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Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.War, sacrifice, death (1915) When World War is declared, Georges was mobilized as adjutant of artillery of the Territorial army (composed of men aged 34–49 years, considered too old and not enough trained to integrate an active frontline regiment nor reserve). He was assigned to the 23rd Battery of the 1st Artillery Regiment and stationed at Fort Cormeilles. On September 25, 1914, his closest younger brother, André Peignot, was killed. The shock was immense for Georges Peignot. He immediately requested to be placed on the front in the same regiment as his late brother, the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment. In March, he succeeded and was posted on the front line. Everything went fast: May 15, 1915, the youngest of his brothers, Rémy, was killed in the same Somme sector of the front. On July 25, Georges Peignot transmitted to his maternal cousin, Henri Menut, his power as manager of the company. September 28, 1915, north of Arras, between Souchez and Givenchy, Georges Peignot was struck by a bullet in the forehead « immediately after shouting to his troops: "En avant ! (Forward !)" », as Lucien Peignot reported (the fourth and last brother who will also lose his life June 29, 1916), and who had had time to conduct a long investigation to find his lost brother in the no man's land where he laid for a month. Georges Peignot, buried next to Rémy, is quoted in the order of the Division and awarded the Military Cross and Military Medal.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.War, sacrifice, death (1915) When World War is declared, Georges was mobilized as adjutant of artillery of the Territorial army (composed of men aged 34–49 years, considered too old and not enough trained to integrate an active frontline regiment nor reserve). He was assigned to the 23rd Battery of the 1st Artillery Regiment and stationed at Fort Cormeilles. On September 25, 1914, his closest younger brother, André Peignot, was killed. The shock was immense for Georges Peignot. He immediately requested to be placed on the front in the same regiment as his late brother, the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment. In March, he succeeded and was posted on the front line. Everything went fast: May 15, 1915, the youngest of his brothers, Rémy, was killed in the same Somme sector of the front. On July 25, Georges Peignot transmitted to his maternal cousin, Henri Menut, his power as manager of the company. September 28, 1915, north of Arras, between Souchez and Givenchy, Georges Peignot was struck by a bullet in the forehead « immediately after shouting to his troops: "En avant ! (Forward !)" », as Lucien Peignot reported (the fourth and last brother who will also lose his life June 29, 1916), and who had had time to conduct a long investigation to find his lost brother in the no man's land where he laid for a month. Georges Peignot, buried next to Rémy, is quoted in the order of the Division and awarded the Military Cross and Military Medal.In 1922, the National "Committee for Education and Fine Arts" proposes to honor the history of Peignot: all the genuine punches of the Foundry and the bronze Gustave Peignot's statue are carried in the building of the Imprimerie nationale, across the Gutenberg street. The Committee proposes that the extension of this street would be called "rue des Quatre-Frères-Peignot" (Four-Brothers-Peignot street) in memory of the four dead brothers. The typographer Maximilien Vox acknowledges his debt to Georges Peignot, for whom he was « the first French typographer who did not think of his job as confined to supplying the printer with little pieces of metal ».The foundry's posterity was tainted by family maneuvers: after the war, Georges Peignot and four of his other brothers were dead (the eldest died of illness in 1913); the potential successors were the two girls or the mother. The latter managed in 1919 to impose his surviving children or their widows a 1 million capital increase, given to a competitor, the Deberny foundry, in financial difficulty… which was the property of Jane's husband. In 1923, under the pen of Mr. Pascaut, notary, a Deberny & Peignot company emerged, the result of the merger of Deberny (2.6 million francs capital, 1 million Peignot's family included) and G. Peignot et Fils briefly renamed "Peignot & Cie" (4.1 million francs). For the next half century, Deberny & Peignot struggled along, riding on its past glory, and went out in 1974, bloodlessly, due to automatic typographic machines and phototypesetting machines, and a haphazard management.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.Back in France in 1893, Georges Peignot spent two and a half years in military service, where he was graduated as sergeant, the highest rank for those who do not have the baccalaureate. In 1896, he married Suzanne Chardon, daughter of a master intaglio printer in charge of chalcography for the Louvre, whose workshops still may be seen at 10 rue de l'Abbaye, in Paris (courtyard). They had four children (Charles, 1897; Madeleine, 1899; Geneviève, 1900; Colette, 1903). In 1896, he was hired to work in his father's "G. Peignot" foundry. Georges Peignot was responsible for the management of recently acquired types (G. Peignot et Fils had absorbed Cochard & David foundry and Longien foundry) and possibly, for creating new fonts. In 1898, his father, became ill and transformed the company into a Kommanditgesellschaft on behalf of "G. Peignot et Fils" and distributed the shares to his eight children. He had time to appoint Georges co-manager before dying the following year. In 1899, Georges Peignot officially became sole manager of the company. Board members were Robert Peignot, eldest son, engineer in charge of manufacturing, Georges Peignot, and Charles Tuleu, husband of Jane Peignot, the eldest daughter, and the owner of the rival foundry Deberny. In 1906, Paul Payet, husband of Julia Peignot, the second daughter and close ally of Gustave Peignot's widow, top executive in a railways company, joined the board on the instruction of the widow.

Georges Peignot unsuccessfully frequented the Chaptal College in Paris, before attending an apprenticeship with his godfather, Émile Faconnet, master intaglio printer. Faconnet, an engraver, was a close friend of Marie Laporte-Peignot's parents. Marie would become the wife of Gustave Peignot and the mother of Georges and Faconnet would become Georges' godfather. A portrait of Marie Laporte-Peignot, as a girl, was painted by Auguste Renoir. It may be seen at Limoges museum, and belongs to Renoir's family. In 1890, Georges was admitted to École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs an "Arts Déco" school. In 1891, he moved to Germany, first in Leipzig in the Schwinger foundry where he discovered the world of printing and learned punchcutting. In 1892, he was in Hamburg in the Gentzsch foundry where, with the son of that family, who was of the same age, he toured the services and workshops. His passion about type continued and he passed all his spare time admiring international typographic catