage to say that for aspies, all these categories - mind, health, normality - are different. Why is that so? What does it do? There may not be a consensus among medics, but is there one among aspies? Aspies are the true professionals. No one knows them as well as they do themselves. So what is this all about? This book tries to answer some of these questions.

Programming Gambas from Zip/Introduction. Welcome. This book is for anyone who wants to learn to write applications and has had no experience in it before. The programming language is Gambas and it runs in the Linux operating system. Gambas can be easily downloaded and installed from software repositories and is free in the best Linux tradition. The examples and screen snapshots in this book were made with Gambas 3.13.0. It has been a project for the first half of 2019. Having recently completed it in LibreOffice, here it is as a wikibook. The PDF version, generated by LibreOffice, can be found by clicking the image on the right. Why Program? Why Learn Gambas? There are many fine applications out there. LibreOffice lets you type, format and print documents, create slide shows and calculate spreadsheets. FireFox lets you browse web pages. There are applications to send and receive emails. Still, there is nothing like teaching a computer to do something you want it to do and designing how it will look yourself. There may be things your school or work might want to do that no one has thought of—very specific things, sometimes very simple things. You can be creative. I have a notebook application. It sits as an icon in the notifications area of the taskbar, always there. Any text I have copied to the clipboard—one click on the icon and it is saved. Right-click it and a window appears where I can search for notes just by typing. Control-click it and I can save the text on the clipboard with a key word or words attached to help me easily find that note again. Text copied from web pages often comes in separated lines, so I have a menu item to "Fix broken sentences". No formatting; no links; no pictures—just text saved with a click. With programs you write yourself, when you think of something you would like to do, you can just add it, like adding extensions to a house. Gambas is a language and programming environment to get excited about. If you need a button, drag one onto the window. To tell it what to do when you click it, double-click the button and type the instructions. If you want a new window, choose New Window from a menu. It is as easy or as sophisticated as you want it to be. Everything your computer can do can be done through Gambas (as far as I can tell!). Scope. The book starts with what a computer language looks like. Ordinary speech has to become computer-speak. "Tell me what four times three is" has to become "TextBox1.text = 4*3" . TextBox1.text.font is a little like "John.glasses.frame". From examples, we discover the three things computers can do: memory, repetition and conditional execution. Memory includes remembering text and numbers, in individual memories and lists of them (arrays), and calculating with them. Repetition is doing the same thing over and over without getting bored or needing coffee breaks. Conditional execution is doing one thing or doing another depending. Writing and reading text files comes next. Arranging buttons and boxes and things in the window is next, so things expand and contract properly when the window size is changed. Menus and contextual menus follow. Have you ever wanted to call a menu after yourself? No, of course not. Gambas can save settings automatically, so the application starts up the way you left it last time. Programs need to be ordered and compartmentalised like rooms in a house. Languages have modules and classes to do that, so all the programming is not in one amorphous mass. Modules and classes are to programs what boxes and cupboards and shelves are to a house. Some can be copied and some cannot. There is a language within a language, and that is SQL that is used to talk to database files. SQLite is introduced. I am no expert, you understand, but know enough to get by and enough to introduce the topic with an example of a program for allocating cash spending to different categories, saving it in an SQLite database. Lastly there is how to print. This involves putting text and pictures on a page, drawing lines and boxes. The appendices are useful tables for reference. What Applications Will I Write? There is the game of HiLo ... the computer picks a number and you try to guess it in as few goes as possible, each time being told if your guess is too high or too low. Another guessing game is Moo, also called Bulls and Cows. You must guess a four digit number, all digits different, being told after each guess how many digits were in the secret number in their correct places (bulls) and how many were in the secret number but were not in their right places (cows). It was marketed under the name of Mastermind. The game of Animal has been around since the 1970s. The computer starts knowing only two animals. You teach it new animals and the right questions to ask to identify your animals. It teaches binary keys—useful in biology. It is a little artificial intelligence. The game of Concentration, or Memory, is where you turn over cards, hoping to find a matching pair. Your task is to find all the matching pairs. We start with cards that have letters on them and adjust it so pictures can show. You could have pictures of family members if you like, because the pictures are read in from disk when the application starts. To illustrate databases there is a Cash Spending program that allocates cash amounts to various categories and totals the spending in each category, showing what percentage of the cash was spent in each area. There are two printing exercises: printing a class list with vertical and horizontal lines that form boxes, and printing a calendar page on A4 paper for the current calendar month. You supply the large picture for the top, and the squares with the dates in them are big enough to write in and the page can be blu-takked to a refrigerator door. The Tray Item Notebook is a small icon for the system tray. Click on it and any text you have on the clipboard is saved as a text-only note in an SQLite database. To search your notes, middle-click (left and right mouse buttons together) the icon and a window appears. A few adjustments to the text can be made: fixing broken sentences, double-spacing the paragraphs and trimming and tidying.

Pikmin franchise strategy guide/Piklopedia. In the Nintendo game "Pikmin 2", all enemy types Captain Olimar kills in the game are added to the Piklopedia, an encyclopedia of all the creatures encountered. These not only include animals, but plants and robot-like things as well. Grub-Dogs. The most common type of enemy in "Pikmin 2", Grub - Dogs are in every level of the game and many caves. The Water Dumple is indeed a relative of the bulborb. Red Bulborb Oculus kageyamii russus Looks like a ladybug, but it never flies. This fearsome creature has large mandibles used to eat your Pikmin. If you wake it up, it will start to chase you, you but will fall asleep if it can't see you anymore. Sometimes this bulborb will lunge. If it misses, it will fall into the dirt, giving you time to escape. Hairy Bulborb Oculus kageyamii folliculus A hairy lady-bug like creature, but it never flies. This creature will lose all of its hair when woken up from its slumber. If you leave it alone, the hair will grow back. This bulborb has the lowest amount of HP for any bulborb. Orange Bulborb Oculus kageyamii orangium A lady-bug like creature, but it never flies. This bulborb can sense Olimar when he is far away. It has bloodshot eyes and has a orange skin with black spots. This is probably the most fearoscious of all bulborbs. It is very qiuck, hard to escape. Oculus terribilis dotticum A lady-bug like creature with black skin and red dots. It walks along a predetermined path, looking for Pikmin. It will chase you, and it will regenerate health when it faints/dies, so it should be returned to the onion qiuckly. Dwarf Bulbears are usually following it around. Oculus terribilis Young Bulbears that follow an adult bulbear around. Oculus bambinii Slug-like creatures that can eat eat Pikmin very quickly. Are born by Empress Bublax. Oculus supremus A large frog-like creature with a hard shell. It uses a long sticky tongue to eat, and also will crush your Pikmin by hopping on them. Oculus matriarcha A Bulborb with an oversized body. Unlike other bulborbs, its weak point is its face. Oculus vulcanus A bulborb that is on fire. If you lure it into water, though, the fire on its back will dissapear. Ichthyosa felinis A blue slug-like creature that is usually found in shoals of 2-3. Breadbugs. The three more common breadbugs are disguised by nature as traditional bulborbs. Dwarf Red Bulborb Pansarus pseudoculii russus "olimers notes from pikmin 2" Although initially identified as a juvinile red bulborb, groundbreaking new research indicates that this creature is in fact a member of the breadbug family. A close reletive of the vanilla breadbug, it escapes predation through mimicry. Unique adapion ofthe red bulborb's crimson colouration allows the species o safely commingle. Such effective adaption and obfuscation by a prey species is rare, indicating this clever creature is a master of mimicry. Snow Bulborb Pansarus pseudooculii frosticus "olimers notes" Like the dwarf red bulborb, the snow bulborb is a member of the breadbug family that seeks to survive hrough imitating the appearance and behavior of a bulborb. Its pale coloration and blue spots make for easy identification. In particular, this organism mimics the hairybulborb, but it is of course unable to grow the hair that gives the hairy bulborb its name. However as the hairy bulborb has been known to lose its hair in certain circumstaces, the snow bulborb is an effective mimic that is often misaken for a member of the same species. Pansarus pseudooculii orangium "olimers notes" Just as dwarf red bulborbs mimic the appearance of red bulborbs, it was theorized that an orange bulborb-mimicking variant must also exist. Recent fieldwork has confirmed this theory Pansarus gluttonae "olimers notes" The adult breadbug competes for many of the same food sources as pikmin, but its thick-skinned hide allows it ti withstand most pikmin group arracks. However, some researchers claim to have observed breadbugs being overwhelmed by massive numbers of pikmin and reduced to food. Pansarus gigantus Chrysanthemum family. This family of creatures is different in that some, like Creeping Chrysanthemums, are carnivores that eat pikmin. Others, like the Margaret, are merely plants. Creeping Chrysanthemum Taraxacum rovinia Luminosus croceus Snagrets. A group in the "Snavian" family, these large predators are half snake, half bird. Shiropedes anacondii A large, one footed creature with a long, snake like body and a bird head. Shiropedes ambulatria Blowhogs. Sus draconus A gray, pig like animal capable of spewing a highly combustable liquid (fire). Sus loogiens Similar to the Fiery Blowhog, although it makes water instead. Sus inflata Sus decrepitia Arachnorbs. Beady Long Legs] Pseudoarachnia armoralis Raging Long Legs] Pseudoarachnia furiendis Man-at-Legs Pseudoarachnia navaronia Dweevils. Members of the "Mandarachnia" genus have a tendancy to imitate objects scattered around the environment. Mandarachnia napalmens Mandarachnia sulfurnid Mandarachnia volticula Mandarachnia pungetis Mandarachnia explodus Mandarachnia gargantium

Pikmin franchise strategy guide/Treasure. In both Pikmin games, the goal of the game is to collect as much "treasures" as possible. In Pikmin 1, these "treasures" are the 30 parts of Captain Olimar's ship, the "Dolphin". In Pikmin 2, these are actually treasures. To the everyday eye, however, the treasures are everyday, usually USA-based, objects. Parts of the "Dolphin". There are a total of 30 parts of the "Dolphin". Earth's Treasures. In Pikmin 2, the company Olimar works for goes into debt. After his ship, the "Dolphin", is forced into being trashed, the debt leaves 10,000 pokos to be collected. With the help of new employee Louie, the original Pikmin, and the new Purple and White Pikmin, Olimar must collect the Terrestrial Treasures. Succulent Series. This series is full of tasty fruits and berries. "Sales Pitch:" Fate's tapestry has unraveled. Tomorrow weeps. Romance has fallen, love is madness. ... To mend the rift between two cross lovers, this is the ultimate weapon in cupid's arsenal. "Sales Pitch:" This fruit is born with bright sunlight and cheerful warmth. Come, all you naysayers! One bite and even sad sacks will become foolhardy optimists. Eat one today and change your life! "Sales Pitch:" Everything is best in moderation. This fruit is the perfect example of too much of a good thing. Its devastating sweetness is like an act of violence on the palate, scouring with all succulence... "Sales Pitch:" This item's docile efficiency evokes images of wealth and greed. Behold: life's essence! "Sales Pitch:" The thick, acidic rind of this item is proof positive of its highly elevated mental functions. When I assess it, I am somehow reminded of a particularly hateful superior. Hurry up and devour it! Earth Child Series. This series holds many vegetables and other plants. "Sales Pitch:" A quick-growing plant. Good for garden hobbyists or for a snack. Use it however you see fit! "Sales Pitch:" This plant has grown fat on the blessings of the land. Its nutritional value must be high! "Sales Pitch:" One bite of this and the surprisingly earthy flavor will send your hiccups packing! Older individuals with a history of heart conditions should devour this with caution! "Sales Pitch:" Eat one of these and grow to twice your normal size! Perfect for skinny beings unable to pack on any girth. Veggie Maniac's Series. This series is full of flora not fitting into the Succulent and Earth series. "Sales Pitch:" Perfect for those who love natural designs in their home, this leaf applique is a bargain! Use it in pieces, or cover an entire wall in leafiness! "Sales Pitch:" Life is full...but short! Is this one of those short-lived life-forms that changes shape as it ages? Even though it is dried out, it has not lost its unique charm. "Sales Pitch:" This common, ordinary nut somehow reminds me of myself and fills me with sadness. "Sales Pitch:" This fellow has consumed more nutrients than necessary and now possesses superior fatness. In our harsh world, this is a lifestyle to envy! Gourmet Series. This series is full of tasty food, minus sweets. Sweet Tooth's Hell Series. Full of tasty treats, pastries and chocolates populate the large Sweet Tooth Series. New Discovery Series. This series is full of scientific discoveries. Ancient Secrets Series. This series holds archeological treasures, and is the counterpart of the paleontological treasures of the Discovery Series. Rebar Alloy Series. This series is full of metal, cooking-related treasures. ARTICLE UNDER CONSTRUCTION

Theory of Formal Languages, Automata, and Computation/Grammars and the Chomsky Hierarchy. Grammars specify how the strings in a language can be generated. Grammars are finite representations of formal languages. In this chapter we describe four broad categories of grammars and corresponding categories of languages that the grammar categories represent. The grammar classes and respective language classes are nested by proper subset relationships, and were proposed by Chomsky as potential models for natural language. Thus, the four language (and grammar) classes are known as the Chomsky hierarchy, which is summarized in Figure ChomskyOverview. The broadest class of languages, those with the least restrictive grammars, are the unrestricted or Type 0 languages (grammars). Unrestricted (Type 0) Grammars and Languages. A grammar is specified by a 4-tuple G = (V, Σ, P, S), where V is a finite set of variables, also called non-terminal symbols; Σ is the finite alphabet of the language being represented, also called the terminal symbols of the grammar; P is a finite set of productions; and S is the start symbol and is a member of V. V and Σ have the null intersection. Each production in P takes the form formula_1, where formula_2 is a string of symbols from V+Σ and |formula_2| > 0; and where formula_4 is also a string of symbols from V+Σ, but |formula_4| formula_6 0 (i.e., formula_4 can be the empty string, denoted by formula_8). This and no other restrictions is the definition of unrestricted or type 0 grammars (Figure GrammarDefinition). A grammar G specifies the strings of a language L(G) or LG. This definition of a type 0 grammar allows formula_2 to be a string of only alphabet (terminal) symbols, but I have never seen an example of this in other textbooks. An exercise below asks you to reflect on this issue further. Consider this simple grammar, GSimple = (V, Σ, P, S), where V = {S}, Σ = {0, 1}, P = {S formula_10 ε, S formula_10 0S1}, S, the start symbol, is S. There are two productions in this grammar, and we'll often use the 'or' symbol, '|', to refer to multiple productions with the same left-hand side. So, S formula_10 ε and S formula_10 0S1 are abbreviated S formula_10 ε formula_15 0S1. ε signifies the empty string, and is typically not part of the alphabet of a grammar (else it would be in Σ, which is not the case in this grammar). We just need some way of representing 'nothing'. In this example, there is only one variable, and the left-hand side of each production, formula_2, is a single variable. Beginning with only the start symbol, we can rewrite it using any of the productions that include only the start symbol on the left-hand side. This rewrite will create a string that contains variables and/or terminals. This resulting string is called a "sentential" form. We can then look at the sentential form created and ask whether any productions can be applied to it. A production can be applied to a sentential form if the production's left-hand side (formula_2) is a sub-string of the sentential form. In case of such a match, a new sentential form is created by rewriting the matched sub-string with the matching production's right-hand side (formula_4), resulting in another sentential form. And this can continue indefinitely, where a sequence of sentential forms (that are the result of s sequence of production applications) are called a "derivation", where the last string in a derivation only contains terminal symbols and is a string of the language generated by the grammar (Figures SimpleGrammar and SimpleDerivationTree). In some cases a sentential form will be reached for which no production of the grammar matches, and we call such a sentential form a "dead-end" and we call the attempted derivation that ends in a dead-end, a "failed derivation". Because there may be multiple productions that have left-hand sides that match a given sentential form, we can write an enumeration procedure, like depth-first or breadth first enumeration, that tries all the relevant productions, and that traces out possible derivation sequences. Enumeration as it is often taught in introductory courses is probably a procedure for enumerating or systematically visiting the nodes of an explicit graphs, but the enumeration procedure for generating a language is better thought of as enumerating an implicit graph (i.e., the “vertices”, that is sentential forms, are generated on demand). Enumerating implicit graphs is also characteristic of many AI problems. A more complicated grammar is GComplex = (V = {S, A, B, C, D}"," Σ "=" {a}, P, S), due to Hopcroft and Ullman (1979), where P is this set of productions. 1) S formula_10 ACaB 2) Ca formula_10 aaC 3) CB formula_10 DB 4) CB formula_10 E // FYI: we could summarize productions (3) and (4) as CB formula_10 DB | E 5) aD formula_10 Da 6) AD formula_10 AC 7) aE formula_10 Ea 8) AE formula_10 ε // ε is the empty string What language could GComplex represent? Since 'a' is the only terminal symbol, it must be a language of strings that only contain 'a's. Its a fair guess that the number of a's in each string is what determines membership. Lets start seeing what strings of 'a's we are able too derive. Can we derive the string of zero a's, i.e., the empty string? No, since the start symbol is on the left-hand side of only production (1), and an 'a' is introduced right off the bat, and importantly there is no production in this grammar that removes a's once one is introduced. Can we derive a string with exactly one 'a'? S formula_10 ACaB using production (1) formula_10 AaaCB using production (2). Indeed, production (2) is the only production that is applicable, but you should confirm that the left-hand side of production (2), 'Ca', is the only left-hand side that matches a sub-string of 'ACaB'. Again, there is no way to remove an 'a' from 'AaaCB' in order to arrive at string of a single 'a'. Can we derive a string with exactly two a's? S formula_10 ACaB using production (1) formula_10 AaaCB using production (2) formula_10 AaaDB using production (3) formula_10 AaDaB using production (5) formula_10 ADaaB using production (5) formula_10 ACaaB using production (6) formula_10 AaaCaB using production (2), but again too many a's if two a's is our target. Again, failing to find ways of combining productions to remove a's, this path of rewrites is a dead-end. But notice that when we applied production (3) during this sequence of rewrites we had another option available to us -- we could have applied production (4) instead of (3). Lets look at that option instead. S formula_10 ACaB using production (1) formula_10 AaaCB using production (2) formula_10 AaaE using production (4). Continuing from AaaE we have AaaE formula_10 AaEa using production (7) formula_10 AEaa using production (7) formula_10 aa using production (8). So we can derive 'aa' from GComplex. Can we derive 'aaa'? If we continue on from our previous dead-end of 'AaaCaB' above we should quickly conclude that only production (2) will apply, which will result in 'AaaaaCB'. We can't derive 'aaa', but you should confirm that we can derive 'aaaa'. Up until this point we have been hand simulating an enumeration procedure, which is probably best left to automation. As an exercise, perhaps working with a large language model such as chatGPT, code a procedure for performing an enumeration of strings generated by GComplex. But lets also step back and reason about the generation process. We have a variable 'C' that works its way from left to right through successive sentential forms, doubling 'a's as it goes. When the 'C' reaches the right end, it either changes to an 'E' using production (4) and goes left repeatedly using production (7) until it reaches the left end and 'exits' using production (8); or the 'C' at the right end becomes a 'D' using production (3), again going left repeatedly using production (5), but this time leading to a sentential form that will again result in doubling the 'a's. Rather than the language of an even number of a's, confirm your understanding that GComplex generates the strings with a positive power of 2 a's. Followup questions in our analysis include (i) why must E go left at all? (ii) Could the grammar be altered, creating an equally valid equivalent grammar, so that D doubled a's as it was going left? (iii) And if so, what other revisions would have to be made? What is made particularly clear in this latter example of a grammar is that there is a procedure -- an iterative, looping procedure -- that underlies the design of the grammar, and though each production can be interrogated in isolation, each rule only makes sense in its relation to the entire grammar. The formalism of a grammar includes a set of production rules, but the grammar formalism itself says little about the procedure that is used to do the derivation or enumeration of strings using these productions. So, in selecting among several productions, each of which has a left-hand side that matches a sub-string in a sentential form, we have to additionally specify a way to chose among the possibilities to advance a derivation -- e.g., choose the first rule that matches, choose a randomly selected rule among the possibility that matches, choose the matching rule with the longest left-hand side. At a larger scale, to systematically generate the strings implied by the grammar, we have to specify, for example, a breadth-first procedure for enumerating strings using the productions. We could have picked any of the many possible enumeration procedures specified in an algorithms course or an artificial intelligence course, such as depth-first enumeration or a heuristic enumeration strategy. A "" is equivalent in representational power to an unrestricted grammar, but where the rewrite rules are ordered and a rewrite is done by the first production in the sequence with a left-hand side that matches a sentential form. That is, the procedure used for derivation is an explicit part the Markov algorithm formalism. A Markov algorithm still does not include a commitment to an enumeration strategy, but a possible project described later suggests that you consider this. BTW, the Markov of 'Markov algorithms' is the son of the Markov of 'Markov chain' fame. Non-Contracting aka Context Sensitive (Type 1) Grammars and Languages. If for every production formula_1, formula_44 then the grammar is said to be a "non-contracting" grammar since sentential forms never shrink along a derivation path. The class of non-contracting grammars define the class of languages that is identical to the languages that are defined by so-called "context sensitive" grammars. A context sensitive grammar has productions of the form formula_21Aformula_22 formula_10 formula_21formula_492 where A is a variable, and formula_21, formula_22, and formula_4 are arbitrary strings of variables and alphabet symbols, but formula_4 cannot be the empty string. The name 'context sensitive' is because formula_21 and formula_22 give the context in which A can be rewritten as formula_4. It should be clear that every context sensitive grammar is a non-contracting grammar, but its also the case that every non-contracting grammar can be converted to a context sensitive grammar that defines the same language. Thus, the non-contracting grammars and the context sensitive grammars define the same class of languages. You can think of context sensitive as a normal form for non-contracting, but context sensitive is so widely used that even when talking about non-contracting grammars, we'll often use the equivalent label of context sensitive grammars (CSGs) and languages (CSLs). In any case, these grammars and languages are also referenced as Type 1. Consider this CSG, Gabc = ({S, B, C}, {a, b, c}, P, S), which is due to Hopcroft and Ullman (1969), where P is the set containing the following productions. 1) S formula_10 aSBC 2) S formula_10 aBC 3) CB formula_10 BC 4) aB formula_10 ab 5) bB formula_10 bb 6) bC formula_10 bc 7) cC formula_10 cc Let's understand the procedure that is specified by this grammar. Production (1) can be used repeatedly to add a positive number of a's, as well as 'placeholders' for an equal number of b's (Bs) and c's (Cs). After applying production (1) a desired number of times, we can 'exit' with production (2), then move C's to the right with production (3), and convert the placeholders of Bs and Cs to their lower case equivalents. Confirm your understanding that the language generated by Gabc is {anbncn formula_15 n formula_61} (i.e., a positive number of a's followed by an equal number of b's and finally an equal number of c's). Consider the grammar GComplex presented earlier. This is clearly not a CSG, since productions (4) and (8) are "contracting". Does this mean that L(GComplex) is not a CSL? Not necessarily, since its possible that there is a CSG that is equivalent to GComplex. Finding an alternative and equivalent CSG for GComplex is left as an exercise. A small point is that a grammar that is non-contracting cannot define a language that includes the empty string, since there can be no production of the form formula_66, since formula_67 = 0. So technically the context sensitive languages do not include the empty string. But it’s a technicality that is easily overcome and we won’t let it necessarily prevent us from talking about languages that include formula_8 but that are “otherwise’ context sensitive. Suppose we have a grammar G (with start symbol S) that is context sensitive and thereby excludes formula_8 in L(G). If we want to include formula_8 then we can create a new grammar G’ with new start symbol S’ that is identical to G, except with an additional variable S’ and two new productions, S’formula_10S and S’formula_72. S’ is never used otherwise. If there is something theoretical that relies on exclusion of formula_8 then we can focus on L(G), but for purposes of allowing for formula_8 we can use L(G’). In fact, we will relax this a bit more and allow a production of the form S formula_72 , so long as S is the start symbol. Note that if S appears on the right hand side of any production then this allowance will allow a rewrite to formula_8 in intermediate sentential forms, but again that’s easily remedied if there is a theoretical point in doing so. We will talk more about the computational implications of context sensitive languages later, but we will preview an important point now. Suppose we ask whether "w" is in a language L(G) – yes or no? We can construct an algorithm to answer this question for a CSL. We can enumerate the strings in the language using the CSG, and whenever we derive a string of terminals only, we check to see if its equal to "w" and answer ‘yes’ if so. In contrast, when a sentential form is created that is longer than "w", we know that "w" cannot lie along that path, since the sentential forms along that path will never shrink. If all paths in the breadth first enumeration have sentential forms that are longer than "w" then we know that "w" cannot be in the language and the algorithm can answer ‘no’. Context Free (Type 2) Grammars and Languages. If formula_2 in each of G’s productions formula_1 is a single variable, then G is a "context free" grammar (CFG) and L(G) is a context free language (CFL). That is, regardless of the symbols in a sentential form that surround the variable on a production’s left-hand side, the variable can be rewritten to formula_4. Context-free grammars and languages are subsets of context sensitive (or non-contracting) grammars and languages. Every context free language is also a context sensitive language, but not vice versa. Similarly, every context sensitive language is an unrestricted language, but not vice versa. Thus, because inclusion is transitive, every CFG is an unrestricted grammar and every CFL is an unrestricted language. Consider the grammar GSimple from a previous section on unrestricted languages. GSimple is a CFG and L(GSimple) is a CFL. A similarly structured CFG is GPalindromes, over Σ = {a, b}. S formula_10 aSa formula_15 bSb formula_15 a formula_15 b formula_15 ε Note that in this example and others, we will make an allowance for the empty string ε to be in the language. Technically, the empty string is not in a CFL because that would mean that there was at least one contracting production, which is disallowed in a CSL, and thus a CFL too. Nonetheless, the exception is widely used and we'll allow the start symbol of a CSG to produce the empty string. A derivation for 'bbaabaabb', S formula_85 bbaabaabb, using GPalindromes, is S formula_10 bSb formula_10 bbSbb formula_10 bbaSabb formula_10 bbaaSaabb formula_10 bbaabaabb. The CFGs and CFLs are probably the most important class of grammars and languages to us, at least for practical purposes. After Chomsky’s treatment of grammars was published, "Algol" became the first programming language with a syntax that was defined by a context free grammar. These grammars have been used to define other programming languages, we well as markup languages, and the grammars are adapted to define parsers for these languages. You have probably seen what amounts to context free grammars in syntax diagrams for various languages. Leftmost and Rightmost Derivations. In a derivation of a string using a CFG, every sentential form before the final string will have one of more variables in it. If at every step we rewrite the leftmost variable in the sentential form next, then the derivation is a leftmost derivation. Similarly, if we rewrite the rightmost variable at each step then the derivation is a rightmost derivation. We will typically be most concerned with leftmost derivations because of the use of CFGs in programming languages. Though we won’t interrogate the relationship deeply, suffice it to say that because a programming language syntax is largely based on CFGs and because a language translator parses a program left-to-right, leftmost derivations are more practically relevant. In all derivations of strings in L(GPalindrome) there will always be exactly one variable (i.e., S) for every sentential form of the derivation, except the last, so that there is no difference between leftmost and rightmost derivations in that example. Let's consider a grammar for balanced parentheses instead where the productions of GBalanced are as follows. B formula_10 (B) formula_15 BB formula_15 ( ) formula_15 ε A leftmost derivation for '(( ))( )' is B formula_10 BB formula_10 (B)B formula_10 (( ))B formula_10 (( ))( ). In contrast, a rightmost derivation for the same string is B formula_10 BB formula_10 B( ) formula_10 (B)( ) formula_10(( ))( ). Note that these derivations appear different, but the difference is entirely due to the order in which the variables are rewritten, and not due to something more fundamental. Parse Trees. A parse tree is another representation of a derivation of a string using a CFG. The root of a parse tree is the start variable of the grammar, the internal nodes each correspond to a variable to be rewritten, the children of an internal node represent the various symbols, terminal and non-terminal, in the right-hand side of the production that is used to rewrite the variable representing the parent, and the leaves throughout the parse tree are the characters in a string of the language. The derived string can be written by doing a depth-first enumeration of the tree, writing leaf/terminal symbols only. Parse trees are invariant relative to the order of variable rewrites, so that the leftmost and rightmost derivation for '(( ))( )' using GBalanced correspond to the same parse tree. Ambiguity of a CFG. A grammar is "ambiguous" if there are two or more leftmost derivations for at least one string in the language generated by the grammar. Alternatively, we could say that if there are two or more rightmost derivations, or two or more distinct parse trees, for a string in the language then the generating grammar is ambiguous. These three definitions of ambiguity are equivalent. Consider a CFG, GExp = (V, Σ, P, S), for simplified arithmetic expressions, where V = {Exp}, Σ = {id, +, *, (, )}, the start symbol is Exp, and P equals the set containing these productions: Exp formula_10 id Exp formula_10 Exp + Exp Exp formula_10 Exp * Exp Exp formula_10 (Exp) This grammar is ambiguous since there are two distinct leftmost derivations for the string id + id * id. There are two distinct parse trees for this string as well. You can confirm that there are two distinct rightmost derivations too. Can you find other strings in L(GExp) that have more than one leftmost (rightmost) derivation and more than one parse tree? Ambiguity of context-free grammars is particularly important because the syntax of so many programming and markup languages are specified by context-free grammars. As an interpreter or compiler processes a program or document, it should know precisely what to do in response to each lexical item that is encountered in the program/document, and an ambiguous grammar can be problematic in guiding the interpreter on the right course of action (e.g., on what micro-instructions should be executed or written as the higher level program is being processed). Its possible to add decision rules on what to do that lie outside the grammar, but removing the ambiguity in the grammar itself is an elegant option. The grammar for arithmetic expressions is the classic educational example of revising an ambiguous grammar to remove ambiguity. It would be nice if there was a general algorithm that accepted an arbitrary ambiguous grammar and created an unambiguous grammar that generated the same language as the input grammar. Alas, no such algorithm exists. There is not even an algorithm that identifies an arbitrary input grammar as ambiguous or not! The picture is not that dismal however since in practice there are rules of thumb for disambiguating a grammar based on ‘domain’ knowledge. Programming language constructs are one kind of domain knowledge that can guide and constrain disambiguation, as in the case of the arithmetic expression example, where the domain knowledge is the constraints provided by precedence conventions, with identifiers and parenthesized expressions having the highest precedence, addition/subtraction having the lowest, with multiplication/division in between. In the case of GExp a variation we'll call GOpPrec = (V, Σ, P, S) generates the same language (i.e., L(GExp) = L(GOpPrec)), but is not ambiguous. For GOpPrec, V = {Factor, Term, Exp}, Σ = {id, +, *, (, )}, the start symbol is Exp, and P equals the set containing these productions: Factor formula_10 id | (Exp) Term formula_10 Factor | Term * Factor Exp formula_10 Term | Exp + Term We will return to this grammar when we talk more about the relevance of CFLs to programming languages. Consider another example of an ambiguous grammar, GBalanced, from above. Can you see why this grammar is ambiguous? Consider the string that we have already addressed, '(( ))( )'. There are at least two leftmost derivations for this string. We previously only looked at one, which is repeated here: B formula_10 BB formula_10 (B)B formula_10 (( ))B formula_10 (( ))( ). This derivation uses the production, B formula_10 ( ), to transition from the third to the fourth sentential form. But consider this leftmost derivation which uses the production B formula_10 ε: B formula_10 BB formula_10 (B)B formula_10 ((B))B formula_10 (( ))B formula_10 (( ))( ). Are there any other leftmost derivations for the same string? Naturally, if there are distinct leftmost derivations then there are distinct rightmost derivations and distinct parse trees too. In the case of this last example of ambiguity, there is a domain independent strategy for removing the source of ambiguity, while still retaining ε as a member of the language. We create a new grammar, GBalanced', by introducing a new start variable, B', and two productions, B' formula_10 B | ε, and removing the production B formula_10 ε. Note that ε is still in the language and that L(GBalanced') = L(GBalanced), but there is now only one leftmost derivation of '(( ))( )' and other strings as well. This domain independent strategy can be applied in any similar circumstance to remove the same form of ambiguity. Inherent ambiguity of a CFL. If all grammars that generate a language are ambiguous then the language is "inherently ambiguous". There is no algorithm in the general case that can identify whether a language is inherently ambiguous or not, but clearly if an unambiguous grammar that generates the language is identified then the language is not inherently ambiguous. Remember that ambiguity is a property of grammars, and inherent ambiguity is a property of languages. Normal Forms. There are two normal forms for context free grammars that have been used for practical and theoretical purposes. Any CFL that excludes ε can be expressed by a grammar in both normal forms. "Chomsky normal form" (or CNF, not to be confused with conjunctive normal form in logic) has productions of the form X formula_10 YZ or X formula_10 x, where X, Y, and Z are variables and x is a terminal. "Greibach normal form" (or GNF) has productions of the form X formula_10 xβ, where X is a variable, x is a terminal, and β is a (possibly empty) string of variables only. There are algorithms for translating an arbitrary CFG into an equivalent CFG in CNF and into an equivalent CFG in GNF. The conversion to CNF is the easiest. For example, if we want to find a CNF that is equivalent to Gsimplelogic, with productions S formula_10 ~S formula_127 [S ⊃ S] formula_127 p formula_127 q then first (1) replace all terminals with terminal specific variables when the right hand side (rhs) is larger than 1 terminal: S formula_10 NS formula_127 LSISR formula_127 p formula_127 q N formula_10 ~ L formula_10 [ R formula_10 ] I formula_10 ⊃ and (2) then accumulate variables in the righthand side of length greater than 2 S formula_10 NS formula_127 p formula_127 q formula_127 XLSISR XLSIS formula_10 XLSIS XLSI formula_10 XLSI XLS formula_10 LS The Pumping Lemma for CFLs. There are identifiable patterns in CFLs that are useful to know, for purposes of theory at least. An important such pattern is given by the Pumping Lemma (PL) for CFLs. The PL says that for any CFL there is a length threshold. If a string is equal to or larger than that threshold, call it "n", then the string, "w" can be written as "uvxyz" and sub-strings "v" and "y" can be repeated indefinitely and the resulting string will be in the language too. Sub-strings "v" and "y" can be omitted as well, signified by "v0" and "y0", and the resulting string will still be in the language. The lemma can be expressed with quantifiers as follows. If L is a CFL then "∃n (∀w∈L, |w| ≥ n (∃uvxyz = w, |vxy| ≤ n, |vy| ≥ 1(∀i≥0 uvixyiz ∈ L)))" “"∃n (∀w∈L, |w| ≥ n"” says that there is a threshold "n" such that for all sufficiently long strings in the language; “"(∃uvxyz = w, |vxy| ≤ n, |vy| ≥ 1"” says that "z" can be rewritten in terms of 5 sub-strings, the central three are less or equal to the threshold (i.e., they are sufficiently close), and "v" and "y" together consist of at least one character between them. “"(∀i≥0 uvixyiz ∈ L)))"” says that we can repeat "v" and "y" zero or more times and the resulting string will still be in the language. The reasoning behind this construction stems from considering the parse tree for a sufficiently long string generated by a Chomsky Normal Form grammar, which can represent any CFL. If the CNF grammar has "k" variables, then let the threshold of "n" be "2k". As the accompanying figures illustrate for the case of a string of at least "n" in length, at least one variable must appear at least twice along a path of the parse tree. It is the identification of this necessary repeating variable that is basis of being able to repeat or ‘pump’ sub-strings with the expectation that the result will be in the language. If the pumping lemma seems somewhat convoluted, give it time and it may seem elegant, and maybe does already. Proofs using the Pumping Lemma. The Pumping Lemma can be used to show by contradiction that certain languages are not CFLs. Our job is to find a sufficiently long string "w" that is undeniably in the language of interest and then to show that there no no way of partitioning the string into "uvxyz" under the PL's constraints such that the result of pumping "v" and "y" some number of times results in a string that is also in the language. The outline of a proof that L is not a CFL follows the lemma as expressed with quantifiers above. Example: Show that L = {ai | i is a prime number} is not a CFL. Step 1: Let "n" be the pumping lemma constant. Select "w = am" where "m" be the first prime greater than or equal to "n". Step 2: "w = am = uvxyz", where "|vxy| ≤ n and |vy| ≥ 1", though the former constraint is not used in this example Step 3: Without lose of generality assume "v" has "j" a's and "y" has "k" a's ("j+k formula_6 1"), so "v=aj", "y = ak", "uxz = am-(j+k)" Now consider successive values of "i" (through pumping) "|w| =   |uvxyz| = j + k + m – (j + k) = m" "  |uv2xy2z| = 2j + 2k + m – (j+k) = m + j + k" "  |uv3xy3z| = 3j + 3k + m – (j+k) = m + 2j + 2k" "  |uvm+1xym+1z| = (m+1)j + (m+1)k + m – (j+k)" "          = m + mj + mk" "          = m (1 + j + k)"   can’t be prime, so "am (1 + j + k)" not in language, which violates the PL condition that "(∀i≥0 uvixyiz ∈ L)" if L is a CFL. In step 3 it can be the case that we have to consider a number of different cases in order to show a contradiction across all "i". Example: Show that "{aibjck | i+1 < j, j+1 < k}" is not CFL Step 1: Let "n" be the pumping lemma constant. Let "w = anbn+2cn+4". "w" is certainly long enough whatever the particular value of "n". Step 2: Let "w = anbn+2cn+4 = uvxyz ; |vx| >= 1; |vxy| <= n." Step 3: Case of "v", "y" all a’s and/or b’s: pump, then at least one of the inequalities "i+1 < j", "j+1 < k" will be violated Step 3: Case of "v" some number of a’s; "y" some number of c’s – can’t happen, violates constraint that "|vxy| <= n" Step 3: Case of "vy" all c’s and/or b’s. Consider "uv0xy0z", then at least one of the inequalities "i+1 < j", "j+1 < k" will be violated Regular (Type 3) Grammars and Languages. Finally, regular languages are a proper subset of the context free languages, and regular grammars puts a further restriction on the context free grammars. A regular grammar is a context free grammar where every production is of the form A formula_10 aB or A formula_10 a, where A and B are variables and a is a terminal. At first glance a regular grammar looks like a grammar in GNF, but where GNF allows any number of variables to follow the terminal in the right-hand side of a production, a regular grammar allows at most one. We get to applications of regular grammars and languages later when discussing the broader applications of context free languages for programming and markup language syntax. Consider this grammar Gregular = ({S, A, B}, {0, 1}, P, S}, where P is the set of productions: S formula_10 0A S formula_10 1B A formula_10 0A A formula_10 0S A formula_10 1B B formula_10 1B B formula_10 1 B formula_10 0 S formula_10  0 You are asked to characterize the language generated by Gregular as an exercise, but clearly it is regular. Figure ParseRegular gives a parse tree for the string 1110, which is a "right linear" tree. Every parse tree for a string generated by a regular grammar will be right linear. For this reason regular grammars are sometimes called right linear grammars, and the languages they generate are sometimes called right linear languages in other sources. This book will use 'regular' consistently when referring to grammars and languages, however. Every regular grammar is a context free grammar. Note that regular grammars, by definition, are in GNF. A regular grammar can be easily changed to a grammar in CNF that accepts the same language. In particular, replace each production of the form A formula_10 aB in a regular grammar with A formula_10 A'B, where A' formula_10 a is also added as a production. The Pumping Lemma for Regular Languages. Since every regular language is also a context free language, the pumping lemma for CFLs also apples to RLs, but in this latter case of a regular language, "y" and "z" are both empty. Thus, the Pumping Lemma for regular languages can be simplified to "∃n (∀w∈L, |w| ≥ n (∃uvx=w, |uv|≤n, |v|≥1(∀i≥0 uvix ∈ L)))," which is illustrated in Figure PLregular. Let's revisit L = {"0m" | "m" is prime}. We already know that this is not a CFL, so its obviously not an RL either, so this is just to illustrate the RL form of the Pumping Lemma. Assume L is regular, so L is accepted by a DFA with "n" states (aka pumping lemma constant "n"). Consider a string of "m 0s" where "m" is the first prime number greater than "n." "0m = 0j0k0m-(j+k), where u = 0j, v = 0k, and x = 0m-(j+k)." "|0m|  =  j+k+(m-(j+k))   =  m" "Pump v once  j+2k+(m-(j+k))  =  k+m" "Pump v twice  j+3k+(m-(j+k))  =  2k+m" "Pump m times  j+(m+1)k+(m-(j+k))  =  mk+m  = m(k+1) is not prime" "0m(k+1)" not in L by definition – a contradiction Exercises, Projects, and Discussions. Type 0 Discussion 1: We noted in the first paragraph of this section that the definition of a grammar did not seem to overtly preclude the possibility of a production with a left-hand side of only terminal symbols (i.e., with no variables). List the implications of allowing productions with left-hand sides of only terminal symbols. As you reflect on the matter, consider discussing the issue with a large language model -- you are welcome to do so. Type 0 Project 1: Research and discuss the relationship between Type 0 grammars and Markov Algorithms. Start by reviewing the Wikipedia site for "", as well as other relevant sources. CSL Exercise 1: Give a derivation for 'aabbcc' using Gabc. CSL Exercise 2: Give an attempted derivation for 'aabc' using Gabc. Clearly indicate deadend paths in a breadth-first enumeration of paths. CSL Exercise 3: Find a context sensitive (non-contracting) grammar that is equivalent to GComplex -- that is, your answer should generate the same language as GComplex, but have no contracting productions. Hint: such a grammar can be found. You are welcome to use a large language model to gain insights into the process of converting GComplex to an equivalent CSG, GComplex'. CSG Exercise 4: Give a context-sensitive grammar, Gww, for the language L = {ww | w is a non-empty binary string of 0s and 1s, and ww is such a string concatenated with itself}. PL Exercise 1: Show {aj2bj | j >= 1} is not a CFL. Note that the number of a's is j2, not j*2, and that the number of b's is j. That is, the number of a's is the square of the number of b's. PL Exercise 2: Show that {bi#bi+1 | bi is i in binary} is not a CFL PL Exercise 3: Show that {aibici | i ≥ 1} is not a CFL. PL Exercise 4: Can v0 and y0 be used in an alternative proof that L = {ai | i is a prime number} is not a CFL? If so, how? CFG Exercise 1: Give a context-free grammar for the language of strings over {a,b} with exactly twice as many a’s as b’s. Due to Hopcroft and Ullman (1979) and Hopcroft, Motwani, and Ullman (2007). Hint: you may have to consider different special cases, allowing for the a's to be positioned differently relative to the bs. CFG Exercise 2: Give a context-free grammar for the language of {aibjck | i ≠j or j ≠k}. Due to Hopcroft and Ullman (1979) and Hopcroft, Motwani, and Ullman (2007). CFG Exercise 3: Give a Chomsky Normal Form grammar (a) for L(GExp), (b) for balanced parens, (c) for palidromes over {a, b}. CFG Exercise 4: Give a Greibach Normal Form grammar (a) for L(GExp), (b) for balanced parens, (c) for palidromes over {a, b}. Type 3 Exercise 1: Give an English characterization of the language generated by Gregular. If you use a large language model, then give the prompt that you used, and the response that you received, along with any edits or corrections that you made. Type 3 Exercise 2: Give a regular grammar that generates allowable identifiers in a fictional programming language, where the identifiers must begin with a letter, followed by any finite number of letters and digits. Special characters _ (underscore) and - (hyphen) can be used but no two of these special symbols can appear consecutively, nor can an identifier end in a special symbol. PL Exercise 5: Show that the set of strings of balanced parentheses is not regular using the Pumping Lemma. PL Exercise 6: Show that L = {0"i*i" | "i" is an integer and "i" ≥ 1} is not regular. I used "i*i" instead of i2 for reasons of formatting.

Minesweeper/Introduction. Minesweeper is a one player puzzle game in which a player's goal is to click on all of the tiles that do not have a mine hidden under them to win. Clicking on a tile with a mine results in the loss of the game. To do well in this simple yet addicting game game, no quick reflexes are needed, just a knack for numbers and some level of luck.

Arabic/Classical Arabic Readings. The Qur'an is often claimed to be, in addition to the Muslim scripture, the pinnacle of Arabic literature. The Qur'an is divided into chapters (in Arabic, sura pl. suwar [سورة ج. سور]). The sura in this link is the first sura in the Qur'an and is a common starting point for reading the Qur'an. Note though, that after this sura, it's often not advised to read the suwar in sequence, since the second sura, al-Baqara, is the longest in the Qur'an and can be daunting. Ibn Khaldun is considered one of the most important figures of Islamic history writing; some consider him the most important pre-modern historian from any culture. He developed a philosophy of history and is considered by some to be a founding father of sociology. The Muqaddima, or Introduction, is his most famous work, and is the first part of a longer work of universal history. In the Muqaddima, he lays out his philosophy of history.

Arabic/External Resources. LAFLWSP / Learning Arabic as a Foreign Language With a Studied Plan

Arabic/The Alphabet. Reading and Writing Basics. The standard way to write Arabic is with the Arabic writing system. In English, both consonants and vowels are represented prominently. For example, the letter "a" and the letter "b" occupy approximately equal area. Sometimes vowels are omitted for brevity, like in "Scrn Lk" for Screen Lock on a keyboard, but this is unusual. In the Arabic writing system, however, omitting vowels is the standard. Symbols for vowels are an afterthought in the Arabic writing system—they exist but are sprinkled on and are rarely used. So, how do people read Arabic when the writing system does not usually represent vowels? Experienced readers of Arabic are capable of predicting the vowels based on the context. For beginners, extra symbols are written to represent the vowels. In cases where the author of a text anticipates ambiguity, the author can write the minimum vowels necessary to resolve ambiguity. In this book, vowels will be taught in the next chapter. The direction of writing in the Arabic writing system is also different than in English. Arabic is written from right to left, unlike English, which is written from left to right. However, the vertical direction is the same as English; when a line is completed, the next line is placed below the previous line. Layouts. How the Arabic alphabet was organized has changed over the centuries. First was the abjad order going "a", "b", "j", "d". Standard Layout. Eventually, someone decided to organize the alphabet by shapes so that letters made with the same shapes went right after each other (it is one prevalent alphabet organization and used everywhere): ← read from right to left ← ا ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ك ل م ن ه و ي Pyramid Alphabet. Recently, someone found a different way to organize the alphabet: by type of tail, then by type of shape, then by type of dot. Letter Forms. In Arabic, most letters have 4 forms Letter Connections. Arabic letters can be split into two groups called connectors and non-connectors. Every connector will connect to the next letter in a word. Connectors and non-connectors. Some words may mix both connector and non-connector letters. Example 2. The above examples also show letters that change form to connect: ه (haa-single form) became هـ (haa-initial form). They are both the same letter but in different forms so they can be handwritten together. How do we know which form a letter is supposed to take on in a word? Connectors only. When a word has only connector letters, the following rules apply: With non-connectors. Non-connectors have only two forms: Connected and unconnected. It becomes connected if the previous letter is a connector. If the previous letter is a non-connector or if there is no previous letter, it remains unconnected. Non-connectors do not connect to subsequent letters and therefore create breaks in words. In the next examples, an ampersand (&) will be used to show that one letter does not connect to the next one (where the breaks are) in the following example. The breaks always occur directly after the non-connector. Example 2. With practice, you will be able to write better and better. Row 4: ب ت ث ف. All letters are named with the sound they make at the beginning of their names. The letters of row 4 are called "baa, taa, tħaa," and "faa." Now don't get confused, the first three do look similar, but are different letters because of the dots. The first letter up there has one dot underneath. The second one has two dots on top. The third has three dots snuggled up in a triangle shape. And the fourth letter has a different shape and only one dot. All of these letters have the same tail. They connect to letters after them, within a word. Remember, every letter has four forms. Exercises. Write out the letters that the word is made up of. Write out the letters in lonely form. Example: بـتـثـفـف= ب + ت + ث + ف + ف Put the letters together connecting each letters properly. A group of letters is shown connecting as they would in a word. Your job is to read the word from right-to-left (that is the way Arabic is written and read), and write the English transliteration letters (from left-to-right). Separate transliterated letters with dashes. Note: Because you have not learned about writing vowels in Arabic, the transliteration only includes consonants. For example "b-t-t", this means that the word contains the consonants in the word in that order, the vowels are not indicated yet. Because the vowels aren't indicated the pseudo-word might be pronounced /ba-ta-ta/, /bi-ti-ti/, /bit-ti/, /bat-tu/, /bu-tat/, /bat-ta/ and so on. Example: بـتـت /b-t-t/ Print out and trace the following letter combinations. Each of these is the initial, middle and final form of one letter.                                    ببب ببب                                       ببب ببب                                       تتت تتت                                       تتت تتت                                       ﺛﺜﺚ ﺛﺜﺚ                                       ﺛﺜﺚ ﺛﺜﺚ    Answers. The answer is on the far left after the equal sign. The part in the middle shows how they connect Rows 1 and 3: ه ك م ي. The letters written above are called "haa", "kaff", "mem", and "yaa". The unique thing about ه (haa) is that in most styles of writing all its forms look different. Exercises. Instructions: Write the Arabic letter that represents the sound that the English word starts with. If an English word has a silent letter, that letter does not count. Think about the sound, not the English spelling when doing this exercise. Example: think ث Write out the letters that the word is made up of. Write out the letters in lonely form. Example: هكمي = ه + ك + م + ي Put the letters together, connecting each letters properly. Row 2: ط ظ. These letters are often called emphatic. This means that the sound is both pharyngealized and partly velarized. The very back of the tongue is pushed against the back of the throat. In layman's terms, think of pronouncing the sound while simultaneously choking yourself. Phonetically, we write this by adding ˁ right after the sound. Row 7: س ش ص ض ق ل ن. Exercises. Write out the letters that the word is made up of. Write out the letters in lonely form. Example: بـت=؟ Answers. Answers are on the left side of the equal sign. Row 5: ج ح خ ع غ. These letters have the hook tail that looks like an L. Remember that tails only show up in the end and the lonely form of the letter. Row 6: ا د ذ ر ز و. All these letters are non-connectors and therefore have only two forms: connected and non-connected. Exercises. Write the Arabic letter that represents the first sound in the English word: Write the Arabic letter that represents the last sound in the English word: A group of letters is shown connecting as they would in a word. Your job is to read the word from right to left (that is the way Arabic is written and read), and write the English transliteration letters (from left to right). Separate transliterated letters with dashes. Note: Because you have not learned about writing vowels in Arabic, the transliteration only includes consonants. For example, "b-t-t": this means that the word contains the consonants in the word in that order, while the vowels are not indicated yet. Because the vowels aren't indicated the pseudo-word might be pronounced /ba-ta-ta/, /bi-ti-ti/, /bit-ti/, /bat-tu/, /bu-tat/, /bat-ta/ and so on. We learnt previously that the letter ب (baa) makes the "b" sound, its name is "baa". So بتت b-t-t can be spelt out (baa, taa, taa) but the pronunciation of the word is not the same as how it is spelt. Once you learn about writing vowels, you will be able to read words with vowels. Examples: بـتـت /b-t-t/ بـثـبـتـف /b-θ-b-t-f/ Write out the letters that the word is made up of. Write out the letters in lonely form. Example: بـت=؟ Answers. Note that any word written with a vowel sound is written beginning with an alif in Arabic. Answers are on the left side of the equal sign.

Chamteela/Part 2. Basic Phrases. The following table shows basic phrases and greetings in the Chamteela language. Refer back to Part 1 for information on the pronunciation.

The Christian meaning of life/Matthew 25. The meaning of Christian life is expressed in the three parables of chapter 25 of the Gospel of Matthew. The first 2 parables are preparatory, in view of the final meaning expressed in the third parable, so it is appropriate to immediately highlight the third: Matthew 25:31-46 (The Last Judgment). 31 “When the Son of Man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, he will sit on his glorious throne. 32 All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate the people one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats. 33 He will put the sheep on his right and the goats on his left. 34 “Then the King will say to those on his right, ‘Come, you who are blessed by my Father; take your inheritance, the kingdom prepared for you since the creation of the world. 35 For I was hungry and you gave me something to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me something to drink, I was a stranger and you invited me in, 36 I needed clothes and you clothed me, I was sick and you looked after me, I was in prison and you came to visit me.’ 37 “Then the righteous will answer him, ‘Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you, or thirsty and give you something to drink? 38 When did we see you a stranger and invite you in, or needing clothes and clothe you? 39 When did we see you sick or in prison and go to visit you?’ 40 “The King will reply, ‘Truly I tell you, whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me.’ 41 “Then he will say to those on his left, ‘Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels. 42 For I was hungry and you gave me nothing to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me nothing to drink, 43 I was a stranger and you did not invite me in, I needed clothes and you did not clothe me, I was sick and in prison and you did not look after me.’ 44 “They also will answer, ‘Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty or a stranger or needing clothes or sick or in prison, and did not help you?’ 45 “He will reply, ‘Truly I tell you, whatever you did not do for one of the least of these, you did not do for me.’ 46 “Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life.” What is certainly striking is the harshness with which Jesus expresses himself in this parable, which seems not to be reconciled with the revelation of a God of Love, but upon reflection, since the theme is the defense of the hungry, thirsty, foreign, naked, sick man , a prisoner who risks being left alone in his suffering, the harshness with which Jesus expresses himself is perfectly justifiable, also because Jesus knows the human soul and knows that man often tends to do something to get something in return. Therefore Jesus tells us that if we want eternal life we cannot for any reason in the world leave our neighbor in suffering. God, in his mercy, can forgive all our sins but he is not willing to compromise on this. God suffers when he sees man suffer and he cannot tolerate us living our lives peacefully while leaving others in suffering. Jesus not only sides decisively in favor of the least but identifies with them, so despite our possible indifference, God is with them and in them and we can serve God by serving them. The meaning of Christian life is therefore this. Prayer, the sacraments, our personal efforts to improve ourselves must be aimed solely at this purpose which is none other than the will of God. But how should we prepare to achieve this arduous objective? The first 2 parables of chapter 25 of Matthew explain it to us: Matthew 25:1-13 (Parable of the Ten Virgins). 1 “At that time the kingdom of heaven will be like ten virgins who took their lamps and went out to meet the bridegroom. 2 Five of them were foolish and five were wise. 3 The foolish ones took their lamps but did not take any oil with them. 4 The wise ones, however, took oil in jars along with their lamps. 5 The bridegroom was a long time in coming, and they all became drowsy and fell asleep. 6 “At midnight the cry rang out: ‘Here’s the bridegroom! Come out to meet him!’ 7 “Then all the virgins woke up and trimmed their lamps. 8 The foolish ones said to the wise, ‘Give us some of your oil; our lamps are going out.’ 9 “ ‘No,’ they replied, ‘there may not be enough for both us and you. Instead, go to those who sell oil and buy some for yourselves.’ 10 “But while they were on their way to buy the oil, the bridegroom arrived. The virgins who were ready went in with him to the wedding banquet. And the door was shut. 11 “Later the others also came. ‘Lord, Lord,’ they said, ‘open the door for us!’ 12 “But he replied, ‘Truly I tell you, I don’t know you.’ 13 “Therefore keep watch, because you do not know the day or the hour. Even in this case we note the harshness with which Jesus expresses himself, because to achieve the purposes expressed in the parable of the last judgment previously transcribed, nWe cannot think of not preparing ourselves spiritually. For whatever you do in life it is necessary to follow a training itinerary. No doctor can practice the profession of medicine unless he has first studied hard for several years. Therefore the parable of the ten virgins wants to tell us that we cannot ignore prayer, the sacraments, reading the Bible, etc. to achieve the purposes expressed in the parable of the Last Judgment. In fact, as we read in the Bible, oil is a symbol of the Spirit. The anointing of the sick with oil as we read in the Bible is a symbol of the action of the Spirit in us. We cannot expect to do anything good if God is not with us because as Jesus says in the parable of the vine and the branches: "Without me you can do nothing". It is our task to supply ourselves with "oil" through prayer, the sacraments, reading the Bible, offering our body, our mind, our soul as a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God to achieve the purposes expressed in the parable of universal judgement, that is, protecting and helping those who are hungry, thirsty, foreigners, naked, sick, in prison, etc. But this is still not enough, hence the next parable which precedes that of the universal judgement: Matthew 25:14-30 (The Parable of the Bags of Gold). 14 “Again, it will be like a man going on a journey, who called his servants and entrusted his wealth to them. 15 To one he gave five bags of gold, to another two bags, and to another one bag, each according to his ability. Then he went on his journey. 16 The man who had received five bags of gold went at once and put his money to work and gained five bags more. 17 So also, the one with two bags of gold gained two more. 18 But the man who had received one bag went off, dug a hole in the ground and hid his master’s money. 19 “After a long time the master of those servants returned and settled accounts with them. 20 The man who had received five bags of gold brought the other five. ‘Master,’ he said, ‘you entrusted me with five bags of gold. See, I have gained five more.’ 21 “His master replied, ‘Well done, good and faithful servant! You have been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things. Come and share your master’s happiness!’ 22 “The man with two bags of gold also came. ‘Master,’ he said, ‘you entrusted me with two bags of gold; see, I have gained two more.’ 23 “His master replied, ‘Well done, good and faithful servant! You have been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things. Come and share your master’s happiness!’ 24 “Then the man who had received one bag of gold came. ‘Master,’ he said, ‘I knew that you are a hard man, harvesting where you have not sown and gathering where you have not scattered seed. 25 So I was afraid and went out and hid your gold in the ground. See, here is what belongs to you.’ 26 “His master replied, ‘You wicked, lazy servant! So you knew that I harvest where I have not sown and gather where I have not scattered seed? 27 Well then, you should have put my money on deposit with the bankers, so that when I returned I would have received it back with interest. 28 “ ‘So take the bag of gold from him and give it to the one who has ten bags. 29 For whoever has will be given more, and they will have an abundance. Whoever does not have, even what they have will be taken from them. 30 And throw that worthless servant outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.’ The harshness with which Jesus expresses himself remains in this parable. If we want to protect and help those who are hungry, thirsty, they are foreigners, naked, sick, in prison, etc. we cannot ignore cultivating our talents and natural gifts. Anyone who can be a doctor because he has the natural ability cannot ignore studying for several years before being able to carry out the profession. If a doctor capable of carrying out this profession did not cultivate his natural talent, his fault would be very serious because many sick people would not be able to alleviate their suffering thanks to his help. Therefore, even in this case, God's judgment is very harsh towards the lazy doctor but always in view of the protection of the last expressed in the parable of the Last Judgment.

The Christian meaning of life/Mutual love. After the washing of the feet and the institution of the Eucharist, Jesus gives a long private speech to his disciples contained in chapters 13,14,15,16,17 of the Gospel of John. In this speech Jesus is not addressing the people, the Pharisees, the scribes but specifically his disciples, therefore it is a speech that concerns those who adhere and will adhere to his teaching. John 13-15. John 13:14 “Now that I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also should wash one another’s feet.” John 13:34-35 “A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another.” John 14:21 “ Whoever has my commands and keeps them is the one who loves me. The one who loves me will be loved by my Father, and I too will love them and show myself to them.” John 15:4-7 “ Remain in me, as I also remain in you. No branch can bear fruit by itself; it must remain in the vine. Neither can you bear fruit unless you remain in me. I am the vine; you are the branches. If you remain in me and I in you, you will bear much fruit; apart from me you can do nothing. If you do not remain in me, you are like a branch that is thrown away and withers; such branches are picked up, thrown into the fire and burned. If you remain in me and my words remain in you, ask whatever you wish, and it will be done for you." John 15:10-12 “ If you keep my commands, you will remain in my love, just as I have kept my Father’s commands and remain in his love. I have told you this so that my joy may be in you and that your joy may be complete. My command is this: Love each other as I have loved you. " John 15:17 “This is my command: Love each other.” Jesus specifically to his disciples and therefore to those who adhere to his teaching from a new commandment 3 times, different from "love your neighbor as yourself" which was already contained in the Old Testament (book of Leviticus) and whose meaning it is explained by Jesus in the Gospel of Luke with the parable of the Good Samaritan. This new commandment is "love one another, as I have loved you" therefore Jesus asks his disciples to be in communion of love, just as He is in communion of love with the Father. Being in communion of love between the disciples allows Jesus to manifest himself to them as we read in John 14:21 "I also will love him and will manifest myself to him". And being in communion with Jesus makes his disciples grafted into the vine and therefore capable of bearing fruit as we read in John 15:4-7. On this occasion, Jesus makes a concrete gesture to explain in what sense the disciples are called to love each other, that is, the washing of feet. In essence, mutual love between believers in Christ must go as far as taking care of what may seem reprehensible (washing someone's feet). The aim of a Christian's life is therefore to be in communion with God and with his brothers.

The Christian meaning of life/Love for others. The aim of a Christian's life is to live in communion with God and with his brothers according to the new commandment of Jesus contained in the Gospel of John, but the commandment of love towards one's neighbor contained in the book of Leviticus remains and Jesus explains its meaning with the parable of the good Samaritan: Leviticus 19:18 “ Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against anyone among your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the LORD. “ Luke 10:25-37 The Parable of the Good Samaritan 25 On one occasion an expert in the law stood up to test Jesus. “Teacher,” he asked, “what must I do to inherit eternal life?” 26 “What is written in the Law?” he replied. “How do you read it?” 27 He answered, “ ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind’ ; and, ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.’ ” 28 “You have answered correctly,” Jesus replied. “Do this and you will live.” 29 But he wanted to justify himself, so he asked Jesus, “And who is my neighbor?” 30 In reply Jesus said: “A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, when he was attacked by robbers. They stripped him of his clothes, beat him and went away, leaving him half dead. 31 A priest happened to be going down the same road, and when he saw the man, he passed by on the other side. 32 So too, a Levite, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. 33 But a Samaritan, as he traveled, came where the man was; and when he saw him, he took pity on him. 34 He went to him and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine. Then he put the man on his own donkey, brought him to an inn and took care of him. 35 The next day he took out two denarii and gave them to the innkeeper. ‘Look after him,’ he said, ‘and when I return, I will reimburse you for any extra expense you may have.’ 36 “Which of these three do you think was a neighbor to the man who fell into the hands of robbers?” 37 The expert in the law replied, “The one who had mercy on him.” Jesus told him, “Go and do likewise.”

The Christian meaning of life/Purifying suffering. 1 Corinthians 5:1-5. As we read in Saint Paul's first letter to the Corinthians, there can be a type of purifying suffering due to one's sins which serves to obtain "salvation on the day of the Lord": 1 It is actually reported that there is sexual immorality among you, and of a kind that even pagans do not tolerate: A man is sleeping with his father’s wife. 2 And you are proud! Shouldn’t you rather have gone into mourning and have put out of your fellowship the man who has been doing this? 3 For my part, even though I am not physically present, I am with you in spirit. As one who is present with you in this way, I have already passed judgment in the name of our Lord Jesus on the one who has been doing this. 4 So when you are assembled and I am with you in spirit, and the power of our Lord Jesus is present, 5 hand this man over to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, so that his spirit may be saved on the day of the Lord. Dark Night of St. John of the Cross. Then there is a type of purifying suffering as passive personal purification, which prepares the soul for perfect union with God...Such purification ... appears necessary to remove the defects of the proficient (those who are on the path to perfection) of which Saint John of the Cross speaks in the Dark Night: CHAPTER 9 Where we talk about the signs by which we recognize that the spiritual person is in this night or purification of the senses. 1. This dryness can often derive not from the night or purification of the senses, but from sins, imperfections, weaknesses, lukewarmness, or from some bad mood or physical ailment. For this reason I will indicate here some signs to discern whether this aridity has its origin in the purification of the senses or one of the defects listed above. In this regard there are three main signs. 2. The first is the absence of taste and consolation in the things of God and in anything created. In fact, when God introduces the soul into this dark night to lead it to aridity and purify it from sensitive appetite, he does not allow it to feel consolation in anything. 3. The second sign that confirms the presence of purification of the senses consists in habitually remembering God with a concern and attention that causes pain; we worry about not serving God, or rather about regressing, because we no longer enjoy divine things. This shows that disgust and aridity do not come from weakness and lukewarmness. 8. The third sign to recognize the purification of the senses is the inability on the part of the soul to meditate or speak using the imagination, as he did before, no matter how much effort he makes. Now God begins to communicate himself to the soul not through the senses, as previously; not through the discursive activity that composes and orders cognitions; but through the pure spirit, in which reasoning does not develop.

The Christian meaning of life/Reparative suffering. Even those who are unable to pursue the Christian meaning of life highlighted in Matthew 25, for example due to a disabling disease, have their own Christian meaning, that is, that of contributing to completing in their flesh what is missing from Christ's sufferings in favor of his body which is the Church as we read in Colossians 1.24 Colossians 1:24. 24 Therefore I am happy in the sufferings that I endure for you and I complete in my flesh what is lacking in the sufferings of Christ, for the sake of his body which is the Church. With this verse from the letter to the Colossians, Saint Paul highlights the Church as the body of Christ and that there is a type of human suffering that has the function of completing the redemptive suffering of Christ on behalf of the Church. Apostolic Letter SALVIFICI DOLORIS by John Paul II. In the apostolic letter "Salvifici Doloris" it is explained how the completion of Christ's sufferings in favor of his body which is the Church by those who have this type of suffering: In this way, with such openness to all human suffering, Christ brought about the redemption of the world with his own suffering. In fact, at the same time, this redemption, even if accomplished in all its fullness with the suffering of Christ, lives and develops in his way in the history of man. It lives and develops as the body of Christ, which is the Church, and in this dimension every human suffering, by virtue of union in love with Christ, completes the suffering of Christ. It completes it just as the Church completes the redemptive work of Christ. The mystery of the Church - of that body which in itself also completes the crucified and resurrected body of Christ - simultaneously indicates that space in which human sufferings complete the sufferings of Christ. Only in this radius and in this dimension of the Church-body of Christ, which continually develops in space and time, can one think and speak of "what is missing" from Christ's sufferings. The Apostle, moreover, clearly highlights this when he writes of the completion of "what is missing from the sufferings of Christ, in favor of his body which is the Church". Be my light page 388. As we read in the book "Be my light" about Mother Teresa, this type of redemptive or reparative suffering can also exist in servants of God without necessarily any disabling disease, but with a tribulation that would be like that indicated by Saint Paul in Colossians 1 ,24: Reading the works of Saint John of the Cross leads us to consider the night of the soul mainly as a passive personal purification, which prepares the soul for perfect union with God...Such purification... appears necessary to remove the defects of the proficient (those who are on the path to perfection) of which the author speaks in the Dark Night Book II chapter 10. The lives of some great servants of God dedicated in a particular way to reparation, to immolation for the salvation of souls or to the apostolate through interior suffering, however, suggest a prolongation of the night of the soul even after their entry into union transforming. In such cases, such a tribulation would no longer be primarily purifying but would be reparative. Benedetta Bianchi Porro. A clear example of this meaning of life linked to redemptive and reparative suffering is the Blessed Benedetta Bianchi Porro, deaf, blind and capable in recent years of moving only a few fingers of her right hand with which she communicated with the world. These are some thoughts contained in her apistolario: "We are the land that hopes under the snow - because all things are where they must be and go where they must go, in the place assigned by a Wisdom that is not ours" "I always offer my pains to the Lord, but I don't ask him to use them for some purpose. He knows better than me what purpose they can serve him" "Heroism is not rebelling. Accept everything with courage. And everything by magic, it will become fatally simple and full of heavenly peace."

Annotated King Reference Manual/Introduction. King is a high-level, strongly typed, general-purpose language for engineering software. The content of this wikibook is based on the original work available at King repository. As this work is on going, the present wikibook should rather be titled the "Incomplete Annotated King Reference Manual". The main objective of this wikibook is to provide some formalization of King programming language and its programming environment. Thus, future tool designs, librairies and so on may rely on strong detailed and annotated définitions. One side objective is to submit language definition discussions in order to elaborate some language enhancements. For this purpose, for each definition, a discussion section is available to collect proposals. When agreed these proposals may be applied to the definition. It is understood that until these new definitions are included in the original work, they cannot be considered part of the King language.

Evalution of Online Sources/Introduction. Information on how to decide a video, audio, text, book or any similar source is reliable or not. A step by step guide and list of the reliable sources on various themes. I/ do use internet to find sources for Wikipedia editing and my research work in my capacity as a researcher for various institutions and my own projects too. So I have learned a few methods, ways to find out reliable sources online. I would try and share most of it here in this book. Many a times I was asked to see a video, text or listen to a audio which was shared to them via Whatsapp, Facebook or similar mediums and I was asked to comment on it. When I examined that source I realized it's not just fake but its spreading misinformation. There I decided I should create a easy to read book on how to evaluate a online source for laymen/non-academic/non-researcher persons.

Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Viet Cong Tunnel Network. This casebook is a case study on The Viet Cong Tunnels by Kheira Bekkadja, Chloe Duncan, and Camille Fulton as part of the Infrastructure Past, Present and Future: GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-005 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) Spring 2024 course at George Mason University's Schar School of Policy and Government and the Volgenau School of Engineering Sid and Reva Dewberry Department of Civil, Environmental, and Infrastructure Engineering. Modeled after the Transportation Systems Casebook. Under the instruction of Prof. Jonathan Gifford. Summary The Viet Cong Tunnels were created by Viet Minh soldiers trying to escape the French Colonization and expanded by Viet Cong soldiers in an attempt to better combat American soldiers during the Vietnam War. These tunnels were used to ambush and transport for the Viet Cong army. It is now a memorial in Ho Chi Minh City to the Vietnam War. Tunnels were dug mostly by hand. Americans tended to bomb from planes, so the Viet Cong went underground. These tunnels were extremely small, often only a few feet wide, and often dropped off or angled violently without warning. They were fortified to resist blasts from above, meaning it was difficult to destroy these tunnels, and the army within would survive the bombs. These tunnels contained hospitals, sleeping areas, and kitchens. There was even a tank found within these tunnels. "A United States Marine exploring the inside of a Viet Cong Tunnel network." Notable Actors French Indochina: Former French colonial territories in Southeast Asia. Established in 19th century Vietnam and later disestablished in 1954. Viet Minh: An anti-colonial political group formed from the Indochinese Communist Party. Mainly comprised of North Vietnamese citizens and active during French colonial occupation. Viet Cong: The primary militaristic force of North Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Responsible for the construction and planning of Viet Cong Tunnel Networks. The United States Marine Corps: Responsible for Operation Cedar Falls and the partial deconstruction of Viet Cong Tunnel networks inside the Iron Triangle. Timeline of Events Late 1940s: An early, rudimentary network of tunnels was formed during the First Indochina War, a war for independence fought between colonial France and Vietnam. "Example of Viet Cong Tunnel Network." August 1954: Operation Passage to Freedom benchmarks a display of the United States’ opposition to rising communist ideas in Vietnam. This is not the first action taken by the United States to show opposition, but it did further the divide between the two nations and strengthened support for the Viet Cong. Early 1960s: Increasing support for a communist Vietnam amid new independence provides aid in expanding the tunnel network. January 1966-1969: Operation Cedar Falls begins carpet bombing by the United States military rendering tunnels unusable. “ [United States] Army Engineers explored, plotted, and destroyed over 10,900 yards of Viet Cong tunnels and tunnel complexes in the "Iron Triangle" of South Vietnam.” "Map of Operation Cedar Falls." Early 1968: Viet Cong forces reinfiltrated tunnels and prepared for the Tet Offensive. 1975: Tunnels are memorialized by the Vietnamese government and preserved within a memorial park network. November 1994: Tunnels open to the public as a tourist attraction. Funding and Financing The Viet Cong tunnels are a unique piece of infrastructure as most of these tunnels did not require funding or financing. They were made entirely by hand by people who volunteered or were forced to dig the tunnels to assist the Viet Cong. This means that there were no funds allocated in a traditional sense, as all of the funding came from those who supported the Viet Cong and wanted to help dig the tunnels or were forced into digging the tunnels. This was free labor, the Viet Cong was able to make this huge network of tunnels without actually having to pay someone. The tunnels did not need much funding, as they were made simply by people digging through the dirt. While there were booby traps and other things to stop intruders, these were homemade and also did not require funding. The tools used to dig these tunnels had been acquired due to the pilfering of battle sites, meaning that these tools were not purchased or funded. Institutional Arrangements Narrative of the Case The Viet Cong tunnels were created as a way to think outside the box when it came to war strategies. The Viet Cong knew that the army they were fighting against was not used to the terrain and thick jungle around them, so they created these tunnels as a way to better ambush the troops they were fighting against. This allowed the Viet Cong to have the element of surprise on their side and gave them an advantage as they could quickly escape without being noticed due to the fact they were traveling underground.This proved challenging for the US army, as these tunnels gave their enemy an advantage. The US army attempted to destroy these tunnels many times, often unsuccessfully due to the dense nature of the soil in Vietnam, and eventually resorted to sending American troops into the tunnels to fight hand-to-hand with the Viet Cong soldiers they encountered.These tunnels were extremely confusing and no set of tunnels were the same, making it extremely difficult for the US army to gain any headway against the Viet Cong. However, the US army was able to persevere and find other ways to combat the Viet Cong despite the challenges they were faced with by using chemicals such as Agent Orange and strong explosive devices to fight the Viet Cong soldiers in the tunnels. The takeaways from this experience should be that warfare is never easy and that thinking out of the box is necessary for victory. The Viet Cong’s creative approach to warfare made them a formidable enemy, and the US Army’s flexible and adaptive approaches made them a good challenger to the Viet Cong’s ideas. Policy Issues The Viet Cong tunnels, also known as the Cu Chi tunnels, were an extensive network of underground tunnels used by the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. These tunnels were crucial to the Viet Cong's guerrilla warfare tactics. In terms of infrastructure, the key policy issues included counterinsurgency- defined as any political or military action taken against the activities of guerrillas and military tactics. These primitive constructions were incredibly important to the Viet Cong during the Vietnam war. The groundwork of the tunnels was laid by the Viet Minh while fighting France’s colonial control and was expanded upon by the Viet Cong. Inside, these tunnels stretched for miles and contained hospitals, ammunition and equipment stores, living areas, headquarters, and fighting positions. The initial response of US officials upon encountering the Viet Cong tunnels was to employ a strategy reliant on sheer force to eradicate them. Operations such as Operation Crimp involved the deployment of thousands of troops to scour the jungles of Vietnam in search of these underground passages. Upon discovery, the tunnels were targeted for destruction through methods such as "crimping" with explosives or inundation with gas or water. However, it swiftly became apparent that these approaches were ineffective. In response to the overwhelming technological superiority of US and allied forces during the Vietnam Conflict, the Viet Cong devised a strategic policy centered on the development of an extensive network of subterranean tunnel complexes. These complexes, primarily concentrated in regions like Cu Chi but extending to the outskirts of Saigon, provided the Viet Cong with a tactical advantage, enabling them to launch ambushes against American forces before retreating into the safety of the tunnels. Over time, the tunnels evolved into sophisticated underground communities, featuring amenities such as armories, hospitals, mess halls, manufacturing centers, and storage facilities. Some tunnel systems extended for up to 40 miles, with the Cu Chi complex alone boasting an intricate network spanning 130 miles of passageways. While the Viet Cong's extensive network of underground tunnels indeed posed challenges to US and allied forces, it was not solely a response to their technological advantage. Instead, it was a strategic adaptation born out of necessity in the face of overwhelming firepower. The tunnels, primarily concentrated around Cu Chi but extending to the outskirts of Saigon, were not only used for ambushes but also served as vital logistical hubs and shelters for Viet Cong fighters. Reliance on tunnel warfare tied down significant resources and manpower for the Viet Cong. Constructing and maintaining such extensive tunnel networks required labor-intensive efforts and diverted resources away from other potentially more effective strategies. Additionally, the static nature of tunnel warfare limited the Viet Cong's ability to conduct large-scale offensives and seize and hold territory. Takeaways The Viet Cong tunnel infrastructure primarily pertains to the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War, which lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s, saw extensive use of guerrilla tactics by the Viet Cong, including the construction and utilization of underground tunnel networks. The Vietnam War revealed that in the face of technologically superior adversaries, innovative and adaptable tactics can provide significant advantages to insurgent forces. The Viet Cong's utilization of an extensive underground tunnel network, meticulously constructed and strategically deployed, showcased the effectiveness of unconventional warfare methods. Discussion Questions References

Guitar/Major Patterns. =The Major Patterns= In the following lessons we want to deal with the major scale and scales derived from the major scale (especially the natural minor). We assume certain basic knowledge in playing guitar. The major and minor scales cover a wide range of music. However, I want to say right away that this doesn't cover everything. Especially in blues and blues-influenced rock improvisations, other scales are required. And if you're hoping to improvise like this in the near future because someone on some video portal told you to do that, then I'll have to temper your expectations a bit. This is primarily about pop and rock songs that are set in a major or minor scale. Other scales and genres will be the subject of another lesson. But you have to start improvising somewhere, and the following so-called CAGED scales are a good way to get started. Foundation. We'll start with the C major scale, which you can hopefully already understand in the first three frets. It is a good exercise to write down the arrangement of the tones of the entire fretboard on a calculator sheet, while observing the correct spacing (half and whole tone steps). So that we can transpose the scale as desired, we will only consider the intervals of the major scales. These intervals can be transferred to any other key. The following scale contains all the notes of a major scale. The scales can be transposed like a barre chord. Think of it as if you were working with a capo. The number "1" indicates the position of the root note of a major scale. , will help you find the root notes. You discover the root of the major scale by looking for the semitone steps. So all you have to do is move the scale back and forth on your fingerboard until the "1" is on the root note of your desired major scale, then you can use the scale. However, the entire scale across the entire fingerboard is a bit too much, so we'd better divide it into smaller, useful sections. =Attention: Don't learn everything at once!= Trying to learn everything at once is quite tiring. You don't learn to improvise in a weekend. So plan enough time for learning and practicing. And don't expect your first attempts at improvisation to sound particularly good. They don't have to do that at all. It should only fit halfway, because you're not supposed to be able to improvise, you're supposed to learn it. However, all musical scales can be broken down into many small elements, which can then be found and learned very easily. You can then assemble the scales from the small elements like in a Lego game. And with that you can conquer one scale after the other. We will first start by learning the 5 so-called CAGED scales. Don't get carried away. Don't be blinded by unrealistic promises on video portals and don't listen to anything that's only intended for advanced players. The first exercises are plain and simple. It's just a matter of getting your hands on the fingerings. The first improvisations on songs are also carried out at a moderate tempo (i.e. slowly). It must initially not be rhythmically demanding and sophisticated. And there is no intention of an independent solo yet. This is what you work on when you have the scales in your fingers safely and without thinking. If an exercise example is too demanding, postpone it until a later repetition and in the meantime practice the somewhat simpler exercises on all string positions. Slide module. Although the 5 CAGED scales are fundamental to improvising on the fretboard, they do not cover everything that one may encounter when improvising on major and minor scales. We will learn how you can easily slide from one scale form into the neighboring scale form. Maybe the barre chords or power chords are easier to grasp there, or you can get a run or a lick or an ornament (e.g. hammering) easier. For this we will use the slide modulethat you have already seen in the animation. or between the G and B strings: This will allow you to improvise across the entire fretboard and at the same time learn that no one is forcing you to stay locked in a scale, as the English word CAGED suggests. View a particular pattern more like an orientation in city maps, where the transition to neighboring towns and suburbs is smooth. In the animation you can clearly see how the individual scale sections overlap. If you know the simple basic chords, you can clearly assign the scale sections to a major chord shape. The small blue rectangles mark the semitone steps that will serve as a guide and will later show you a way to easily move from one scale shape to the next one. Excursus: Minor scales can be derived from the major scales. Before you try to memorize the correct intervals of the minor scales, let's make learning a little easier by initially viewing each minor scale as a relative minor to the major scale. The only thing you have to keep in mind is that the root of the minor chords here does not start with the "1", as is usually the case, but with the "6", since the root of a minor chord corresponds to the sixth note of the relative Major scale respectively chord corresponds. Actually, the intervals of a minor scale are not counted like this: but the intervals should correctly be counted like this. The intervals for the minor scale would then be set correctly, but it wouldn't be of much use for your initial orientation. It confuses more than it helps at this point. This doesn't make the scales any clearer. Therefore, it is much easier if the major scales fit the relative minor keys at the same time. In this case we are usually talking about a pattern, i.e. a pattern that fits several scales (major or minor and also church keys). By scale we usually mean a specific scale, by pattern the pure fingering that has not yet been determined in major or minor or another mode. But don't be surprised if we accidentally use the terms interchangeably. So we proceed like reading music. The music reader first uses the accidentals to determine the underlying major key and only in the second step does he check based on the chords or the tone sequence whether there is a minor key or another mode. You can catch up later on what the intervals look like in detail if you are more interested in jazz chords and jazz harmony. Speaking of jazz chords; We assume that you initially prefer the barre chords of the E and A forms for finding the root tones and will therefore focus more on these. Later, the other chord shapes that you get to know with your repertoire in fingerstyle and jazz will also serve as your orientation. Expand CAGED. The 5 CAGED scales do not always provide a convenient transition between barre chords, arpeggios and improvisation. They also contain some difficult chord shapes. And if you seeIf you want to play quickly, the place where there are only two notes on one string disrupts the flow of the playing. A few hammerings or slides don't work at all because the corresponding notes are on different strings. You will learn that every fingering on every string (and consequently also on all CAGED scales) can be extended anywhere by two frets to the right or to the left. This of course changes the fingering and causes individual fingers to overextend, but some licks and riffs work better this way. We will derive other scale concepts from the CAGED scales in this way. This way you keep the orientation you acquired with CAGED, because you always know where the square or where the next semitone steps are. 3NPS. We use the above-mentioned extension for the (3NPS for short), which opens up further possibilities for us. (Especially the ). As you can see, you have to stretch your fingers too much and you have to change position several times with the 3NPS scales. In addition, you can no longer easily extend this fingering by two frets to the right or left, as was possible with the 5 CAGED scales. But we still have the 1st and 2nd fingering of the CAGED scales that we learned before, so not everything will be completely new for you. explained. You can easily switch from a barré chord to improvisation via the 3NPS, no matter what function the chord currently has (tonic, subdominant, dominant or their parallels). In this way you are gradually introduced to modal improvisation (church scale for the AST = chord scale theory). Berklee Scales. If you later want to play more demanding polyphonic arrangements (especially jazz, classical and fingerstyle), you can expand the CAGED and 3NPS scales to the so-called by William Levitt. It avoids changing position, but does not require hyperextension. And it is not structured as systematically as the previous ones. It uses all the notes in one position, and you can sometimes use more handy chord shapes than with the previous scales. If you discover the proximity to the CAGED and 3NpS scales, not everything will be completely new to you, and you will easily keep your bearings even with the Berklee scales. With the ability to expand a CAGED scale by two frets to the right or left at any time, you can work on both the 3NPS scales and then the Berklee scales. Each of the has its particular strengths.

Guitar/Structure of the CAGED scale shapes. = Structure of the major and minor scales according to a slightly modified CAGED system = Hopefully you have read the previous introduction to the major scales, where the upcoming lessons were already outlined. This course is about improvising melodically over simple songs set in major and natural minor keys. Here we want to learn the division of the fingerboard according to the CAGED system, which can be learned quickly, especially for beginners in the subject of 'improvisations in major and minor'. First we break down the major scale into manageable units, then we build each of the five CAGED scales from the individual parts The 5 CAGED scales. We want to learn the following five scales in this course. We assign the major scales to a barre chord, which is also the basic chord (tonic) of the scale. The sequence of the chord, pentatonic or major scale shapes of the same name ('shapes') follows a certain order, which can be easily remembered using the mnemonic "CAGED". The barre chords can be easily derived from the basic chords. The only important thing for the CAGED system is the position of the fundamental tones in relation to the respective chord or scale. You already know basic tones from your beginners' lessons. And you should already be familiar with the principle of chord shapes from the bare chords. The stupid thing about the mnemonic 'CAGED' is that it actually only works problem-free for major chords or major pentatonics. With minor, the mnemonic reaches its limits. And the mnemonic doesn't describe many of the connections that you learned about in the circle of fifths (e.g. when you took the ). So it may not really surprise you that here in the Wikibooks we have alternative names for the obviously missing shapes. If you know barre chords, and if you can do something with the phrase: "grasp the A major like an F barre on the 5th fret!" , you shouldn't have any problems with it. The names of the scales are derived from the following simple scales in the first frets: All chords known from the simple keys mentioned above, bass lines and the like can largely be transferred to the corresponding 5 CAGED scales, almost as if the scale had been moved to a higher position using a capo. The double naming (or the modification of the CAGED system) is explained again in the corresponding lessons, or described as a summary in the chapter . = Orientation on the fretboard = To ensure that a scale doesn't just remain a dot image, you first need a landmark. A very good method is the intervals of the major scale. Later you derive the natural minor scale from the major scale, in which the sixth (6) of the scale becomes the fundamental note. There are also some songs in which the second (2) or fifth (5) becomes the fundamental note. Then you don't play major or minor, but Doric (2) or Mixolydian (5). You do this in much the same way as a music reader. This first determines the major scale based on the accidentals and then the actual key or mode based on the chords and tones. How the intervals then behave relative to the new fundamental note (as demonstrated in the introduction to the major patterns for the minor key) does not have to be of interest to you for the time being. We'll take a closer look at the 3-note per-string scales. It can wait until then. Find the “square”. Take a closer look at the major scale. We ignore all colors and numbers here. Notice anything about the scale? You should actually notice the notes that are a little closer together or that don't have an empty fret between them. Then you should notice that two of the slightly closer intervals are usually exactly on top of each other. To get a general idea of ​​how to memorize the scales, I recommend you look for the “square”. More precisely, you are looking for the semitone steps in the scale. A semitone step is the pitch distance from one fret to the next;<br> and with a whole tone step there is still a fret in between, which is usually not fingered.<br> So pay attention to the distance between 3 and 4 and the distance between j7 and 1. The semitone steps for the key of C major can be represented quite clearly on a piano keyboard. You should know the spacing of the semitone steps from the structure of a scale. There is no black key between the notes E and F and between the notes B and C (note that our B is called H in German and some other languages). There is no fret between the notes E/F and B/C on the guitar's fretboard. And the fundamental note C is one of the tones in semitones. The semitone steps are well arranged on the guitar board as a small "square" (square). You can find this very easily, even if the scale only consists of black dots, or someone has numbered it strangely (or relative to the chord root). Once you have found the "square", you can easily find the root note of the major scale. From your perspective as a guitar player, the "1" is always at the top right of the "square". As soon as the fundamental note (1) is found, the remaining intervals arise automatically. You can orientate yourself very well on the basic tones of the simple major and minor chords. Now it pays off that you know where the root notes are in the simple chords. You simply have to know these basic tone patterns by heart. But you don't need to know much more to clearly assign a scale to a chord shape . Three fingerings. Two of the following three fingerings can be derived from the “square”. 1st Fingering. The “square” is on the left in this fingering. Practice this on all string positions <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=120\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 5-3-3;5-4-4;5-6-5; 6-3-7;6-4-1;6-6-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 4-3-3;4-4-4;4-6-5; 5-3-7;5-4-1;5-6-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 3-3-3;3-4-4;3-6-5; 4-3-7;4-4-1;4-6-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> When switching between the G and B strings, the lower part of the fingering must be moved one fret to the right. (Why? Later!) Everything is back to normal between the B and E strings <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 2-4-3;2-5-4;2-7-5; 3-3-7;3-4-1;3-6-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% Abstandshalter \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 1-4-3;1-5-4;1-7-5; 2-4-7;2-5-1;2-7-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> The Roman 3 (III) or the Roman 4 (IV) are information for the frets. But which fret you start practicing on is completely up to you. Maybe first practice in a higher position (from the 5th fret) where the distance between the fingers is as comfortable as possible. Later you can practice in lower positions (1-5), where you have to spread your fingers a little more. Move up and down the individual notes and try to get the fingering into your fingers. No melody, no solo, no improvisation, no rhythm or anything else is required yet. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1st Fingering (E- / F-Form) in C major" subtitle="pure scale" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c' { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #7 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key c \major b,8 c d e f g f e d c b c d e f g f e d c b c d e f g f e d c b c \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> In the second step, you can try to always start and end your dubbing with the number 1. Note that you only practice the first fingering on 2 strings. No longer! Only on the second pass does the next pair of strings come on, and then the one after that. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1st Fingering (Bb- / A-Form) in C major" subtitle="pure scale" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #2 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key c \major c8 d e f g f e d c b c d e f g f e d c b c d e f g f e d c b c4 \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> Then you can play around with the intervals. (e.g. skip every 2nd tone...) <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1st Fingering (E- / F-Form) in C major" subtitle="towards C and G7 arpeggio" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c' { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #7 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key c \major c, e g e g f d b b d f g g e c e g f d b c e g e \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> The first attempts are not about replaying tablature, but simply about experimenting. We start playing small motifs after the first jingling around. Exercises. The following exercises often contain a series of one or two bar sequences. A sequence is a motif that repeats itself at different pitches. There are also excerpts from classical pieces, folk songs, children's songs, etc. The simple structure or familiarity of the melodies should make practicing easier. This means you don't have to decipher every single note from the tablature, but your fingers find their position more easily in anticipation of the melody. One bar sequences. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=120\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 5-7-3;5-8-4;5-10-5; 6-7-7;6-8-1;6-10-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Note that the root note (1) is under the middle finger (i.e. on the second fret of this fingering). When doing your free improvisation in major, it's best to start with (1). You can find the fundamental note C here in the 8th fret on the E string under the middle finger. A power chord (e.g. C5) or a normal chord at the end is optional (i.e. optional). A chord like this calibrates your ear to the root note of the key you are currently playing. However, you have to think about how you get from the chord back to the fingering. This is sometimes easier, sometimes more difficult. Therefore, a chord is intended for later repetition. At the beginning, the basic note is sufficient as a conclusion. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1st Fingering (E- / F-Form) in C major" subtitle="One bar sequences" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c' { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #7 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key c \major g8 f e f g e f g f e d e f d e f e d c d e c d e d c b c d b c d \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> Half-bar sequences. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 4-7-3;4-8-4;4-10-5; 5-7-7;5-8-1;5-10-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> This time you have half-measure sequences that are repeated once. Even without knowledge of music, you can follow the progression and repetitions of the sequences more easily using the sheet music than using the tablature; especially if you listen to the exercise at the same time. The optional power chord at the end stabilizes the fundamental tone again. You can find the fundamental note F in the 8th fret on the A string. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1st Fingering (A- / Bb-Form) in F major" subtitle="Half-bar sequences" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #7 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key f \major f8 c' bes a g bes a g f a g f e g f e f1 f8 c' bes a g bes a g \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> A bird wanted to get married. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 3-7-3;3-8-4;3-10-5; 4-7-7;4-8-1;4-10-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Here I found a relatively well-known German children's song that fits the 1st fingering perfectly. The tone durations are difficult for those unfamiliar with notes to read. But if you know the piece or have listened to it several times, it is not an insurmountable difficulty. The root note Bb can be found in the 8th fret on the D string. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1st Fingering (D-Form) in Bb major" subtitle="Ein Vogel wollte Hochzeit machen" subsubtitle="German children's song" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #7 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key bes \major r2. r8 d'8 | f8 d f d es c es c | d bes f' d c( f) f f16 d | \break bes8 8 8 f'16 d c8 c c f16 es | d8 bes c a bes4 r4 \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> Half-bar sequences with changes of position. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 2-5-3;2-6-4;2-8-5; 3-4-7;3-5-1;3-7-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> In the G shape there is a change of position between the G and B strings. You always have to come up with a strategy for when and how best to change positions. If you're lucky, you'll find a hint in the sheet music showing how you can change the position conveniently. I recommend that you use your middle finger where the 2 is above the notes. Consider such advice only as a suggestion, because there is no binding rule as to how the change of position should take place. If you practice the same sequences a few strings higher or lower, it becomes easier. By the way, you can practice every single exercise on all string positions. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1st Fingering (G-Form) in C major" subtitle="Half-bar sequences with changes of position" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c' { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #4 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key c \major g'8 e f g f d e f e c-2 d e d b c d c1 g'8 e f g f d e f \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> warm-up (before singing). <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% Abstandshalter \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 1-2-3;1-3-4;1-5-5; 2-2-7;2-3-1;2-5-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Many people who have ever sung in a choir are familiar with these two motifs. Unfortunately, many songs do not correspond exactly in their range to one of the full three fingerings or the scales that follow later. Most of the time only excerpts from the patterns are needed. In the first motif, for example, the major seventh (j7) before the fundamental is missing. The second motif contains the major seventh (j7). The second motif calibrates the choir to the key required. Here only chord tones are played in an ascending or descending tone sequence (also called arpeggios). The A7 chord contains both the leading tone (j7), which leads to the root note (1), and the buttress tone (4), which moves towards the major third (3). With the two exciting tones that want to resolve to the basic chord, the choir is placed in the major key. Here I don't need to explain to you where the fundamental note D is. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1st Fingering (C-Form) in D major" subtitle="warm-up (before singing)" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c' { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #2 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key d \major d8^\markup { \bold {D} } e fis g a g fis e | d1 d8 e fis g a g fis e | d1 \break d4^\markup { \bold {D} } fis8 a | g4^\markup { \bold {A7} } e8 cis | d1^\markup { \bold {D} } d4^\markup { \bold {D} } fis8 a | g4^\markup { \bold {A7} } e8 cis | \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #0 \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> 2nd Fingering. The “square” is on the right in this fingering. Practice this on all string positions too. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 5-3-2;5-5-3;5-6-4; 6-3-6;6-5-7;6-6-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 4-3-2;4-5-3;4-6-4; 5-3-6;5-5-7;5-6-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 3-3-2;3-5-3;3-6-4; 4-3-6;4-5-7;4-6-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> For the 2nd fingering, the lower fingering must also be moved one fret to the right between the G and B strings. Again, everything is normal between the B and E strings! For the 2nd fingering, the lower fingering must also be moved one fret to the right between the G and B strings. Again, everything is normal between the B and E strings! <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 2-4-2;2-6-3;2-7-4; 3-3-6;3-5-7;3-6-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% Abstandshalter \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 1-4-2;1-6-3;1-7-4; 2-4-6;2-6-7;2-7-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Excursus: Switch between the G and B strings. Do you still remember tuning the guitar? You played almost all the strings at the 5th fret and tuned them as pure fourths. Therefore, all fingerings on the strings tuned in fourths look the same. You just went from the G to the B string on the 4th fret. That's a major third. Accordingly, the intervals between the two strings G and B always have one fewer fret, which means that the intervals on the B string slide one fret further to the right. Rondeau (excerpt). <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 5-5-2;5-7-3;5-8-4; 6-5-6;6-7-7;6-8-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> The one-bar sequence was taken from a Rondeau by JS Bach that you can repeat as desired. You can find the root note C again in the 8th fret on the E string; this time under the pinky. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="2nd Fingering (G-Form) in C major" subtitle="Rondeau (excerpt)" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #5 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key c \major \repeat volta 2 { e8 d e f e d c e d c d e d c b d c b c d c b a c b a b c d b c d \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> "The ugly duckling" or "All my ducklings" in minor. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 4-5-2;4-7-3;4-8-4; 5-5-6;5-7-7;5-8-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> The previous exercise was in major, and here we use the same fingering in minor. As you can see and hear, a fingering or a pattern cannot be clearly assigned to a single key. The final note or the final chord (here the note D or the chord Dm) determines the key. The keynote D here is the sixth (6) of the underlying major pattern. It can be easily derived from the tuning tone in the 5th fret of the A string. If there are two note stems above a number in a tablature, this is a sign of a half note that lasts two beats. Since this looks very unusual for many guitarists, bar lines in the tablature are often omitted. In this case, the duration of the tone can be determined solely from the note values. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="2. Fingersatz (Am-Form) in Dm" subtitle="Das häßliche Entlein" subsubtitle="oder: Alle meine Entchen in Moll" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #5 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key d \minor d4 e f g a2 2 bes4 4 4 4 a1 bes4 4 4 4 a1 g4 4 4 4 f2 2 e4 4 4 4 d1 \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> The Vltava (main motif). <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 3-2-2;3-4-3;3-5-4; 4-2-6;4-4-7;4-5-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> The sequence of tones (more precisely the intervals) of the following exercise is almost exactly the same as the previous one, just at a different tone level. But with the different rhythm it is very similar to the main motif of the composition "The Vltava" by Bedrich Smetana (without an upbeat and rhythmically simplified). Even if it only goes up and down the minor scale (as in the 7th exercise), you will hopefully notice how much the beat and rhythm make a difference to the effect. If you later think that your improvisations sound boring, then you should focus more on rhythm. You can also work a little with batting patterns. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="2nd (Dm-Form) in Em" subtitle="The Vltava (main motif)" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #2 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key e \minor e4 fis8 g4 a8 b4. b4. c4. c4. b2. a4. a4. g4 a8 g4. fis4. fis4. e2. \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 6/8 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> Sasha (simplified). <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 2-3-2;2-5-3;2-6-4; 3-2-6;3-4-7;3-5-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> The song "Sascha" is played here on the G and B strings. We have to come up with strategies as to which fingering we use best for changing positions. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="2nd Fingering (Em-Form) in Am" subtitle="Sasha (simplified)" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c' { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #2 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key c \major \repeat volta 2 { e8-4 e e c-3 e e e c | b d-3 c-4 b c a a a | \repeat volta 2 { f'-4 f f r e e e r | e d c-4 b a a a r | \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #5 \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 60 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> The melody is easier to play on the other string positions. Asturias (detail). <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 1-5-2;1-7-3;1-8-4; 2-5-6;2-7-7;2-8-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> The whole piece of Asturias is a masterpiece. But you might be happy to know that it won't be long before you can at least do a little demonstration of the first few bars of the piece. This is just a preliminary exercise. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="2nd Fingering (D major resp. Bm-Form) in Em" subtitle="Asturias (detail)" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #5 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key e \minor \repeat volta 2 \relative c'{ e8 b' c a b g | e8 b' c a b g | e8 b' c a b g | a fis g a fis g^\markup {2x} | } \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #0 \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 6/8 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> 1st Fingering comes above the 2nd Fingering. The second fingering always follows immediately below the first fingering. (Of course only if there are other strings above this fingering.) I'll explain later how the scale names come about. Suffice to say, it has something to do with the position of the fundamental note (1). <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=120\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 3-3-2;3-5-3;3-6-4; 4-3-6;4-5-7;4-6-1; 5-3-3;5-4-4;5-6-5; 6-3-7;6-4-1;6-6-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 2-4-2;2-6-3;2-7-4; 3-3-6;3-5-7;3-6-1; 4-3-3;4-4-4;4-6-5; 5-3-7;5-4-1;5-6-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 1-4-2;1-6-3;1-7-4; 2-4-6;2-6-2;2-7-1; 3-3-3;3-4-4;3-6-5; 4-3-7;4-4-1;4-6-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> As you can see, the first fingering with the "square" on the right always comes first, and then comes the fingering with the "square" on the left. They are always one above the other. Burlesque. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=120\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 3-3-2;3-5-3;3-6-4; 4-3-6;4-5-7;4-6-1; 5-3-3;5-4-4;5-6-5; 6-3-7;6-4-1;6-6-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="1. & 2. Fingersatz (F-Form) in G-Dur" subtitle="Bourlesque" composer = "based on Leopold Mozart" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #2 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key g \major \partial 2 g8 a b c d4 8 b e4 8 c | d2 \breathe c4 8 a | b4 8 g a4 8 fis| g2 \breathe g8 a b c d4 8 b e4 8 c | d2 \breathe c4 8 a | b4 8 g a4 8 fis| g2 \breathe c'4 8 a | b4 8 g a4 8 fis| g2 \breathe c4 8 a | b4 8 g a4 8 fis| g2 \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> Only between the G and B strings does a position change one fret to the left. Otherwise the three fingerings are the same. So far you have nothing more to learn than two fingerings, that the first comes before the second, and that there is a change of position between the G and B strings. You must take this change of position into account in all future scales. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 1-4-6;1-6-7;1-7-1; 2-4-3;2-5-4;2-7-5; 3-3-7;3-4-1;3-6-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% Abstandshalter \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 4-3-3;4-4-4;4-6-5; 5-3-7;5-4-1;5-6-2; 6-3-2;6-5-3;6-6-4; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Of course, half of the first or second fingering is missing if it doesn't go any further up or down. As you might already suspect, you already have 5 excerpts from the five scales that we will take a closer look at. With the 1st and 2nd fingering and the change of position you have already grasped a large part of the CAGED scales. Later in your repertoire you will only need excerpts from each of the 5 CAGED scales. There are extremely few pieces that have exactly the tone range of a competent CAGED scale or that of one of the 3 fingerings. That's why I don't have attractive exercise examples ready for all scales and scale sections, but I sometimes have to offer you some dry exercises. Hopefully you already have a vague idea of ​​why it's worth learning the scales in their entirety. 3th Fingering. Does not contain a “square” This fingering is not an independent fingering at all. The upper part of the 3rd fingering is actually the lower part of the 2nd fingering. Likewise, the lower part of the 3rd fingering is also the beginning of the 1st fingering. What is important about this fingering is the transition between the end of the 2nd fingering through the 5 and 6 to the 1st fingering. During the third fingering there is a change of position to the left. Here it is important to pay particular attention to the position of the fingers. Especially if you don't just play the scale up and down (which you most likely practice at the beginning), this "5-6 transition" always requires a lot of thought until you know how to place your fingers most skillfully. Practice fingering on the top string position and one string position lower! <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 4-2-7;4-3-1;4-5-2; 5-3-5;5-5-6; 6-3-2;6-5-3;6-6-4;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 3-2-7;3-3-1;3-5-2; 4-3-5;4-5-6; 5-3-2;5-5-3;5-6-4;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> If you slide one string position lower with the 3rd fingering, then we have to take into account the change in position between the G and B strings again. We have just learned that the third fingering involves a change of position to the left. The transition between the G and B strings also results in a change of position to the right. So one change in position is canceled out by the other. Fingering is ultimately made easier by eliminating position changes, but at the beginning you have to think a little more about how the individual position changes affect the third fingering. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 2-3-7;2-4-1;2-6-2; 3-3-5;3-5-6; 4-3-2;4-5-3;4-6-4;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 1-3-7;1-4-1;1-6-2; 2-4-5;2-6-6; 3-3-2;3-5-3;3-6-4;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> You always have to take the matter of the change of position during the 3rd fingering and the change of position between the G and B strings into account. This may sound a bit complicated when you first read it, but it reduces the entire structure of the five main major scales to 4 building blocks. The 1st to 3rd fingering and the change in position between the G and B strings. But that's all you need to know about the formal structure. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:2;f:1; 1-4-5;1-6-6; 2-4-2;2-6-3;2-7-4; 5-3-7;5-4-1;5-6-2; 6-4-5;6-6-6; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> In der Bb-Form geht der 3. Fingersatz natürlich nicht weiter als bis zur E-Saite. A II-V-I-Progression. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 4-4-7;4-5-1;4-7-2; 5-5-5;5-7-6; 6-5-2;6-7-3;6-8-4;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> A simple tone sequence over a 2-5-1 progression. The chord tones are mostly on the heavy beats (on beats!?). <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="3th Fingering (D-Form) in G major" subtitle="A II-V-I-Progression" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #4 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key g \major a8^\markup { \bold {Am7} } b c d e fis g4 | fis8^\markup { \bold {D7} } e d4 c8 b a4 | b8^\markup { \bold {G} } c d4 e8 fis g4~| g1 | a,8^\markup { \bold {Am7} } b c d e fis g4 | fis8^\markup { \bold {D7} } e d4 c8 b a4 | b8^\markup { \bold {G} } c d4 e8 fis g4~| g1 | \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> A II-V-I-Progression (arpeggios). <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 3-4-7;3-5-1;3-7-2; 4-5-5;4-7-6; 5-5-2;5-7-3;5-8-4;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Here are simple arpeggios (harp-like chord tones) of a 2-5-1 progression. The basic harmonic structure becomes clearer if you only play the chord tones. Arpeggios (chord breaks) are more demanding exercises because you have to be familiar with the scale in order to find the chord tones. The three fingerings are not as easy to discover in arpeggios as in more melodic exercises. If an exercise is too difficult for you, postpone it until a later repetition. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="3th Fingering (G-Form) in C major" subtitle="A II-V-I-Progression (arpeggios)" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #4 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key c \major d4^\markup { \bold {Dm} } f a d | b^\markup { \bold {G7} } g f d | e^\markup { \bold {C} } g c2~ | c1 | d,4^\markup { \bold {Dm} } f a d | b^\markup { \bold {G7} } g f d | e^\markup { \bold {C} } g c2~ | c1 \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> A Doric melody. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 2-2-7;2-3-1;2-5-2; 3-2-5;3-4-6; 4-2-2;4-4-3;4-5-4;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> The transition between the G and B strings cancels out the change in position of the third fingering, which simplifies the fingering. Instead of taking a long and laborious process to determine the intervals of the Dorian scale, we proceed as with the minor scale. With the Dorian scale we simply set the root note to (2) of the major pattern. You should have no problem finding the root note E. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="3th Fingering (C-Form) in G major" subtitle="A Doric melody" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #2 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key e \dorian e4 b'8 a b2 | b8 cis d4 e8 d cis4 | b8 a b4 e,2 | e8 fis g4 a8 g fis4 | g8 fis e2. | e4 b'8 a b2 | b8 cis d4 e8 d cis4 | b8 a b4 e,2 | e8 fis g4 a8 g fis4 | g8 fis e2. \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> A Mixolydian melody. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1; 1-2-7;1-3-1;1-5-2; 2-3-5;2-5-6; 3-2-2;3-4-3;3-5-4;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Here too, the two changes in position at the transition between the G and B strings cancel out with the change in position in the third fingering, which simplifies the fingering here too. This key is Mixolydian, because the root note is the fifth (5) of the major pattern, which again shows that the pure fingering says nothing about the mode. <score sound="1" raw="1"> \version "2.20.0" \header { title="3th Fingering (F-Form) in D-Mixolydian" subtitle="A Mixolydian melody" %% Diskant- bzw. Melodiesaiten Diskant = \relative c' { \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #2 \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t \key d \mixolydian a8 d d c d2~ | d4 fis g a | g8 e e c-3 a2~-1 | a4 b c d | \break a8 d d c d2~ | d4 fis g a | g8 e e c-3 a2~-1 | a4 a b c | \set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##f \bar "|." %% Layout- bzw. Bildausgabe \score { \new Voice { \clef "treble_8" \time 4/4 \tempo 4 = 120 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \Diskant %% Midiausgabe mit Wiederholungen, ohne Akkorde \score { \unfoldRepeats { \new Staff « \tempo 4 = 120 \time 4/4 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"acoustic guitar (nylon)" \clef "G_8" \Diskant %% unterdrückt im raw="!"-Modus das DinA4-Format. \paper { indent=0\mm %% DinA4 = 210mm - 10mm Rand - 20mm Lochrand = 180mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f % bookTitleMarkup=##f scoreTitleMarkup=##f </score> The notes A and D together form a power chord (reversal of D and A). D and A form the frame interval of the D major chord. (D+F#+A). More important than the starting note of a melody is the ending note, and the fact that you perceive the note D or the chord D major as the tonal center. 1 over 2 over 3 over 1.... If you were to spin the system further, you would get the following: <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;f:1;w:12; 1-1-2;1-3-3;1-4-4; 2-1-6;2-3-7;2-4-1; 3-1-3;3-2-4;3-4-6; 4-1-7;4-2-1;4-4-2; 5-2-5;5-4-6; 6-2-2;6-4-3;6-5-4; 7-2-6;7-4-7;7-5-1; 8-2-3;8-3-4;8-5-6; 9-2-7;9-3-1;9-5-2; 10-3-5;10-5-6; 11-3-2;11-5-3;11-6-4; 12-3-6;12-5-7;12-6-1; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Of course, there is no 12-string guitar where each string is tuned to fourths, but this is a good exercise that you should do with the help of a piece of paper and a pencil. In principle, you will find all of the major scales of the guitar here (if you only pick 6 neighboring strings). There's just the catch with the transition between the G and B strings. The 3 fingerings always follow one another in a specific order. That's all you need to know for the 5 main scales. 3 fingerings that always meet in a certain order and change positions between G and B. With this you will now work out one scale shape after the other. You will see that you will soon have the 5 main types in there. And before you ask yourself: In addition to the 5 main forms of the CAGED system, there are a few minor types known as 3-notes-per-string scales and Berkelee scales, and others such as the pentatonic and the blues scales. Scala. But we'll save all of those for later. Don't rush anything! Now it's the turn of the CAGED scales. Each of the following five CAGED scales actually consists of just the three fingerings learned above! As a cheat for a quick overview:

Guide to the Godot game engine/Programming/GDScript/Keywords (3.x). Keywords in Godot are special words used for GDScript. Unfortunately, some of them are not recorded in Godot's class documentation in much detail. break. The "break" keyword ends a looping piece of code. Useful for "forever" loops: counter = : counter += counter == : This ends the loop after 15 runs of the code. continue. The "continue" keyword is used inside loops. Similar to "break", "continue" skips a single run at the loop. Like breaking it, but instead of ending the whole loop, it only skips the single iteration. num ( , ): num == : ( num ) The above runs 5 times. "Num" is 1, 2, 3, 4 then 5. If "num" is 4, it "continues" the loop. Otherwise it prints. So 4 is "not" printed, but 1, 2, 3 and 5 are. const. The "const" keyword can be used in place of "var" to create a "constant", a value that cannot change. Unlike variables, constants can be used in static functions. enum. The "enum" keyword is similar to making integer constants. DRAW_MODE_PEN, DRAW_MODE_FILL, DRAW_MODE_ERASER, DRAW_MODE_LINE, DRAW_MODE_BOX, DRAW_MODE_SHADING, DRAW_MODE_CONTRAST, DRAW_MODE_BLEND The code above is a snippet of code from an image editor I once made in godot. It shows the possible draw modes, like line and fill, as "named ints" for easier code debugging. export. Not to be confused with exporting. The "export" keyword is a very powerful keyword. It allows editing the value in the Inspector dock, and it saves changes per-instance. For a basic one, try codice_1. You can even use templates and ranges: ( , , , ) number = ( , FILE ) file_path ( , FILE, ) specific_extension_file_path ( , Number1, Number2, Number3 ) dropdown_menu_int = ( , , , ) float_with_range = extends. The "extends" keyword tells Godot that a script inherits the properties of the given Object. It must be at the very top of a script. Only codice_2 can go before it. for. The "for" keyword runs the indented block of code after it for every item from a given value. i [, , , , , , ]: ( i ) in. Often used inside if statements. It evaluates as true if the value before it is "inside" the value after it. It can check: Among other things. codice_3 would be false. "Hello" does not have a lowercase "h" in it. If you want case insensitive search, call codice_4 on both values to convert every letter to lowercase (or codice_4 for uppercase - all capitals). is. Often used in if statements. It checks if the value before it is of the type after it. ( ) ( ( ) ) load. Okay, "load" is technically described in global scope. However, it is very much defined as a keyword, so it would make no sense if it were not here. It loads a file from your FileSystem when called. It takes a single argument: a file path. File paths must be relative to your project folder or player save folder and not lead outside! Valid examples: ( ) "res" leads to your project folder. "user" leads to the player's save folder. This is typically "%appdata%/roaming/godot/app_userdata/<project_name>" unless the ProjectSetting "Config/Use Custom User Dir" and "Config/Custom User Dir Name" are set, in which case it's "%appdata%/roaming/<ProjectSettings:Config/Custom User Dir Name>". master. The "master" keyword is part of a series 5 multiplayer keywords. It makes it so only the "master" calls a function if used. ( damage ): health -= damage ( , health ) You don't want to call this on a puppet to help prevent bugs. onready. The "onready" keyword goes before the var keyword. It allows using a dynamic number that is set "before" the "_ready()" function call. random_number = ( ) pass. The "pass" keyword is used as a blank line of code. Use it after an "if" statement or "for" statement or after a function declaration to count as a "block of code" (to remove the error) without doing anything. This is called an "empty" if statement or a "stub function". preload. See load. The file can be relative to the script that calls it or "res". The resource is loaded when the script is, preventing stalls during the running game. However, files must exist or there will be an error, and the path must be constant (i.e: not changeable). "res://game/game.gd:" "or:" puppet. The "puppet" keyword is one of a series of 5 multiplayer keywords. Use it before "func" but after "remote". It makes a function only call to non-masters. ( v ): health = v You don't want to call this to the master to stop players cheating. remote. Use the "remote" keyword before the "func" keyword to allow a function to be called remotely by other peers in multiplayer when calling "rpc", "rpc_id", "rpc_unreliable" or "rpc_unreliable_id". Beware of cheating and security threats when doing this! health -= ( , health ) ( hp ): health = hp See puppet and master for more info. Use remotesync to call the function locally as well as via the network. WARNING: Malicious hackers can use your game to retrieve or delete data, or players can cheat, if you do not add checks to stop them. Don't ever add "remote" to functions that delete or create files unless you know what you're doing. remotesync. See remote. This keyword also calls a function locally instead of only calling them over the network. Good for telling other peers as well as the master that the character has jumped. return. The "return" keyword is used to end the function. For functions that are called and "return" a value, the return keyword is where to go. It also ends the function call, so can be used in an if statements to skip the rest of the function. It does not require a return value, and by default returns null. setget. Use at the end of a variable declaration. Syntax: codice_6. The getter is optional. The setter must have an argument (the value to set too) and the getter must return a value. Example: points = set_points get_points ( value ): points = value ( ): points static. Usually, to call an Object's function, you need an "instance" of it. If you use the "static" keyword before the "func" keyword, you'll be able to call it from a non-instance. However, you can only use other static functions or those in global scope. You cannot use member variables. In the following example, "Weapon" is a custom . damage = DAMAGE = ( ): DAMAGE codice_7 becomes codice_8, saving memory and CPU resources if you were to want to find a value. tool. The "tool" keyword tells Godot that a script runs in the editor. These sorts of scripts are commonly referred too as tool scripts. It won't run if the script is only open in the Script edit screen. It must be attached to a node in the scene, or a node with the script must be in the editor. It must always be placed before the extends keyword. If you have a tool script, scripts that it inherits and scripts that inherit it won't run, unless they are also tool scripts. All nodes themselves run in the editor, but only if placed into it's interface with editor plugins. See also: editor plugins (and the plugins chapter), very powerful things. var. The "var" keyword creates a variable. They are automatically freed from memory when they "leave the scope" (an indented block of code unindents, for example.) global_varible := (): some_function(7) (argument): (argument) (global_variable) temporary_variable = (temporary_variable) another_variable = (another_variable) (temporary_variable) (another_variable) while. The "while" keyword runs the indented block of code after it until the if-statement after it is no-longer true. It won't run if it starts as false. i = i < : (i) i += yield. Yield, currently, accepts 2 arguments: an Object and a signal name (as a String). Calling it will wait until that signal is called from that Object. ()

Advanced Microeconomics/Preface. The goal of this book is to provide graduate-level foundations for microeconomics. It will assume proficiency in advanced mathematics such as calculus, set theory, and optimization. Many readers may wish to start with the lower-level Principles of Microeconomics.

Technical Theatre/People. To put on a play it takes many people, doing many different jobs. Working together as a team the result can be very impressive. Each production organization is laid out differently, but most have people filling these roles. The Stage Director is the person responsible for the artistic vision, the meaning and thusly the purpose of presenting the production. While not a technical position, the Stage Director is still important in technical production in that they coordinate the artistic efforts of the different designers and actors into one unified vision. The Production Manager works with the Stage Director and the various designers, coordinating all the various design elements,making sure the different designs are carried out as best as possible. This person coordinates the efforts of the different departments, and making certain the production maintins its production schedule and remains within the budget. The Technical Director (or TD) works with the Scene designer and Properties designer, supervises the master carpenter and oversees the construction of the set. The TD frequently (in smaller organizations) may also take on other functions, such as supervising the set and props crews . The Designers are the people that make the artistic decisions in their respective areas. The Scene Designer designs the sets for the different scenes. The Lighting Designer designs how the playing area and the actors will be lit. The Properties Designer obtains and sometime even creates the hand props held by the actors and props used on the stage. The Costume Designer designs the clothes that the people will wear, often designing or working closely with the designers of the hair and makeup as well. The Sound Designer chooses or makes the different sound effects that will play during the show, as well as determining who gets microphones, and how much amplification will be necessary. The crew heads are responsible for coordinating the efforts of the different crews of stagehands working under them in the implementation of the designers' work. The Master Carpenter directs the construction of the set. They may also coordinate the people that move the set during scene changes. The Scenic Charge is the person that oversees the painting of the set. The Master Electrician makes sure that the lighting instruments get placed where the designer needs them. They also oversee the people operating the lighting control board and any follow spots. The Audio Engineer oversees the layout of the sound system; during the show they will oversee the operator of the sound boards and make sure any microphones and other sound equipment is working. The Properties (or props) Master will gather the items that the actors will handle during the performance. Under direction of either the scenic designer they may also in charge of "set dressings" such as tables and chairs that the actors will interact with. The Costumer will coordinate the making of the costumes and the fitting them on the performers. The stagehands are the people that do the labor. These people are divided into several crews. The carpenters build the set, and move set pieces during the show. The painters paint the set the colors the designer specified. The electricians put the lights in the correct place, run the cables to power them, and operate the control board and any followspots. The audio crew will place speakers and microphones as well as run the cables to power them. In addition, they will operate the sound mixers. The wardrobe mistress supervises the stitchers and drapers who sew and mend and clean the costumes, and the dressers who help the actors get into them. The props crew will make sure the items the actors need are where they are supposed to be, and repair them if they get broken.

Technical Theatre/Set Design and Construction. The design of a set for a production, often times, is one of the first steps taken by director and designer. This is due to several issues. First, the set is one of the few parts of the technical theatre which is specifically dictated by the script. How many people must be on stage? How many different entrances must be accommodated? Where do those entrances lead? Each of these questions (and others) must be addressed with the set design. Secondly, the directors must have the set design prior to blocking the play so that the performers are blocked intentionally around the set pieces which will exist. As with all design elements, the first step in creating a set design is to read the script several times. The minimum number of times a designer should read the script is three before beginning work on a set design. The first time through, the designer should read it for the story line and enjoyment. The second time through, the designer should begin gathering a better feel for the story. Where does the story take place? Are there any major set pieces that must be included? What entrances and exits must exist? How much space must be allowed for the number of characters on stage at any given time? The third time through the script, the designer should begin writing down specifics about the space. In coordination with the director, choices must be made about where off-stage locations exist, where will the more intense beats or moments take place on stage, and general traffic patterns throughout the space. Following this third reading, most designers will create a series of sketches...at least one per location...for the director to review. These sketches should include not only the set but also stage props and furniture and possibly tentative actor locations for major points in the story. After getting the director's approval of the sketches, scale drawings must be made. These should include not just an overhead view of each scene but also front elevations of the scenes and, where necessary for construction, specific cut-away designs of complicated set pieces. From these scale drawings, many designers will then create scale models so that the directors and designers have three-dimensional models to work from both for the sake of blocking and also building the set pieces. All of these design steps should also include the lighting designer and scenic designer (in charge of providing the coloring scheme for the sets...sometimes the scenic and set designer is the same person) so that the design schemes for all of the elements are complementary.

Technical Theatre/Prop Design. The prop design of each show depends on the artistic style of both sets and costumes, as well as the requests and needs of the director and/or choreographer. At a first reading of the script, the property designer will make a general list of all mentioned items and those that can be inferred from narration. Basic background research will begin for the look of items from a set period and location. Communication with all departments and designers helps to eliminate various items that overlap into costumes or set Lists. An initial "Prop list" is generated and dispersed to each of the other designers as well as the director, and all relevant parties. After receiving notes from the various departments, the "prop list" is updated and a second reading of the script is done to double check information gathered is consistent with script requirement as written. Research continues and narrows in on items that will require special attention. Budget constraints require that many items be used from stock, borrowed or rented before a purchase of a new item is made. Some items that are not in the company stock and cannot be located are fabricated. Props from a period settings are not always widely available and often require some amount of research to determine what the item is, how it was used and where it can be located. Prop. A property is designated depending on the theatre and the structure of design responsibility set by years of trial and error. It is common for a prop to be defined as anything that is not firmly adhered or 'nailed' down to a piece of setting. This may include all set dressings and furniture as well as hand held "props". Other theatrical organizations may only designate that which the actor actually picks up as a 'prop'. The range in-between varies. Props may be an item usually associated with another department or require close work with them. Costume pieces may sometimes be the responsibility of the costume department to fabricate and then be tracked in rehearsal and performance by the prop department such as hat and purses, coats that come off or never worn but held as part of the costume. At other times in the script, a dress may be picked up and packed in a suit case on stage and never worn. The prop department would acquire one of the correct period, basic size, etc. and may possibly require the approval of the costume designer. Another example of a possible cross over would be a microphone. If live, it would require input from both the sound and electrics department but may be chosen and tracked by the prop department. The choice of microphone may require the input of the sound designer, set designer and the prop designer. In some theatres a prop may be among many different elements layered on top or around each other with backdrops and architectural elements, elaborate costumes, large ensembles as well as lighting. With theatre in the round the elements are distilled down to the most basic elements. The 360 degree "line of site" adds limitations to sets. While costumes may be as elaborate, theatre in the round has a much more limited area then a proscenium and cast size could be limited as well. These are a few reasons that make theatrical properties in this situation stand out more. It also puts a more direct spotlight on the item and in many cases is central to the development of plot or central character. Specialized props used as 'sight gags' could be a rubber chicken or a more elaborately conceived notion. Simple looking items, in many cases, require specialized work. Requirements, specific to a production may require an item be 'rigged' in one way or another. A burlap bag may require an inner lining smaller than the outer shell that may be stuffed to emulate content.

Technical Theatre/Introduction. When you go to a play, the opera, the ballet, or even a concert you notice the people on the stage performing. You may also notice the lighting effects, audio effects, costuming, makeup, and the set the performers are on. All of these things are part of the world of Technical theatre. Technical theatre encompasses all that goes into making a staged production. The areas of technical theatre are scenery,lighting, properties,costuming,and sound. All of these areas work together in a production to establish the place, time period, and mood of the production. If successful the audience will not even notice many of the technical elements of the show. Instead they will come away having enjoyed the show. However, if one of the areas is incomplete or of a lesser quality than the rest the entire production can suffer. Each area relies on the others for support so it is important that everyone works together and communicates as a team; if the lighting designer uses blue light in their design and the costume designer creates a yellow dress, the audience will see an ugly green dress. Technical theatre therefore depends on teamwork and cross-communication for success.

Ithkuil. Ithkuil is a philosophical and logical constructed language, created by "John Quijada" that is designed to be extremely precise, concise and clear as possible. Ithkuil is notable for its notorious difficulty, however, new versions of the language try to simplify it as much as possible while retaining the initial goal of the language. As per 2024 Ithkuil has 4 versions released: the initial version, "Ithkuil" (meaning "a hypothetical representation of a language") in 2004, a simplified version called "Ilaksh" in 2007, a third version, "Elartkha" in 2011, and the current version, called "Maleuthrait", or simply "New Ithkuil", in 2023 (To avoid confusion, "Ithkuil" will refer to 2023 version). This book is going to be describing the 2023 version, deemed the most simple and complete of the four.

The science of finance/Introduction. « I strengthened you so that you might go and bear fruit, fruit that will last » (John 15,16) What's the point of working? If it is true that our industries are destroying the Earth and everything that lives on it, wouldn't it be better to stop everything? Natural resources are fruits of the Earth. Work that destroys them is worse than work that bears no fruit. But if we no longer get up to work, how will we eat? Be treated ? How will we get what we need to live well? Heaven on Earth: love one another. To love others is to live for their good: to perceive, to be moved, to imagine, to think, to want, to speak and to act for their good, therefore always to be of service to them. If we could not provide services, we could not truly love, effectively. Love one another, truly, means: provide services to one another. Economic goods are wealth because they provide us with services. We can serve others by producing wealth that serves them. We produce wealth with wealth. In a production project, revenues are always preceded by costs, because wealth must be brought forward to produce new wealth. This is why production projects always need to be financed. To finance is to advance wealth to carry out projects. In general, money must be advanced to purchase services, supplies and production goods. Services require work and resources. To obtain all the services that we need, or that make life better, without exhausting workers, and without wasting natural resources, which are in limited quantity, we must be well trained and well equipped, because then we can fully develop our potential, be productive and provide services to everyone, without wasting our lives earning it, and without destroying the planet. To train and equip workers, we just need to finance them. Our financing capacities are limited only by the resources available and the intelligence that gives us the means to use them. Finance give us the means to make the Earth a paradise, because resources are gigantic. So what are we waiting for? Why hasn't finance already made heaven on Earth? Thanks to productivity gains, which are sometimes very large, an economy where everyone is at least modestly rich is a goal that seems attainable. We just need to invest so that everyone can be productive. We want good investments. This short treatise on finance provides some answers, or rather beginnings of answers, to the following questions: What is a good investment? Who should decide on investments and their financing methods? Why are we not always encouraged to choose the good investments? Why are we sometimes encouraged to choose the bad ones? To invest, we generally have to advance money. But where does the money come from? How do we have enough money to finance all the good projects? To choose an investment carefully, we must anticipate the value of the projects. How to count the value of the projects in which we invest? The science of finance is often astonishing. Here are some examples which will be explained in this treatise: To be good producers of wealth, we have to be like Mozart. Wealth equivalent to several billion dollars can disappear without anything tangible having disappeared and without anyone having been robbed. When we drink a bottle of Champagne, we can save its value. Wealth is sometimes created without work, without anyone having been robbed, and even without any tangible goods having been produced. Some goods are almost eternal. They are like gooses that lay golden eggs, because they produce profit without being consumed. Financial logic can encourage us to choose the most thieving projects, or the most destructive to the environment. The most profitable project is not necessarily the most thieving project, it can be only the most intelligent project. The circulation of money is like the multiplication of loaves. Money creation can increase the production of wealth. Central banks refused to pay the debts in gold that they had agreed to pay. Central banks can create all the money they want, to lend it, to buy any asset, to pay any expense, to pay dividends to governments or to give it. They destroy the money they have created when their loans are repaid, when they sell assets, and when they receive interest on their loans. Commercial banks create money when they lend, when they buy an asset, when they pay any expense, and when they pay dividends to their shareholders. They destroy money when their loans are repaid, when they sell assets and when they receive income. We are no longer held back by the bridle of gold to finance all the good investments, because we can create all the money we need. When agents restrict their spending, they collectively become poorer, rather than richer, and do not achieve the desired goal of increasing their monetary reserves. Financial logic leads us to devalue wealth preserved for future generations. A risk-free project that earns a regular profit has optimal value if and only if its net present value is zero. Finance provides the means to make profits with a profit rate as high as one wants, even an infinite profit rate. To be good financiers, we have to think like communists. The surplus profits of optimal projects are all positive multiples of the same random magnitude. Very risky projects or financial assets sometimes need to be valued as risk-free assets. There is a risk price constant k which makes it possible to measure the cost of risk. kR is the cost of a risk R, measured by the standard deviation of the profit. 0 < k < 1. k seems to be approximately 1/2. A one in two chance of winning 100 costs 50(1-k) = 25 if we play against an irreducible financial risk, and if k = 1/2. It is possible to play against fate, without any other counterpart, at (1+k)/(1-k) against 1, with equal probabilities. (1+k)/(1-k) is strictly greater than 1 and could be quite large, 2 or 3, or more. There are negative risks that have a positive value. If we increase a negative risk in absolute value without decreasing the average profit, we increase the value of the company. The space of all projects with zero net present value is Euclidean. Its metric is the covariance between the surplus profits of the projects. A general mathematical solution can be found to all problems of financial risk calculation. Humans are buying and selling trillions of dollars of assets that have no value: cryptoassets. Cryptoassets sellers are thieves and arsonists. An optimal agent can predict her future decisions or their probabilities, because she knows that she will make optimal decisions. This method of anticipation leads to a general method of calculating the optimal value of all risky projects, and therefore the value of all wealth.

The science of finance/Summary. We want to finance the most profitable projects. We must therefore be able to evaluate them beforehand. Evaluation of projects presents the most basic principles of economic and financial evaluation. It explains the dual origin of economic value, use value and exchange value, the creation of value by composition of projects, options, because it is perhaps the most important concept for economic evaluation, because our wealth is essentially a wealth of options, the net present value of certain and uncertain projects, and the economic value of the common order. The subject of project evaluation is further developed in a supplementary chapter (not yet written) devoted to risk assessment. Inequalities in front of finance explains the origin of interest rates and other property income, which make the financial system very unequal, since it privileges the owners to the detriment of the less fortunate. Finance sometimes makes it possible to partially correct certain economic inequalities by offering means of entrepreneurship, but even so it remains profoundly inegalitarian. It seems that to advance funds it is necessary to dispose of it in advance. But it is to count without the banking system capable of advancing funds that are created at the very moment they are loaned. It looks like counterfeit money, but it's very different, because money is created in exchange for promises of repayment. How can we create money from scratch? shows how the banking system works and why money creation is not necessarily an evil. Money can be created to meet the real investment needs and the ability of the economy to engage in profitable projects. A good project is a sufficient guarantee to legitimize the creation of the money that finances it. To benefit from sustainable prosperity, economies must navigate between two pitfalls, too little investment, lack of private investors or of sufficient money creation, and too much investment, because of the exaggerated optimism of private investors or an excess of money creation. Financing the economy presents the basic knowledge that shows how to proceed, and why it is difficult. It emphasizes the importance of countercyclical monetary and fiscal policies. Paradoxically the state has to spend less when it earns more and it has to spend more when it earns less. This book is translated from the French language Wikibook .

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses. In Meitei mythology, there are numerous goddesses. A few of them are listed below:

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Thoudu Nungthen Leima. Goddess Thoudu Nungthen Leima, also known as Thoudu Nungthel Leima, was born on a stone slab in a riverbed, as a divine incarnation of supreme mother earth goddess Leimalen. She was destined to be found out by God Koupalu and his good lady Goddess Kounu, on their way. She was adopted as their own daughter by two divine couple. As time went by, she grew up into a beautiful maiden. She was given hand in marriage to God Loiyalakpa (also known as Tollongkhomba), the son of God Marjing. Thoudu Nungthen Leima's beauty knew no bounds. For this reason, even after her marriage, she was desired by another young God Khoiriphaba. To prevent any further problem, God Koupalu and God Marjing tricked Khoiriphaba to give up the idea of Thoudu Nungthen Leima.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Yumchao Leima. Goddess Yumchao Leima, also known as Yumjao Leima or Yumjao Lairembi, is the all time ruling supreme queen mother goddess of the royal houses of ancient Meitei kings. She is usually depicted as a gentle kindhearted mother, sitting on a grand throne.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Thumleima. Goddess Yoibu Noinu Thumleima, also known as Thumkhong Lairembi, is a goddess of salt and natural salt wells (salt brines). She is one of the noble princesses of the celestial realm. She is one of the daughters of the Sky God Salailen, the Heavenly Father. She was sent down to earth to prosper the human civilization. Obeying her Supreme Father's divine orders, she and her sisters descended from the celestial realm to the earthly realm. On her way, she had a lot of adventures. Afterwards, she used to live in the natural salt brines (salt wells). Since early times, ancient Meitei people used to worship her to get blessings of good salt yield from the brines. Salt was considered as a wealth in ancient Meitei civilization. People were often rewarded for good works in the form of lumps of salt.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Thongak Leima. Goddess Thongak Leima, also known as Thongak Lairembi, is a gatekeeper of the entrance door to reach the land of death of the underworld kingdom, ruled by her husband Thongalen. She is predominantly worshipped in the Langgol Hills (also spelled as Langol Hills) in the outskirts of Imphal city since ancient times by the Meitei people, due to which she is also known as Langgol Lairembi, literally meaning Langgol Goddess, or Langgol Leima, literally meaning Langgol Queen. She controls entry and exit to and from the land of death and the land of living. Even if any superior God orders for the departure or arrival of anyone to and from the netherworld and the earthly human world, she has the authoritative powers to open or close the gate for or against them. For this reason, in early times, ancient Meitei people used to worship her to give long life, to close the door of death for them, to close the door of bad health for them.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Shapi Leima. Goddess Shapi Leima, also known as Shabi Leima, is the queen of all the rodents living in the world. She is one of the noble princesses of Heavenly Realm. She is one of the most favorite daughters of Sky Father Salailen. She has the freedom of roaming in the earthly realm according to her own wish. She once happened to fell in love with a mortal man, who was about to be killed by a selfish evil king. She intervened the situation and rescued her lover using her divine powers. Many legends say that she could call upon all the rodents of the entire world to a single spot at a single time. She has other two sisters, Nganu Leima, the goddess of water birds, and Khunu Leima, the goddess of pigeons, with whom she shares numerous adventures.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Phouoibi. Goddess Phouoibi, also known as Phouleima, is a divine female personification of the paddy plant, growing in the agricultural lands. She is one of the noble princesses of the Celestial Realm. She is one of the favorite daughters of Heavenly Father, Salailen, the Sky God. She was sent by her father down to earth to prosper the human civilization. She, along with her other sisters, descended from the heavenly realm to the earthly realm, obeying the divine orders of their Supreme Father. On her way, she used to face multiple adventures. She even fell in love with Akongjamba, a mortal handsome noble man of Kege Moirang (Keke Moilang) kingdom. But fate did not permit them to unite. So, she and her mortal lover reincarnated six further rebirths, thereby enacting the divine seven epic cycles of rebirths (incarnations). Goddess Phouoibi (as Phouleima) and her husband God Phouningthou are worshipped as deities of agricultural fertility and harvesting, by the ancient Meitei people.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Panthoibi. Panthoibi, also known as Nongpok Leima, was an ancient princess of the Ningthouja dynasty, married to a prince of the Khaba dynasty, later eloped to Nongpok Ningthou, a King of the Selloi Langmai people, living in the Nongmaiching Mountains. She was later deified as a divine figure, and worshipped as a motherly goddess of love, romance, lust, sex, fertility, prosperity and civilization. She was later characterised in many legends, including the Numit Kappa, as a statesman, who negotiated with the Sun King God, to come out of his hiding spot inside a cave, and to shine once again in the sky. Panthoibi's cult and pantheon spreads across all the Meitei realms. Many goddesses and deified ladies were associated with the identity of Panthoibi. Phouoibi, the goddess of agriculture, Nongthang Leima, the goddess of seduction, Leimalen, the mother earth goddess, are usually related to Panthoibi. She is often compared as related to Thoibi, an ancient princess of the Moirang dynasty of the Kege Moirang (Keke Moilang) kingdom.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Nongthang Leima. Goddess Nongthang Leima, also known as Nongthang Lairembi, was a primordial deity, born from the thunder and lightning in the primeval chaos (or void), known as Atingkok. She was a daughter of Heavenly Father Salailen (who's the Atingkok himself). Her foremost duty was to seduce Prince Haraba (another name for Pakhangba) to divert his attention from disturbing his elder brother Sanamahi (alias Ashiba) in the creation of the world. Nongthang Leima used dance and music, along with her feminine physical beauty, to entice Haraba. She succeeded in her task. She was one of the earliest priestesses of the mythical world. She was both a goddess as well as a priestess (nun). She was one of the noble princesses of the Celestial Realm. She was one of the favorite daughters of the Sky Father Salailen. In later times, the identities of numerous historically deified ladies got merged to her cult and pantheon. She was often associated with Lady Panthoibi, another deified ancient ancient Meitei princess of the Ningthouja dynasty.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Nganu Leima. Goddess Nganu Leima, also known as Nganureima, is the queen of all the ducks, geese, swans and other waterfowls (water birds), living in the world. She is one of the noble princesses of the Heavenly Realm. She is one of the most favorite daughters of Sky Father Salailen. She has the freedom of roaming in the earthly realm according to her own wish. She once happened to fell in love with a mortal man, who was about to be killed by a selfish evil king. She intervened the situation and rescued her lover using her divine powers. Many legends say that she could call all the water birds of the entire world to a single spot at a single time. She shares many of her adventures with two of her sisters, Khunu Leima, the goddess of pigeons, and Shapi Leima, the goddess of rodents.

Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Long Bridge. This page is for a case study on the Long Bridge, created by Zhenxian Ji, Xintong Dai, and Dian Jing. It is part of the GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-002 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) class offered at George Mason University taught by Jonathon Gifford. Summary. The Long Bridge Project is a major infrastructure initiative aimed at expanding rail capacity across the Potomac River between Arlington, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. The project involves constructing a new two-track railroad bridge adjacent to the existing Long Bridge, dating back to 1904. This will create a four-track rail corridor to alleviate severe congestion on the current two-track bridge operating at near full capacity. The project has a long historical context, with previous bridges at this location serving various transportation modes like pedestrians, horses, carriages, and railroads since the early 19th century. The bridges played a strategic role during the Civil War. Over time, the current Long Bridge became devoted solely to railroad use. Multiple government agencies at the federal and state levels are involved in this project through an institutional framework. Key players include the Federal Railroad Administration, District Department of Transportation, National Park Service, Army Corps of Engineers, Virginia agencies like the Department of Rail and Public Transportation, and railroad operators like CSX and VRE. Major policy issues revolve around minimizing community impacts from construction like noise, traffic disruptions on roads/trails, and temporary closures on the Potomac River. Extensive public outreach and mitigation measures like timing restrictions are planned. Environmental considerations focus on tree protection by adjusting staging areas, using protective fencing/arborists, preventing invasive species, and revegetating disturbed areas. Funding comes from federal programs like the Intercity Passenger Rail Grant matched with state funds, with Virginia recently securing $729 million. The project aims for completion around 2030 to transform rail operations along the Eastern Seaboard by separating passenger and freight traffic. Map of Location. Long Bridge spans the Potomac River, connecting Washington, D.C., to Arlington, Virginia, in the United States. Timeline. 1809-1870: Pedestrians, horses, carriages, railroad. 1808: Approval Granted The Washington Bridge Company was authorized by regional commissioners and Congress in 1808 to shorten the distance of the nation's main mail route. 1809: Completion and Opening The bridge was completed and opened to traffic on May 20, 1809. It was a wooden pile structure with two spans spanning 5,000 feet, including abutments. The bridge was 36 feet wide with a spacious roadway of 29 feet in the center. The remaining portions were pedestrian walkways protected from the central traffic by railings. 1814-1818: The Battle of Bladensburg Led to Bridge Burnt After the Battle of Bladensburg on August 24, 1814, the American forces retreated to Virginia using the bridge and burnt its southern end. The next day, British forces, upon entering Washington City, burnt the northern end of the bridge. Fortunately, the bridge was restored by 1818. 1831-1835: Washout and Repair On February 22, 1831, high water levels and ice washed away several bridge spans. The following year, the U.S. Congress allocated funds for the restoration of the bridge. It wasn't until October 30, 1835, that the bridge was fully repaired and reopened. 1861: Civil War and Military Significance- Fort Jackson was constructed to guard the bridge On May 25, 1861, federal troops occupied and controlled the bridge, along with Alexandria and its railways. Fort Jackson was constructed to guard the bridge, preventing espionage and incursions from the Confederate States.   The outbreak of the Civil War and the secession of Virginia highlighted the military significance and strategic importance of the Long Bridge. 1864: Construction of the New Bridge- Railway Bridge On July 23, a new and sturdier bridge, built by the Washington, Alexandria, and Georgetown Railroad Company, was completed. 1865: Bridge Span Breaks On February 18, a U.S. military railway engine crossing the old bridge caused a bridge span to break due to its weight. Following this failure, the military deemed it easier and more crucial to occupy the new bridge and install railways on it rather than repairing the old bridge. Consequently, railway traffic was diverted to the new bridge (Railway Bridge) PS: Sometimes the two bridges, old and new, are collectively referred to as the Long Bridge and the Railway Bridge, or as two parts of a single "Long Bridge." During the war, wounded Union soldiers were transported across the bridge to hospitals established throughout the city. The nearest one was the Armory Square Hospital, just a few blocks from the bridge, providing great convenience for treating the wounded. 1872–1904: Pedestrians, Horses, Vehicles, Railroad, Streetcars. 1870: Flood On October 1, a major flood struck, rendering the existing bridges irreparable as most of the embankments, wooden superstructures, and spans were washed away. The Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Company (B&P) opted to construct a replacement bridge. The replacement bridge opened to traffic in May 1872 and was used for both vehicular and streetcar passage. The new bridge had lanes for vehicles and railways, standing 9 feet above the water surface, with sturdy abutments made of blue granite. However, despite the adoption of new designs, the bridge still suffered damage from freshwater, hindering river traffic and lacking width to accommodate two railway tracks. 1881-1895: Ice Flows Cause Damage In 1881, ice flows damaged the bridge, causing three spans of the bridge to be washed away. On February 7, 1895, the Evening Star reported that ice floes were blocking the Potomac near the wharf, held back by the Long Bridge, effectively acting as a dam and creating conditions that could lead to flooding. 1904–Present: Railroad Only. 1904: Construction of the New Railway Bridge In 1899, the B&P Company urged Congress to authorize the replacement of the Long Bridge, built in 1872, to accommodate multiple carriers and address freshwater issues. In 1901, a congressional act authorized the construction. The new Railway Bridge was a Pratt through-truss swing bridge, opened in 1904. It wasn't until the 1980s that this railway bridge began to be referred to again by the old "Long Bridge" name. The old Long Bridge was dismantled by the end of 1907. 2011-2019: Renovation In 2011, the District Department of Transportation (DDOT) collaborated with the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) to restore or replace the Long Bridge. They identified insufficient carrying capacity and redundancy of the bridge and carried out repairs in 2016. In 2019, the DDOT and FRA reported the need for a second bridge to meet the growing demand for passenger rail. They also proposed building a third bridge to create a new bicycle/pedestrian crossing.   2020-2030-future: Expansion Plans The Long Bridge has historically been one of the most severe bottlenecks in the national railway system, often operating at 98% capacity. Environmental impact statements and FRA decision records were released on September 4, 2020. The approval cleared the way for the final engineering design, financing, and construction of the Long Bridge expansion. Donald "DJ" Stadtler Jr., Executive Director of the Virginia Passenger Rail Authority, stated that the adequately funded Long Bridge expansion project is expected to be completed by 2030. Funding and Financing. The latest funding comes from the Federal-State Partnership for Intercity Passenger Rail Grant Program, established under the bipartisan infrastructure law.   By the end of 2023, Virginia announced that it had secured $729 million in federal funds to assist in covering the costs of expanding the Long Bridge over the Potomac River. The expansion funds are aimed at alleviating railroad congestion issues. Governor Glenn Youngkin stated, "This project enhances the resilience of our supply chain, improves freight movements to and from our world-class ports, and promotes the local economy." The funding will not only construct a new Long Bridge but also extend a third track along the railway corridor. The additional track will further allow the separation of freight and passenger rail services. The Federal-State Partnership for Intercity Passenger Rail Grant Program: This is a funding initiative managed by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) of the U.S. Department of Transportation. It was established under the Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 to provide funding for capital projects for intercity passenger rail. The program provides matching federal funds, covering up to 80% of project costs, with the remaining 20% required from non-federal sources. Both Amtrak and individual states are eligible to apply for these competitive grants to invest in their intercity passenger rail services and infrastructure. This 20% non-federal share can come from several channels: 1. Contributions from state and local governments 2. Investments from private investors or companies 3. Funds from railway operators (such as Amtrak) 4. Other public or private funding sources from non-federal governments This funding model aims to encourage active participation from state governments, local governments, private enterprises, and other stakeholders in investing in the modernization of local railway infrastructure and upgrading intercity passenger rail services. Grant funds can be used for projects such as laying new tracks, improving grade crossings, purchasing new trains and locomotives, station enhancements, and implementing positive train control. The 80/20 cost-sharing mechanism not only avoids complete reliance on federal funding but also provides crucial financial support from localities, aimed at expediting project progress and effectively integrating resources from all parties. By sharing costs and risks among multiple stakeholders, it enhances the efficiency of fund utilization and better drives the modernization of intercity passenger rail services. Institutional Arrangements. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA): The FRA, in partnership with the District Department of Transportation (DDOT), prepared the DEIS, demonstrating compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) among other regulations. The FRA is responsible for ensuring that the project adheres to federal environmental laws and regulations. District Department of Transportation (DDOT): As the joint lead with FRA, DDOT has played a crucial role in the development and compliance of the project with environmental and transportation regulations. It acts as a co-sponsor and has been pivotal in managing and guiding the project through its phases. Cooperating and Participating Agencies. Several agencies have been identified as cooperating with the project, providing jurisdictional authority or special expertise: National Park Service (NPS): With jurisdiction over Federal Park property in the project area, NPS's decisions are critical to the project's compliance with environmental policies and practices. National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC): As the federal government's central planning agency for the National Capital Region, NCPC has significant influence over federal projects within the district, including land transfers and alterations to federal property. United States Coast Guard (USCG): Responsible for permitting bridge projects over navigable waterways, the USCG's role is crucial for any modifications or constructions affecting the Potomac River. United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE): With responsibility for impacts to rivers, streams, and wetlands, the USACE's permitting process is essential for the project's adherence to the Rivers and Harbors Act and the Clean Water Act. Federal Transit Administration (FTA): Providing expertise on public transportation and potentially a source of funding, the FTA's involvement underscores the importance of integrating the Long Bridge Project with the broader transit system. Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (DRPT): As the state agency overseeing rail and transit planning in Virginia, DRPT contributes funding and will be the project sponsor for the final design and construction phases. Virginia Railway Express (VRE): As a commuter railroad agency operating on the existing bridge and a contributor to the project, VRE's involvement is key to ensuring that the project meets the needs of commuter rail services. Narrative of the Case. Early History and Evolution. The Long Bridge has served as a vital connection between Arlington, Virginia, and Washington, D.C., across the Potomac River since the early 19th century. Originally constructed to facilitate foot, horse, and stagecoach traffic, it has undergone several reconstructions to accommodate the growing transportation needs of the region. Notably, during the Civil War, the bridge's strategic importance was underscored as it witnessed significant military movements and underwent modifications to support rail traffic, signaling the bridge's evolving role in the region's transportation infrastructure. The 20th Century Developments. The current Long Bridge was constructed in 1904, becoming the only railroad crossing over the Potomac River between the District and Virginia. Owned and operated by CSX Transportation (CSXT), it serves freight, Virginia Railway Express （VRE）for weekday commuting; and Amtrak for intercity passengers. Throughout the 20th century, the bridge underwent further modifications to address the challenges posed by floods and to support the increasing rail and vehicular traffic. A notable period of transition was marked by the rivalry between the B&O Railroad and The Pennsylvania Railroad, with the latter eventually gaining control and making significant upgrades to the bridge to handle the burgeoning traffic flow. This era also saw the construction of new bridge structures to replace the outdated ones, reflecting the ongoing efforts to modernize the transportation network in response to the capital city's growing demands. Addressing Contemporary Challenges. In 2013, there were 79 daily trains using the Long Bridge. The freight use is approximately 30 percent of that traffic or 23 trains, and the passenger and commuter rail make up approximately 70 percent or 56 trains.  The current Long Bridge Project aims to dramatically increase rail capacity over the Potomac River by constructing a new, two-track railroad bridge adjacent to the existing structure, thereby creating a four-track corridor. This project, spearheaded by the Virginia Passenger Rail Authority, is a critical step towards alleviating the congestion that has plagued the existing two-track bridge, which is operating at nearly full capacity. The project not only focuses on expanding rail traffic capacity but also includes the construction of pedestrian bridges to enhance connectivity and accessibility, reflecting a comprehensive approach to transportation infrastructure development in the region. Policy Issues. Traffic And Community Impacts During Construction:. The Long Bridge Project, spearheaded by the Virginia Passenger Rail Authority (VPRA), presents a multifaceted policy challenge revolving around minimizing community disruptions while undertaking a crucial infrastructure endeavor. This endeavor aims to augment rail capacity and alleviate congestion between Arlington, Virginia, and Washington, D.C., ultimately enhancing regional connectivity and mobility. However, the construction process necessitates a delicate balancing act between project expediency and mitigating adverse impacts on the surrounding communities. A paramount policy issue lies in addressing noise pollution emanating from construction activities. The project team has committed to adhering to local ordinances that restrict excessively loud operations to daylight hours. Nonetheless, certain circumstances may warrant the acquisition of waivers to conduct limited night work, underscoring the need for a pragmatic approach that weighs project progress against potential disturbances. Another critical policy consideration involves minimizing disruptions to transportation networks and ensuring the seamless flow of vehicular, pedestrian, and cyclist traffic. The construction of bridges over major arteries, such as I-395, Maine Avenue SW, the George Washington Memorial Parkway, and the Mount Vernon Trail, will necessitate temporary lane shifts, shoulder closures, and occasional brief full roadway closures. These measures, while unavoidable, will be meticulously planned and executed during off-peak and overnight hours, coupled with extensive public notification to minimize inconvenience. Last but not least, the project team must address potential impacts on maritime navigation along the Potomac River. While temporary channel closures or detours are unavoidable during construction, the project's policy approach prioritizes adherence to U.S. Coast Guard regulations and the implementation of mitigation strategies, such as utilizing flaggers or designating auxiliary channels. Maintaining open lines of communication with mariners through various channels, including weekly notices and media outlets, is crucial to ensuring their safety and minimizing disruptions, particularly during peak river traffic periods. Underpinning these policy considerations is VPRA's commitment to proactive community engagement and transparent communication. The authority has devised a comprehensive outreach strategy, leveraging various platforms, including flyers, social media, email alerts, newsletters, news stories, and pop-up events, to keep stakeholders informed about project-related impacts and mitigation measures. Environmental Considerations Regarding Tree Protection:. FRA and DDOT have exerted efforts to mitigate impacts on natural resources, particularly terrestrial vegetation, throughout the Project Development process. This has involved minimizing the Project's footprint as much as possible, considering existing infrastructure and constraints from landowners. One notable action taken was the removal of a culvert extension at Roaches Run, which was initially part of earlier draft plans. DRPT intends to persist in these efforts to minimize impacts on terrestrial vegetation as the Project progresses into subsequent phases, refining design, and construction details. Proposed measures for mitigation include: Adjusting temporary access and staging areas during the final design phase to avoid disturbing trees and vegetation, ensuring that vehicles and materials are stored on vegetated surfaces only when necessary. Mandating the implementation of tree protection measures and measures to limit equipment access to adjacent forested areas through the use of protective fencing, overseen by a licensed arborist or other qualified professional approved by NPS. The arborist would also conduct necessary pruning to maximize tree survival during and after bridge construction, adhering to all NPS regulations, including timing restrictions. Requiring equipment washing before entering NPS lands to minimize the spread or introduction of invasive species. Ensuring that all introduced organic material, such as soil, mulch, and seed, is certified weed-free to prevent the spread or introduction of invasive species. Installing fencing, mulch, and planking to minimize injury and compaction when vegetated surfaces are the only viable option for staging near the Project. Reestablishing terrestrial vegetation removed for both permanent and temporary construction activities where feasible and in coordination with any reforestation requirements. Restoring areas to their pre-construction condition and appearance after construction completion, either through reseeding or replanting woody vegetation using native species. Key Lessons and Takeaways. 1. Bridge construction needs to keep pace with the times to meet constantly changing transportation demands (pedestrians, horses, vehicles, railroads, streetcars). 2. Bridges have significant strategic value during wartime. During the Civil War, long bridges were used for military mobilization and became critical military strongholds. 3. Cooperation between the government and private enterprises is crucial for advancing large-scale infrastructure projects. The long bridge project involves federal, state, and local government agencies, as well as railway companies. 4. Mitigating the impact on communities during construction is a major policy consideration. Comprehensive mitigation measures need to be implemented, such as noise control, traffic maintenance, and protection of maritime activities, while enhancing communication with the public. 5. Environmental impact assessments and mitigation measures are indispensable. The project team has taken a series of measures to minimize impacts on vegetation and ecosystems, such as adjusting construction areas, protecting trees, and restoring vegetation. 6. Funding sources for infrastructure investment can be diversified. The project has received federal funding, as well as state government and private investments. Rational cost-sharing can accelerate project progress. 7. Large-scale projects require clear institutional arrangements and division of responsibilities. The project involves multiple federal, state, and local agencies, each with clear roles and responsibilities to ensure legal compliance.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Khunu Leima. Goddess Khunu Leima, also known as Khunureima, is the queen of all the pigeons and doves, living in the world. She is one of the noble princesses of the Heavenly Realm. She is one of the most favorite daughters of Sky Father Salailen. She has the freedom of roaming in the earthly realm according to her own wish. She once happened to fell in love with a mortal man, who was about to be killed by a selfish evil king. She intervened the situation and rescued her lover using her divine powers. Many legends say that she could call all the pigeons and doves of the entire world to a single spot at a single time. She shares many of her adventures with two of her sisters, Nganu Leima, the goddess of water birds, and Shapi Leima, the goddess of rodents.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Ngaleima. Goddess Ngaleima, also known as Ngareima, is a divine female personification of fish, the predominant form of aquatic life. She is one of the noble princesses of the Celestial Realm. She is one of the favorite daughters of the Sky Father Salailen. She was sent down to earth to prosper the earthly water bodies, with aquatic life, and to prosper the human civilization as well. Obeying the divine orders of her Supreme Father, she and her sisters descended from the heavenly realm to the earthly realm. On her way, she had numerous adventures. Finally, she lived in the water bodies of the earth, and gave rise to various types of aquatic life forms, predominately the fish. Ancient Meitei fishing people always offered prayers to her, to shower her blessings to them. Abundance and scarcity of "fish haul" was perceived as satisfaction (pleasure) and dissatisfaction (displeasure) of her respectively.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Maheigi Lairembi. Maheigi Lairembi is a Mother Goddess of books, education, enlightenment, knowledge, learning, letters, manuscripts, mastery, philosophy, poetry, prose, scholarship, science, skill, speech, wisdom, writing. She is also known as Eeyek Leima, Eyek Leima, Iyek Leima, Lairik Leima, Lailik Leima, Humpu Leima, Nareng Lei Shubi, Naleng Lei Shupi, Singjakhombi, Singchakhompi, Maheigee Lairembee, Maheigee Lairemma, etc. She is also depicted as Meiteilon Ima (alias Meeteilon Ema, Kangleilon Eemaa, Manipuri Ima, Meitei Ima, Meetei Ema, Kanglei Eemaa), which is the Divine Motherly Personification of Classical Meitei language & literature.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Khamnung Kikoi Louonbi. Goddess Khamnung Kikoi Louonbi, also known as Nura Naothem Heibi, is a divine enchantress, associated with death. Her main duty is to collect the souls of the deceased and to bring them to netherworld, the land of death, where God Thongalen ruled supreme. Sometimes, she faces challenges from some souls who are not willing to depart the earthly realm. In such case, she uses to disguise herself as either the mother or the closest and the most trusted person of the very person of that particular troublesome disobedient soul. In most cases, she succeeds in bringing the souls "by hook or by crook" to the underworld. She is depicted as a very intelligent and smart lady. She is one of the wives of God King Thongalen, the deity of death.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Konthoujam Tampha Lairembi. Konthoujam Tampha Lairembi, also known as Chingphulon Konthousu, was a deified lady of the ancient Haorok Konthou clan of Meitei ethnicity. She was born to mortal parents, often named as Lord Konthoujamba and Lady Konthoujambi. She married Celestial King Salailen, the Heavenly Father. Her marriage drew empathy of Salailen for the people of her clan. So, he granted immunity to death (immortality) and immunity to illness, to all the people of her clan. She gave birth to Prince Khoiriphaba (also known as Khoriphaba). Once she descended from the celestial realm to the earthly realm, to visit her parental house, with the permission from her divine husband, under the condition that she should not consume any earthly food or drink. She disobeyed the condition. So, she was permanently disallowed from entering the celestial realm by Salailen. The immunity to death and the immunity to illness for the people of her clan were also removed. Thus, she not only got departed from her beloved husband but also from her beloved infant son. She endured emotional pain, for a very long time, until her son grew up and came down from the sky by himself to meet her.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Irai Leima. Goddess Irai Leima, also known as Erai Leima, Eerai Leima, Ireima, Ereima, Eereima, is a divine female personification of water and the water bodies. She is one of the noble princesses of the Celestial Realm. She is one of the favorite daughters of King Salailen, the Sky Father. She was sent down to earth to prosper the earthly realm with water, to make life possible, and to prosper human civilization as well. Obeying the divine orders of her Supreme Father, she and her sisters descended from the heavenly realm to the earthly realm. On her way, she had lots of adventures. She gave rise to numerous water bodies, starting from water catchment areas (or watersheds), streams and brooks, rivers and their tributaries, then lakes and ponds, then seas and oceans. The identities of numerous ancient deified ladies got merged with her cult and pantheon in Meitei society.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Imoinu. Goddess Imoinu, also known as Emoinu, is a divine motherly personification of the sacred kitchen hearth fire (called "Phunga Lairu" in Classical Meitei language) of ancient Meitei households. She is also the goddess of wealth and prosperity. She is often depicted as either an old woman (grandmotherly figure) or a young or elderly but matured woman (motherly figure) sitting by an indoor fireplace warming herself. Chengphu, the traditional Meitei pot for storing rice, is a symbolic representation of goddess Imoinu. Senphu, a traditional Meitei idol shaped container for storing coins (or any money), is also an iconography of her. She is associated with cleanliness and hygiene. Ancient Meitei people believed that no matter how much one was devoted to her, if the person and his/her house's environment was not clean, goddess Imoinu never set her feet on that place. On the holy day of Imoinu Iratpa (also known as Emoinu Eratpa) ritualistic festival, Meitei people worship her with a greater pomp, than the daily worshipping ceremony. She is often offered different varieties of fish, rice and vegetables. She is often compared to ancient Greek goddess Hestia and ancient Roman goddess Vesta.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Leimalen. Goddess Leimalen, also known as Leimalel, Leimaren, Leimarel, is the supreme goddess or the divine empress of the entire universe. She is entitled as Sitapi (or Sidabi), meaning she is immortal. She, herself, is the mother earth for which she is called Malem Leima. She is the first and the foremost female ever created during the genesis. She is the wife of Emperor Salailen, the Heavenly Father. She is the mother of Sanamahi (symbolic son) and Pakhangba (biological son). She is symbolically represented in the form of an earthen pot ("Isaiphu" in Classical Meitei language). Inside Meitei households, she is generally worshipped in the form of Isaiphu. All the female beings are considered to be the different manifestations of Leimalen. All the living beings are considered to be her children. Almost most of the ancient Meitei goddesses are associated with her identity, cult and pantheon. Among them, Imoinu and Panthoibi are the most frequently mentioned in relation to her in ancient Meitei textual and oral traditions.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Helloi. A Helloi, also known as Heloi, is a divine female figure, who is attractive, beautiful, charming and seductive to wandering menfolk, frequently depicted as roaming in forests, grasslands, mountainsides, lonely places or sparsely human populated areas. According to classical Meitei tradition, there are seven helloi ladies who are considered to be the noble princesses of the celestial realm and the favorite daughters of Heavenly King Salailen, the Father Sky. Many legends often praise that the youngest of all the helloi sisters is the most beautiful, the most gentle, the most innocent, the most lovable, etc. There are numerous ancient Meitei folktales of the youngest helloi sister falling in love with a mortal man. These ancient Meitei mythological seven divine sisters are considered to be the paragon of beauties and the epitome of charms, giving fascination and inspiration to numerous cultures across South Asia and Southeast Asia in modern times.

Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Kounu. Goddess Kounu is the tutelary protectress of the northern directions. She is also the queen of the northern mountains of Kangleipak. She is believed to dwell in the snows of far north. She is the blesser of good rainfall to bring good agricultural harvest to prosper the human civilisation. She is the wife of God Koupalu (also called Koubaru or Koubru). So, besides her native place "Kounu Ching" (meaning "Kounu mountain" in Classical Meitei language), she has her second home at Mount Koubru, the sacred abode of her husband. She is one of the most benevolent and compassionate divine motherly ladies. Kounu adopted goddess Thoudu Nungthel Leima (also, Nungthen Leima) as her own daughter, after finding her as a newborn baby girl lying on the stone slab in a riverbed. Kounu also adopted Loiyalakpa (also called Tollomkhomba or Tollongkhomba) as her own son. Kounu also adopted another lady as her own daughter, who was later known by the name Koubarol Namoinu ("Koupalol Namoinu" in Classical Meitei language).

A Researcher's Guide to Local History Terminology/Introduction. This is a Resource Book of Local History techniques and terminology aimed at helping local history researchers who are studying historical documents which contain many archaic terms, local names for plants and animals, dialect words (Scots, English, Welsh, Cornish, American, etc.), unusual first names, specialist farming terms, legal terms, obscure or rarely used (archaic) words, etc. which are often absent from standard factual sources or are only defined briefly, in outline and often not in context. The abecedary is designed to be used as a resource for all local history linked researches and as a steadily accumulating bank of information on each topic. Editors are invited to add new words, but to do more than just give definitions, e.g. cite examples, sites for, historical links, trivia, etc.

Brewing/Foreword. Beer making has a long and varied history throughout the world. From individuals making a couple of cases at home in the kitchen to large industrial sites that produce hundreds of cases per hour. That you want to home brew says that you have tried a couple of different beers and thought you would like to taste something different, or that you could do better. Don't worry! Homebrewing isn't that hard. It does require patience and some attention to detail. But don't stress out. As homebrewing legend Charlie Papazian famously puts it: Relax, Don't worry, have a homebrew! Below you will find a collection of articles discussing the different aspects to homebrewing. Feel free to look through them. Foreword to the Student. Welcome to the world of home beer brewing! This wikibook aims to help you, the student, become a well rounded and versed master home brewer. It is recommended that you use this book as part of a class led by an experienced instructor, who can lead you through the book and assist you in practical application of the information contained therein. However, determined students will certainly be able to use this material to be their own instructor, and in such case, you should probably read the instructor foreword. Beer brewing is an exciting and mind opening process, and will allow you to refine your tastes for beer by better understanding the hows, the whys, and the history of beer production. Foreword to the Instructor. As an instructor, you are carrying on an ancient tradition. It is imperative that you impart your charge with as much appreciation and as much enthusiasm for beer making as you should have. This book aims to be a complete discourse on the entire beer making process, and to avoid repeating identical material it has been organized in a "grain to stein" fashion. Unfortunately, this organization will prove to push too much information too soon to entice a beginner and get him on the road to making a quality beer. So, for the instructor (and students instructing themselves), here is a recommended path through this book: Cleaning/Sanitization, Procedures, Equipment, Boiling, Cooling, Fermentation, Bottling/Kegging, Ingredients, Mashing, Lautering, Cultivation, Malting. It is assumed that this path will be accompanied with relevant lectures and exercises, to reinforce the material and affect a better understanding. For the self instructing brewer, we recommend that you follow this path, reading at least to the point of fermentation before performing your first "brew-day," while paying attention to procedures relating to "extract brewing". Once you have pitched yeast, you will have at least 2 weeks to read the bottling/kegging section, and decide how you intend to finish your beer. Natural bottle carbonation is the least expensive way, but it is also the easiest with which to make mistakes resulting in sub-standard beer (or exploding bottles, which is fun). A kegging system is quite an investment, especially for first timers who may find that homebrewing is not the hobby for them, but it is the most straight forward method, often producing a more consistent quality beer. Once the self instructing student has become comfortable with the simplified process using extract, we recommend he continue learning about the rest of the process and at least try to produce an "all-grain" brew. Little additional equipment required, while the resulting beer can be several orders of quality and freshness better than an extract brew from comparable initial ingredients, not to mention that per-batch costs can even go down.

Canadian LGBT History/Introduction. This is the Canadian LGBT History wikibook. The goal of this wikibook is to provide free information about the social, legal and political history of Canada's LGBT communities and people. This wikibook aims to be inclusive and well-researched, which means we will be using as many primary sources and credible secondary sources as possible. It is intended for older students who wish to learn about the history of LGBT rights, lifestyles and communities in Canada. Feel free to contribute!

International Postage Meter Stamp Catalog/Hong Kong/AA8. =Hong Kong Type AA8= Universal Postal Frankers, Ltd. "Simplex".. <br> AA8.S1 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S2 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S3 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S4 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S5 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S6 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S7 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S8 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S9 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S10 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S11 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S12 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S13 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S14 (LV-25) <br> AA8.S15 (LV-25) <br><br>

Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...Nc6/2. d4/2...d5/3. Nc3/3...dxe4/4. d5/4...Ne5. Nimzowitsch Defense. Following 4...Ne5, White could recapture the gambitted central pawn with 5. Nxe4, but following 5...e6! Black is guaranteed good development and almost certain equality. A more critical response is 5. Bf4, threatening the knight on e5. 5...Ng6 is forced, due to the fact that 5...Qd6?? loses to 6. Nb5! Nf3+ 7. Qxf3!!, and after 6. Bg3, 6...f5 is critical, although largely unexplored. White can avoid these lines with 5. Qd4, also forcing 5...Ng6. This line is more aggressive, and Black must be careful, but Black can probably equalize.

Origami/Introduction. Origami is the art of folding paper. The name comes from Japanese, adopted into English in the 1960s. Traditional Origami. Before 1900, there were several isolated folding traditions which seem to have developed entirely separately: In Europe, the first folding traditions were not with paper but with cloth. Napkin folding traditions appeared in the 16th century, and were very well documented, though aside from some simpler forms they were discontinued during the 1800s, due to the time and effort involved in folding cloth. Paper folding emerged as a form of children's recreation and a pedagogical tool, particularly during the 19th century and later. European folding generally uses 45º angles, and used mostly squares or rectangles. Chinese folding traditions are for the most part associated with the practice of burning paper objects at a funeral, as a way of providing for the deceased in the afterworld. As a result, there is an emphasis on inanimate objects; gold ingots, or yuenbao, are a common subject. Other uses of folding included auspicious animals such as the frog or turtle. Traditional Japanese origami had its beginnings in the formal gift-wrapping practices of 17th century Japan, and by the mid-18th century it was an established and recognizable tradition. Several origami books were published in Japan during the early 19th century. Contrary to modern practice, it often used cuts, and implemented a variety of starting shapes: squares, rectangles, octagons, hexagons. Japanese traditional repertoire uses 22.5º angles extensively, and used more sculptural shaping than other traditions. The pedagogical methods of Friedrich Froebel, developed in the 1840s and 50s, included paper folding to teach geometry and encourage imaginative play through interpretation of folded objects. During Japan's industrialization process, parts of the German education system, including Froebel's kindergarten method, were adapted for use in Japanese schools. The folding styles were assimilated into Japanese origami, and laid the ground for future developments. The restrictive use of squares with color on one side is credited to Froebel's influence. Modern Origami. During the early 1900s, several Japanese folders started creating and publishing their own origami designs, notably Akira Yoshizawa, Kosho Uchiyama, and Toshie Takahama. Akira Yoshizawa's innovations in particular sparked an era of expanded exploration, and many origami artists credit him as the founder of modern origami. He was the first to create origami as sculptural art, and introduced a number of major technical innovations: backcoating, where two sheets are pasted together to combine the properties of both; wetfolding, where a sheet of thick paper is dampened before folding to loosen the fibers, allowing for better manipulation of the paper; a method of diagramming, which was expanded upon by Samuel Randlett, and now referred to as the Yoshizawa-Randlett diagramming system; partial folds and creases, used for sculptural effect; and in general a greater level of complexity and liveliness.

Traditional Principles of Animation/Introduction. Many people assume that if you build a good looking model, it will simply come to life all by itself. Unfortunately, this couldn't be farther from the truth. A poorly constructed animation will typically suffer from objects moving in an awkward and unrealistic manner. The motion you create in your scene is an "extremely important" element of your overall product. You must design and execute your movement with as much care as you give to designing the objects in your animation. An analysis of unsuccessful animation usually reveals "too little motion" or motion that is "not life-like". So how does motion become part of your overall design? Planning must begin immediately -- even before you begin to build your scene. In this book you'll find a list of principles that the traditional masters of animation have discovered, learned and applied in their journey to learn their art. Applicable to both traditional 2D animation and computer 3D animation, every quality animated film makes use of at least a few of these basic principles developed at the Walt Disney studios during the 1930s. Believable movement starts with applying these concepts. As you continue to gain experience and knowledge, you'll come to realize just how important these techniques are. Every animator is "expected" to not just know these principles, but to apply them to their work. Memorizing them isn't enough. Knowing when, where and how to apply them is what's important.

Bad Science/Introduction. This book is based on articles from the Bad Science column written by Dr. Ben Goldacre. A British doctor and journalist, author of the "Bad Science" column in the Guardian Saturdays newspaper. Most of his writing is focused in telling just how the media sometimes gets it wrong reporting on "pseudoscience" (false science) as true science, this subject is also covered on his website/blog, www.badscience.net."Bad Science" for the classroom, created by Planet Science and Dr. Goldacre with the help of teachers: brings fun activities to do with students as a way to demonstrate that not everything you read as science is in reality "proper" science. These activities are aimed at 14-16 year olds, but there's nothing to say you can't try these with any age group... it's all in the name of scientific literacy... let’s not all get hypnotised by pseudoscience!

Biblical Studies/Introduction. Overview. This work reflects the study of the Judeo-Christian Bible and related texts. For Christianity, the Bible traditionally comprises the and (also called the Hebrew Bible), which together are sometimes called the "Scriptures." recognizes as scripture only the Hebrew Bible, also known as the , an acronym for the Hebrew names of its divisions: Torah (Law), (Prophets) and (writings). Other texts often examined by biblical scholars include the Jewish , the Jewish , the Christian apocrypha, the many varieties of ante-Nicene literature, and early Jewish literature. Study Methods. There are several approaches to study of, and commentary on, the Judeo-Christian texts. The distinctions are found in the understanding of the Origins for the text and the basis of Truth found in the texts. Orthodox Religious Study. In the Jewish community, the classical approach is Orthodox religious study of the Bible, where it is assumed that the Bible has a Divine origin and the human writers were inspired directly by the Spirit of God when writing. This is also true in the conservative Christian communities that hold to a Biblical Worldview and those who hold to the historically traditional Church view. In both cases, Biblical writings are considered to be absolute truth coming directly from God and form the basis for all moral, ethical and social practices of believers. Progressive or Mainstream Religious Study. It is common in both Judaic and Christian contemporary religious communities, often called Mainstream, to study the Bible as a human creation, where the writings were originated by people inspired by God as well as being inspired by Religious Study. Such an approach yields scripture that is considered to be truthful only in some respects, which necessitates the addition of other writings or rational thinking in order to reach truthful and applicable practices of moral, ethical and social thought. In such cases, studies include high consideration for texts that are part of a tradition. These include Apochryphal writings and rabbinical commentaries. Also, science and other contemporary knowledge from the academic community is often used to augment the understanding of Biblical text. Secular Study of the Bible. Secular practitioners of Biblical Studies view the Bible as literature and not Sacred text. Most do not have any faith commitment to the texts they study. Biblical criticism seems to reject the idea that the Bible was written by prophets or teachers inspired by God. Indeed, this practice, when applied to the Torah, is generally considered heresy by the entire Orthodox Jewish community. As such, much modern day Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox Judaic authors is considered treif (forbidden) by rabbis teaching in Orthodox yeshivas. Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, Gersonides and Maimonides, used many elements of modern day biblical criticism, including their then-current knowledge of history, science and philology. Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered kosher by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Modern Orthodox Jewish community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the academic world, e.g. the series. Non-Orthodox Jews, including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept the validity of both traditional and secular approaches to Bible studies. See the article on for details of how members of these groups understand this concept. The Wikipedia article on discusses Jewish Tanakh commentaries from the to classical , the literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern day commentaries.

Writing Adolescent Fiction/Plot. For a book to have shape and form, there must be a concise detail given to the circumstances for which the book is written. These circumstances are the forces behind the characters' unpredictable motifs which further divulges the readers' minds to the suspenseful nature of the story. Without a plot which forms the themes discussed in the character form or the author’s expository manner, a book loses shape and form which makes it incoherent and baseless.

Writing Adolescent Fiction/Style. Every writer must have a different way or technique (s) of telling stories. For a writer to make sense and be felt or discussed, a writer must develop his own way and skills for which he models his form of language, and characters so that when he is read, they should be felt a sense of distinctiveness in his stories.

Ithkuil/Basic Morphology. Ithkuil words can be divided in three parts of speech: "Formatives", "Adjuncts", and "Referentials". Formatives. Formatives function as both nouns and verbs depending on context, derive from the same root and are expanded with various affixes adding different grammatical information, such as case, number etc. The morphological structure of formatives can be described by a simple formula formula_1 Where CR is the root of the word and and all other morphemes are affixes composed either of a vowel form (shown as V), a consonant form (shown as C) or a combination of both. Some affixes that are shown by parentheses are optional, so the smallest formative will consist of just 5 morphemes: CR + VR + CA + VC/VK + stress. Each particular morpheme will be discussed in Formatives chapter, but for now let's look at an example word: "láţa", meaning "a group of different people (adults)". The root (CR) of the word is "-l-", meaning "a human being". Before the root, a null affix in VV slot is used to show the default first stem of the word, "an adult human". VR shows us the formative's Function, Specification and Context which have values of Static, Basic and Existential respectively (we'll go over all of those in the next chapter). The CA slot can be responsible for numerous things, but in this case it only shows us the number of the formative: multiplex, dissimilar, separate. If you look at the tables you will see that such configuration gives us affix "-ţ-", and finally, the "-a" ending in VC slot gives us Thematic Case Adjuncts. Adjuncts are words that operate in conjunction with adjacent formatives to provide more grammatical information about them, similar to auxiliary verbs and noun determiners. They are formed from one or more consonantal and/or vocalic(vowel) affixes, combined agglutinatively(Joined into one word). They serve as an alternative to adding VXCS affixes into a formative.

Orthopaedic Surgery/Articular Tissues. Articular tissues

Patsho/Nuptial tradition. Introduction. The marriage system in the olden days and present day has become grippingly nonpareil. It was an elementary procedure and most economic performances ever known. Besides this no information was needed to deliver family members or relatives for marriage. The practice of exogamy and monogamy endured throughout the entire course of time. Ancient method of marriage. In ancient times, the best explanation of marriage was based on compulsion and impromptu, especially for women. It was said that men would just throw a small piece of stone on a particular woman while on the way as a sign of selecting to make his wife. The other method is by visiting the house of a woman of his preference. If any woman denies his proposal, she would be carried home by a man forcefully at that time itself. All this has become mere past experience with the advent of Christianity in the village. Marriage ceremony has conformed to the Christian norms and gatherings of the family members from both sides of the bride and groom has become a part of the culture. Today, the autonomy of an individual regarding dress code on the wedding day is observed but usually contemporary clothing with state of the art designs. Norms. Marriage between couples is not randomly chosen from different clans but strictly adheres to custom which is possible solely between Shiu and Lam clans. Ostracization can be exercised upon the non-compliance of this code. Such imposition of social pariah was practiced to assure the rigidity of social custom prevailing in the society.

Patsho/Polity. Introduction. The political governance prevalent in ancient Patsho can be visualized through folktales and folklore. Actors in governance. The elders in the village were the main actors in governance. Other actors involved in governance are the acquired individuals through skills in battle. The decision makers were the elders or more knowledgeable personage on cultural roots and the dictum they offered remains impeccably legitimate. The decision to raid villages or war declaration depends on the individual who is considered knowledgeable socially accepted personage to lead the community. Institutions in governance. The Murong was a part of the governance, which is considered as a youth dormitory. It was a significant learning institution where the menfolk were morally and physically trained for security and related education was imparted sustenance. Governance in Safeguarding and commerce. The other effective aspects of governance that deals with safeguarding forest and rearing livestock has been fundamentally executed in the past and present. The discharge of trade and commerce based upon the primitive barter system was materialized in the village or between villages. Governance in adjudication. The legal remedies and the social legislation or the concept of punishment upon evil doers were performed to the extent of unexplainable imposition.

Counterpoint/Introduction. Counterpoint is a method of composing music. It is a set of "rules" that are traditionally followed in order to write music for two or more voices. It is organized into "types" of counterpoint known as "species". They go in order from most restrictive to the least. The more voices there are in a musical score, the more freedom the voices have (less rules to follow).

Counterpoint/History. Much of the credit for the formation and organization of the rules of counterpoint is given to a single man by the name of Joseph Fux. His classic and groundbreaking work on counterpoint, "Gradus ad parnassum", is regarded as the most important contribution to the advancement of the theories of counterpoint. It has been historically proven that great composers such as Haydn, Mozart, as well as Beethoven worked from the same book (giving much to say concerning the usefulness and importance of this method.)

Singing/Introduction. In the 21st century, it is often said by those selling singing techniques, books and methods that most people can learn how to sing. In fact, scientists have stated that the human larynx is typically very similar across all humans with only a difference in sizes. It is however a commonly held belief that singing is reserved for only a few which are born with the ability. Because of the difference in vocal fold sizes, some people are less capable of hitting higher and lower notes in chest voice (tenor can't hit much below low c, most untrained baritones can't go much above middle C). Knowing one's tessitura is important, the song must be in a key suitable for you, otherwise you are likely to look quite the fool as you break and go into falsetto or head voice in inappropriate places. The human larynx is an instrument, in which all that is necessary in order to sing is to learn how to use it, and practice often. With a little bit of motivation and patience, it can be achieved.

Songbook/Introduction. This textbook grows by volunteer cooperation of all, who like to contribute to it. All chapters of this book can be created and expanded by anybody. The goal is to get a songbook with freely licensed songs for various occasions. These songs can be arranged for all instruments. Thus the song book addresses itself to a quite large target group. Above all, however, lyrics with chord accompaniments will be collected. In this book collected songs (folk songs) or just pieces of melody and exercise . This collection is used to supply examples for the book projects like a guitar course. The preparation of this book have been done from the . The already prepared songs shall be the basis for this book. These Songbook can be supplemented and be expanded by anybody. Please help to take the songs of the German Wikibooks. It is much easier for a native speaker to insert the necessary headers and right categories. Cross Reference. <noinclude> </noinclude> Song. <poem> Text text text text text Text text text text text </poem> <poem> Text text text text text Text text text text text </poem> Copy chord's or templates for notes and tablatures from similar songs and adapt them to your needs.

Animal Rights/Introduction. Animal rights refers to a broad category of ideas that wishes to raise the moral status of animals beyond current levels. It is distinguished from animal welfare in that animal welfare is relatively unconcerned with human treatment of animals so long as they are treated humanely and without being caused unnecessary pain. Animal rights views animal life as having an intrinsic value which supersedes the mere avoidance of unnecessary pain. Rather, in the eyes of animal rights advocates, certain rights currently only assigned to humans (e.g., the right to life) should be extended to non-human animals as well. Scope and Aim. This work will focus itself on providing a detailed yet concise report on the concept of animal rights. Rather than providing a set of articles in encyclopedic format of the animal rights movement, the book will focus on defining what the concept of animal rights is, the implications of adopting it, and the reasons for (and against) such adoption. The book is divided into four main parts: The first part is dedicated to an understanding of the arguments for why we should extend moral consideration to non-human animals*, and why we should undo any prejudice against such an extension (speciesism). The second chapter deals with animal cognition, the conditions of factory farming, animal experimentation, use of animals in entertainment, etc. The third is an exploration of vegetarianism (nutrition facts, the process of becoming vegetarian, etc.). The final chapter is devoted to understand how speciesism can be eradicated within a broader social context; the method of analysis will attempt to parallel those used within feminist and anti-racist sociological writings. Research methodology. The research for this project will be divided into 4 sections, each corresponding with the 4 parts of the book. Timeline. The project will begin on October 1, 2010. The current writer hopes to have finished an anthology of philosophical writings on animal rights by December 31, 2010. During and after this period, the author will work on the section entitled "The Moral Status of Animals". The first draft is due to be finished by January 2011. Other work will be decided upon as preliminary research is conducted.

Constructivist Theories in Education/Introduction. In a way, this book is about itself. One of the dominant trends in Constructivist theory stresses the social and cultural basis of human knowledge. is a prime example of this idea. So, Access to technology is in the schools, let's use constructivism with kids, even little kids to get them thinking and interested in learning for learning's sake. It needs to hit the grass roots and move once and for all out of the theoretical stages. Bridging, scaffolding, whatever you want to call it, children have to be exposed to this therefore educators have to understand the practical application. How about kids using blogs as well as wikis. Both seem to be naturals for constructivism. It is just up to teachers to figure out how to move from just posting a daily journal or daily assignments to considering the audience and engaging in responding, rethinking, analyzing. It has started at the university level and at the high school level; it is even happening in the classrooms of the younger kids. One thing though, 'defining proper use of blogs and wikis' , seems as if it would serve no purpose. It is important to know how blogs and wikis can be used, but it may not be constructive to define 'how'. Teachers, you are already using this theory, building from the known. Discussion and community is essential. Guided Reading and Making Words may be considered constructivist. Below is a section of this page for specific uses and development of constructivist theories. Classroom teachers will need practical applications.

Constructivist Theories in Education/Guided Reading. Guided Reading is by its nature a constructivist application. One moves from where the children are, what their existing knowledge is, into the new learning in the story. And we are already doing it.

Constructivist Theories in Education/Making Words. Making Words starts at the knowledge of letters and sounds and evolves to an increasingly advanced knowledge of words.

Effective Reasoning/Introduction. Everyone reasons. Humans are reasoning animals, if not always "reasonable". Further, we "homo sapiens" are unique in that we reason with words and symbols that make thoughts and ideas that lead to anticipation, imagination, and the very making of human history. To reason is to use evidence and thought to come to some conclusion. Reasoning can be done alone or in groups, but most effectively, working in groups but reflecting in private. Unfortunately, merely being human does not provide any assurance that any of us that we will reason effectively. Reasoning does not have to produce particularly useful results, however productive reasoning is an art that requires some technical skill. Just as graphic artists have to learn about draftsmanship paint and brushwork to make paintings, so too do thinkers need some understanding of logic, language and reliable projection if they are to become leaders and help make history. We hope to present here information that will allow almost anyone to develop both the skill and the knowledge to reason effectively, to imagine new worlds and to get things done: Somewhere between "paralysis via analysis" and "activity instead of progress" Particularly, this Wikibook discusses informal reasoning, which includes some formal methods and some traditional approaches together with more recent philosophical and neurological understanding of effective reasoning techniques. For a complete study, take a look also at the related reference works mentioned as well as associated Wikibooks such as Introduction to Moral Reasoning and Formal Logic.

Cosmetic Science/Welcome. Welcome. This book is intended to be a comprehensive teaching tool for newcomers to cosmetic science. In addition, it also serves as a convenient reference for gurus and formulators. For beginners, the best approach is to read the book in order. Check out the Ingredients Glossary when you need formulating tips for a particular ingredient.

Equine Nutrition/Foreword. This book was set up by Dr Jo-Anne Murray of the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies at the University of Edinburgh. Dr Murray has a PhD in Equine Nutrition, a Masters in E-learning, a PgDip in Animal Nutrition, a PgCert in University Teaching and a BSc in Equine Science. Dr Murray is also a fully qualified British Horse Society Intermediate Instructor, a registered nutritionist with the British Nutrition Society and is a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr Murray also leads the Equine Science programme at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and teaches animal nutrition to students undertaking the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery programme. The aim of this book is to provide an open, trustworthy educational resource on equine nutrition. Everyone is encouraged to contribute to this wikibook; however when doing so please follow the Wikibooks contributions guidelines and provide citations for all information entered where appropriate to do so. Please refer to the citing references tutorial to assist you with your bibliography. The following outline is provided as a starting point for how the book could be structured; however, contributors are encouraged to add/re-arrange this book outline as they see fit. Please use the link for information about contributing and editing the book.

MCEM Part A Study Guide/Introduction. This is intended to be a study guide for The Membership Examination of the College of Emergency Medicine Part A (Basic Sciences). Its a pretty narrow scope, but I guess that makes web publication more suitable. I originally started out using Revision Notes for MCEM Part A (Oxford Specialty Training: Revision Texts) edited by Mark Harrison. It was essentially the only study guide available, and reading through 500 pages seemed much more attractive than reading through six 1000 page textbooks to distill the necessary information myself. However as I was making my way through the textbook I realized that there were numerous mistakes, and many others had also noticed this. I started to lose faith in the book and was turning to the aforementioned 1000 page textbooks to affirm every fact - entirely what I was trying to avoid. Ironically, it seemed Wikipedia was more reliable than the textbook for much of the information. Furthermore, I couldn't find an errata page to facilitate sharing the mistakes I was finding. I reluctantly abandoned my use of the textbook, and using the syllabus directly to guide me, and writing notes myself. I have always been a fan of the "Open" movement (Open Source, Open Access, Open Data etc.) and it seemed daft not to share these notes with anybody else who wanted them. Given the difficulty that the aforementioned MCEM textbook had with simple errors, and the comparative success of Wikipedia, a collaborative editing design seemed most likely to succeed. The MCEM Part A curriculum is very well structured and provides a good indication as to the amount of detail required, and will provide the basic structure for the Wikibook. It is essential that this guide be kept as brief and concise as possible ie. rigorously stick to the syllabus.

Songbook/Oh Marry Don't You Weep. = Oh, Mary, don't you weep = The song tells the Biblical story of Mary of Bethany and her distraught pleas to Jesus to raise her brother Lazarus from the dead. <poem> Well if I could I surely would, Stand on the rock where Moses stood. Pharaoh's army got drowned, Oh, Mary, don't you weep. One of these morns about twelve o' clock This old world is going to reel and rock Pharaoh's army got drowned, Oh, Mary, don't you weep. </poem> Weblinks. Oh, Mary, don't you weep Oh, Mary, don't you weep Oh, Mary, don't you weep Oh, Mary, don't you weep Oh, Mary, don't you weep Oh, Mary, don't you weep

Guitar/CAGED connect scales. = Connect CAGED scales = Let's say you're improvising in G major. You picked the first CAGED scale you found with the root note in the 3rd fret on the E string. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-2-7;1-3-1;1-5-2; 2-3-5;2-5-6; 3-2-2;3-4-3;3-5-4; 4-2-6;4-4-7;4-5-1; 5-2-3;5-3-4;5-5-5; 6-2-7;6-3-1;6-5-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Now let's assume that the singer is currently singing in your pitch and you notice that it clashes with your solo. This is what happens when the singer and guitarist are both at the same pitch. You decide to leave this tonal spectrum to the singer (good choice!) and try to play your entire improvisation in a higher register so that the singer's voice and your improvisation can be clearly distinguished from each other. But how do you get to a higher register quite elegantly without having to think for a long time about which chord, which fret, which scale? From the (E)F to the D shape. My tip: orientate yourself again on the semitone steps or the square. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 3-2-2;3-4-3;3-5-4; 4-2-6;4-4-7;4-5-1;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Here is a suitable transfer point for you that costs you almost nothing to think about. You don't have to worry about scale shapes and chords because they arise all by themselves. On one of the two strings (D or G string) you simply slide two frets further. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 3-2-2;3-4-3;3-5-4;3-7-5; 4-2-6;4-4-7;4-5-1;4-7-6;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> How you do this is completely up to you. You can slide two frets further with your index finger or slide your little finger further and just drag the other fingers along. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 3-4-3;3-5-4;3-7-5; 4-4-7;4-5-1;4-7-6;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> It doesn't really matter which string you slide on. It is clear that you ended up in the first fingering. Strum around a bit in the first fingering to get some orientation. The second fingering must now follow downwards. Note the change in position between the G and B strings. For now you don't need to worry about what scale you're actually in, just strum around and only have the three fingerings and the change of position in mind. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-5-6;1-7-7;1-8-1; 2-5-6;2-7-7;2-8-1; 3-4-3;3-5-4;3-7-5; 4-4-7;4-5-1;4-7-2;" \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> By now you just know that it is the D major shape. After some practice, you will recognize the typical shapes straight away. There are only 5 CAGED scales. Complete the scale with the 3rd fingering. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-5-2;1-7-3;1-8-4; 2-5-6;2-7-7;2-8-1; 3-4-3;3-5-4;3-7-5; 4-4-7;4-5-1;4-7-2; 5-5-5;5-7-6; 6-5-2;6-7-3;6-8-4; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> This makes it quite easy to slide from one scale to the other. Here it was from (E)F form to D form. From the D to the C shape. Let's say it's still too low, or you want to take your improvisation up a notch and play even higher. Where is the best point to slide now? <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-5-2;1-7-3;1-8-4; 2-5-6;2-7-7;2-8-1; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Of course where the next square is on the right. Here you slide again exactly as described above <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-5-2;1-7-3;1-8-4;1-10-5; 2-5-6;2-7-7;2-8-1;2-10-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Jingle around in the first fingering again for a while and think about how you have to continue upwards. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-7-3;1-8-4;1-10-5; 2-7-7;2-8-1;2-10-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Above the first fingering comes the third fingering, but there is still the change of position between the G and B strings. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-7-3;1-8-4;1-10-5; 2-7-7;2-8-1;2-10-2; 3-7-5;3-9-6; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> At this point at the latest you will notice that you are in the C-shape scale. Once you've done the preliminary exercises, you'll be reminded of the lower half of the C major scale. (see: ) In the C major form there is no change of position because this is canceled out between the G and B strings with the third fingering. So simply add the second fingering upwards and the first fingering above. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-7-3;1-8-4;1-10-5; 2-7-7;2-8-1;2-10-2; 3-7-5;3-9-6; 4-7-2;4-9-3;4-10-4; 5-7-6;5-9-7;5-10-1; 6-7-3;6-8-4;6-10-6; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> From the C to the (A) Bb shape. Now you want to move one more layer from the C shape. Climb up the bass strings to the next square. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 4-7-2;4-9-3;4-10-4;4-12-5; 5-7-6;5-9-7;5-10-1;5-12-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> And here the same game starts again. From now on it will be quite tight for your fingers. If the frets are no longer accessible for you (especially for classical or acoustic guitar players), simply move back to the fretboard and practice the further changes in a different key. How about we continue with C major? <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 4-2-3;4-3-4;4-5-5; 5-2-7;5-3-1;5-5-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> We continue downwards with the second fingering. However, there is also the change in position between the G and B strings. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 2-3-2;2-5-3;2-6-4; 3-2-6;3-4-7;3-5-1; 4-2-3;4-3-4;4-5-5; 5-2-7;5-3-1;5-5-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> First, jingle around with this second fingering for a while and memorize the change in position of the A- or Bb-shape, because it inevitably also occurs in the next higher position. If necessary, you can complete the scale yourself. From the (A-)Bb- to the G-shape. But let's not stay here for long, just move on to the next slide point. Despite the change in position, the slide works exactly as you did before. Nothing changes in the fingering on the corresponding string where you want to slide. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 2-5-3;2-6-4;2-8-5; 3-4-7;3-5-1;3-7-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> It's just a good thing that we've already had the change of position behind us. This makes it easier to fill the scale downwards with part of the second fingering. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-5-6;1-7-7;1-8-1; 2-5-3;2-6-4;2-8-5; 3-4-7;3-5-1;3-7-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> The 3rd fingering follows upwards, which leads into the 2nd fingering on the E string. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-5-6;1-7-7;1-8-1; 2-5-3;2-6-4;2-8-5; 3-4-7;3-5-1;3-7-2; 4-5-5;4-7-6; 5-5-2;5-7-3;5-8-4; 6-5-6;6-7-7;6-8-1; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> From the G to the (E-) F-shape. To get to the next slide point, you have to move all the way up to the bass strings. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 5-5-2;5-7-3;5-8-4; 6-5-6;6-7-7;6-8-1; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Now slide in the bass strings. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 5-5-2;5-7-3;5-8-4;5-10-5; 6-5-6;6-7-7;6-8-1;6-10-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> You can now simply fill it up further down <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 5-7-3;5-8-4;5-10-5; 6-7-7;6-8-1;6-10-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> This closes the circle. <score raw="1"> \version "2.14.2" \markup \override #'(fret-diagram-details . ( (number-type . roman-upper) (finger-code . in-dot) (orientation . landscape))) { %% s:3 = 3x so groß %% f:1 zeigt Finger als Kreise %% f:2 zeigt Finger neben den Saiten %% 6-3-2 Saite-Bund-Finger/Intervall %% 4-o zeigt 4. Saite offen \fret-diagram #"s:3;f:1; 1-7-7;1-8-1;1-10-2; 2-8-5;2-10-6; 3-7-2;3-9-3;3-10-4; 4-7-6;4-9-7;4-10-1; 5-7-3;5-8-4;5-10-5; 6-7-7;6-8-1;6-10-2; \paper{ indent=0\mm line-width=180\mm oddFooterMarkup=##f oddHeaderMarkup=##f bookTitleMarkup = ##f </score> Exercise. There are certainly countless other ways to switch from one position to the other. You will probably use (barre) chords as a guide. But there is hardly a simpler method that works equally well with all five CAGED scales, allowing you to slide from one scale to the next and conquer the entire fretboard of the guitar. You don't need to pay attention to much more than the three fingerings, the transition between the G and B strings, and the slide at the semitone steps. Example. Find a fairly long song that stays in one key, and you'll see how much fun it is to wander back and forth across the entire fretboard during the song. You'll definitely be able to easily figure out how to slide back from one scale to the other. Have fun trying.

Circuit Idea/How to make an element with true negative resistance?. "This story is based on an answer to an SE EE question." The secret of negative resistance. There are two types of negative resistance - "true (absolute)" and "differential". Both are "dynamic devices" whose parameters depend on the input value, but the former are sources while the latter are resistors that need sources. It seems that the true negative resistance is more easy to understand so it will be considered here. We will see that despite the "mysticism" with which it is surrounded, it is a very simple and intuitive concept. Both "positive" and negative resistors are two terminal devices with linear relationship between voltage and current (Ohm's law). But while an ordinary "positive" resistor subtracts voltage from the supply voltage, the so-called "voltage-inversion negative impedance converter" (VNIC) adds voltage to it; while an ordinary resistor draws current from the supply voltage, the "current-inversion negative impedance converter" (INIC) injects current to it. This is the meaning of the negative sign before V or I. The benefit of negative resistance is that it can neutralize equivalent positive resistance. Both NICs "help" the main source - VNIC "helps" a voltage source in series; INIC "helps" a current source in parallel. Figuratively speaking, they "eat" some of the positive resistance, and what remains is only positive resistance. The best way to see how this can be done is to consider some basic applications. Two interesting of them are chosen - "improving an imperfect ammeter and voltmeter to make them "ideal"". Making an "ideal" ammeter with VNIC. Voltage source supplies a resistor. Imagine that we want to measure the current in the simple Ohm's circuit below. Simulate this circuit – Schematic created using CircuitLab Measuring the current by a perfect ammeter. For this purpose, we can include a perfect ammeter AM with zero internal resistance; its reading is as we expected 1 mA. Also, to measure the voltage drop across the resistor R without complicating the circuit, let's replace the resistor by an imperfect voltmeter VM1k with 1 kΩ internal resistance (we can set it in the voltmeter parameters window). Figuratively speaking, it will be a "voltage-visualized resistor". Simulate this circuit Measuring the current by an imperfect ammeter. However, our goal is to convert the "bad" ammeter into a "very good one". Therefore, we first deliberately "degrade" it (as we did with the voltmeter above) by giving it a resistance of 1 kΩ; as a result, the current decreases twice. Then, we start thinking about how to improve it (but in our own way, not through CircuitLab). Indeed, there is something comical about the fact that we have a perfect ammeter that we "ruin", and then make it perfect again:-) but we do it for the purposes of the good explaining. This is a typical didactic trick that can be useful when explaining circuits. Simulate this circuit Compensating the ammeter voltage drop by a constant voltage source. Since voltage is lost in the ammeter, we guess to add the same voltage in the circuit. Great idea! To implement it, we connect another voltage source R-1k in series with the ammeter, and set its voltage equal to the voltage drop across the ammeter. As a result, the ammeter voltage drop is neutralized, and the string of the two devices in series - AM1k and R-1k, behaves as an "ideal" ammeter with zero resistance and zero voltage! The 1 mA current is determined, according to Ohm's law, only by the 1 V input voltage and the 1 kΩ voltmeter's resistance. Simulate this circuit Compensating the voltage drop by a following voltage source. But this trick only works for one input voltage value. So we need to make it continuously follow the ammeter's voltage. For this purpose, we can replace it with a varying "copying" source R-1 which is controlled by the same current (current-to-voltage converter). In CircuitLab, it can be implemented as the so-called "behavioral voltage source" with a voltage VR-1 = 1000.IAM1k. Figuratively speaking, it behaves as a negative resistor with the same but negative resistance of -1 kΩ so the combination of the two devices always has zero total resistance. Simulate this circuit It turns out that CircuitLab allows negative resistance values to be set. Then let's simplify the conceptual schematic even more. Simulate this circuit Compensating the voltage drop by VNIC. VNICs are made the same way as the negative resistance compensation above - by adding (but twice as much) negative resistance to positive resistance (R - 2R = -R). The idea of this is as follows. Conceptual circuit: To produce a negative resistance, the converter needs a positive resistance to copy the voltage drop across it; hence the name "negative impedance converter". However, it must then remove this positive resistance so that only negative resistance remains that destroys the undesired ammeter resistance (R + R - 2R = 0). So the behavioral voltage source now produces two times higher voltage VR-2 = 2.1000.IAM1k. Note the opposite voltage polarity (hence the name "voltage-inversion NIC"). Simulate this circuit Practical circuit: To implement this powerful idea by an op-amp circuit, we pass the current through the 1 kΩ "original" resistor R1, amplify the voltage drop across it by an "little unusual" op-amp non-inverting amplifier (OA, R2 and R3), and sum the two voltages. Since the currents flowing through R1 and R2 are the same, the voltage drops are I.R1 - I.R2 - I.R3 -> V - V -V = -V. So, the circuit produces a voltage equal to the voltage drop across the ammeter but with the opposite sign, i.e., it behaves as a -1 kΩ negative resistor. The result is zero voltage drop and zero resistance ("virtual short"). Simulate this circuit Making an "ideal" voltmeter with INIC. Now let's consider the dual, no less interesting NIC application. Voltage source with a resistor in series. Imagine that we want to measure the output voltage of an imperfect voltage source with 1 kΩ internal resistance R. Simulate this circuit Measuring the voltage by a perfect voltmeter. For this purpose, we can connect a perfect voltmeter VM with infinitely high internal resistance; its reading is as we expected 1 V since there no current flows. Also, to measure the current flowing through the resistor R later without complicating the circuit, let's replace the resistor by an imperfect ammeter AM1k with 1 kΩ internal resistance (the same trick as above). Thus it will be a "current-visualized resistor". Simulate this circuit Measuring the voltage by an imperfect voltmeter. However, our goal is to convert a "bad" voltmeter into a "very good" one. Therefore, we first deliberately "degrade" it (as we did with the ammeter above) by giving it a resistance of 1 kΩ, and start thinking about how to improve it (but in our own way, not through CircuitLab). Simulate this circuit Compensating the voltmeter current by a constant current source. Since some current is consumed by the voltmeter, we guess to apply the same trick as above - to add the same current to the circuit. Really great idea! To implement it, here we connect another current source R-1k in parallel to the voltmeter and set its current equal to the current consumed by the voltmeter. As a result, the latter is neutralized and the combination of the two devices - VM1k and R-1k, behaves as an "ideal" voltmeter with infinite resistance and zero current! As you can see, no current is consumed by the voltage source, and the current through the "bad" voltmeter is entirely provided by the additional current source. Simulate this circuit Compensating the current by a following current source. But this trick only works for one input voltage value. So we need to make the "helping" current source continuously follow the voltmeter's voltage. For this purpose, we can replace it with a varying current source which is controlled by the same voltage (voltage-to-current converter). In CircuitLab, it can be implemented as a "behavioral current source" producing current IR-1k = VR1k/1000. It behaves as a negative resistor with the same but negative resistance of -1 kΩ so the combination of the two devices always has infinite total resistance. Simulate this circuit Let's again take advantage of CircuitLab's ability to set negative resistаnce values and simplify the conceptual schematic even more. Simulate this circuit Compensating the current by INIC. Conceptual circuit: The converter contains a behavioral voltage source that produces two times higher voltage than the voltage across the imperfect voltmeter - V-2k = 2.VM1k. Then it is converted by the 1 kΩ resistance R1k into a current with reversed direction (it enters instead to exit the imperfect voltmeter); hence the name "current-inversion negative impedance converter". Simulate this circuit Practical circuit: To implement this powerful idea by an op-amp circuit, we amplify twice the voltage across the voltmeter by a classic op-amp non-inverting amplifier (OA, R2 and R3), and apply it through the 1 kΩ resistor R1 back to the imperfect voltmeter. So, the circuit produces all the current needed for the imperfect voltmeter. No current is consumed by the voltage source as though there is no load connected ("virtual open circuit"). Simulate this circuit Conclusions. We have to decide what kind of negative resistor (NIC) we need: External links. How to make an element with true negative resistance? SE EE question and answer

Veterinary Medicine/History of Veterinary Medicine. It all began when people tried to optimize their meat-production system. There's references to aiding cows in birth dating back to ancient Egypt, Veterinaries have been sent to war, to help maintain the horses of the cavalry, or replace the fallen human surgeons on the battlefield, especially because they had a better command of anatomy. Veterinaries are helping archaeologists in reconstructing the living conditions of ancient civilisations on the basis of animal bones found.

Veterinary Medicine/Introduction. Veterinary medicine is one of the most diverse of all universitarian studies. A veterinary student on his way to his approbation as a veterinary doctor will have at least the following subjects: Botany, Zoology, Veterinary Anatomy, Parasitology, Microbiology and Immunology ,Histology, Pathology, Histopathology, organic, inorganic and Bio-Chemistry, Molecular Pathology, Physiology, Pharmacology, animal nutrition and feeding, animal care and management,Dairy and poultry science,animal genetics and breeding,animal surgery,obstetrics and gynaecology,embryology and theriogenology,Veterinary medicine, Toxicology and vet jurisprudence, Fodder cultivation and agronomy,agricultural extension,statistics ,Wild life and zoo animal medicine ,vet public health ,Lab animal management,vet ethics and legal aspects, etc. This is a book with everything needed to get a degree in Veterinary Medicine, it's here to satisfy public interest in medical care for animals, with self-help advice how to keep your pet healthy for example. Nothing here is intended to replace professional health care by qualified Vets!

What You Should Know About Medicines/Introduction. It is highly important that every person have some knowledge of the medicine that he consumes. Such knowledge will help him to be a better consumer. This guide is intended to provide general information about the most common medicines in use. The text is targeted at general people who do not have knowledge of medicine, but intend to benefit by acquiring some information. Most of the text is presented in a simple informal style - so that the targeted audience is not confused by the weighing terminology.

Vedic Mathematics/Sutras/(Anurupye) Shunyamanyat. The Sutra Anurupye Sunyamanyat says : 'If one is in ratio, the other one is zero'. We use this Sutra in solving a special type of simultaneous simple equations in which the coefficients of 'one' variable are in the same ratio to each other as the independent terms are to each other. In such a context the Sutra says the 'other' variable is zero from which we get two simple equations in the first variable (already considered) and of course give the same value for the variable. Example 1: 3x + 7y = 2; 4x + 21y = 6; Observe that the y-coefficients are in the ratio 7 : 21 i.e., 1 : 3, which is same as the ratio of independent terms i.e., 2 : 6 i.e., 1 : 3. Hence the other variable x = 0 and 7y = 2 or 21y = 6 gives y = 2 / 7. The very appearance of the problem is frightening. But just an observation and Anurupye Sunyamanyat gives us the solution

Patsho/A Background of Patsho History. Introduction. Patsho village is a home to Patsho people, located in North Eastern parts of India in state of Nagaland. Noklak district which is recently bifurcated from Tuensang district is mainly inherited by Khiamniungan people and Patsho people is identified as Khiamniungans, distinguished by subtle linguistic variations in tone and accents. The language spoken in the village is purely Patsho Khiamniungan, colloquially Patsho nyu which indeed is one of the oldest in the region. Origin. The origin of Pathso people cannot be exactly unraveled but can one trace back since the moving out of group of people from Khiamnyunga to Lümuoking and the present day settlement of Patsho village. From this place, numerous hamlets began to establish moving towards South and eastward mainly with the intention of acquiring jhum fields for sustenance.

Songbook/Mama Don't Allow. = Mama Don't Allow = “Mama Don't Allow” is a traditional song from the United States. The first recording is by . The song was the focus of the cartoon . The film and the song are about a mother who doesn't allow music in her own four walls, but her children don't care about that. The song has been covered numerous times by various artists with different lyrics, melodies and musical styles (blues, jazz, country, swing, bluegrass, rock'n'roll...} and is equally suitable for the opening, as an encore or as a musical introduction to the artists involved. The melody is varied more or less in almost every verse. <score> \new ChordNames { \chordmode { g1 d g:7 c e:m a:7 d:7 \new FretBoards { % \override FretBoards.FretBoard.size = #'1,5 % \override FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.finger-code = #'in-dot % \override FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.dot-color = #'white \override FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.orientation = #'landscape < g,-3 b,-2 d g b g'-4> % G < d a-1 d'-3 fis'-2> % D < g,-3 b,-2 d g b f'-1> % G7 < c-3 e-2 g c'-1 e' > % C < e, b,-2 e-3 g b e' > % Em < a, e-1 g cis'-3 e'> % A7 < d a-2 c'-1 fis'-3> % D7 » </score> Mama Don't Allow. <poem> Mama don't allow no music playin' round here Mama don't allow no music playin' round here Well, we don't care what Mama don't allow Gonna play that music anyhow Mama don't allow no music playin' round here Mama don't allow no guitar playin' round here Mama don't allow no guitar playin' round here Well, we don't care what Mama don't allow Gonna play that guitar anyhow Mama don't allow no guitar playin' round here Mama don't allow no singin' round here Mama don't allow no singin' round here Well, we don't care what Mama don't allow Gonna sing that song anyhow Mama don't allow no singin' round here Mama don't allow no hand clapping here Mama don't allow no hand clapping here Well, we don't care what mama don't allow We're gonna clap our hands anyhow Mama don't a-llow no hand clapping here Mama don't allow no foot stompin' round here Mama don't allow no foot stompin' round here Well, we don't care what Mama don't allow Gonna stomp my feet anyhow Mama don't a-llow no foot stompin' round here- </poem> Weblinks. <hr>

Flora of New York/FSUS-key. A.S.Weakley & Southeastern Flora Team (2024). Key to section }, Flora of the southeastern United States Web App. University of North Carolina Herbarium, North Carolina Botanical Garden, Chapel Hill, U.S.A.

Introduction to Astrophysics/Red Giants. A red giant is a phase most typical stars (i.e. the sun) go through. During this phase, the star inflates to hundreds of times its original size. After the red giant phase the star shrinks and becomes a white dwarf star.

Fossil Collecting/Introduction. Fossil collecting can be a very relaxing, rewarding, and educational hobby. Fossil collecting can involve indoor and outdoor activity. It can be pursued casually or intensely depending on your goals. There are few rules (beyond legal and ethical concerns), so you can pretty much make them up as you go along. You can even collect fossils simply through photographs or postage stamps. Some collectors simply collect "locations", by travelling to places where fossils have been found. These collectors may never touch a rock! Fossil collecting can be done as a group activity, either as a group of friends or as part of a club, or it can be done as a solo venture. Fossils can be found in many places around the world, and traveling to collecting locations can involve local or distant travel. Some fossils can be found strewn around on top of the ground, some require more radical excavation. Learning about geology, biology, and the history of Earth is part of the hobby, and you can become as involved with that as you wish.

Saylor.org's Cell Biology/Introduction. Dear Wikibookians, No doubt some of you are familiar with the free college courses available on Saylor.org. Much like the Wikimedia community, we are committed to providing free and accessible education for everyone with internet access. At Saylor, we combine some of our custom-created educational materials with materials that are already available throughout the internet. However, because we sometimes use links to third party materials, those sections of our courses are not entirely sustainable. The Saylor Wikibooks Project is a way for you to help minimize that threat. We’ve uploaded a number of our course outlines to Wikibooks in the hope that you all will contribute to our effort. Our course outlines have been developed by our consultant professors by studying a collection of syllabi of relevant courses from various traditional brick and mortar institutions. This guarantees that our students will be provided the same learning opportunity as a student enrolled in a traditional institution. We believe that we have created the best structure for our courses, which optimizes the information that students would be expected to know. By creating openly licensed content that fits in with Saylor’s established course outlines, (in the form of Wikibooks’ textbooks), you can add to the ever-expanding body of wiki material, while simultaneously improving the sustainability of our courses. Thanks for your help, The Saylor Team If you'd like to learn more about the project please visit Summary The cell is the fundamental unit of life; in fact, the smallest living organisms are composed of a single cell. Despite their small size, cells are far from simple, and we have only recently begun to understand just how complex they are. This text will present you with a detailed overview of a cell’s main components and functions. The text is roughly organized into four major areas: the cell membrane, cell nucleus, cell cycle, and cell interior. We will approach most of these topics straightforwardly, from a molecular and structural point of view. Global Learning Outcomes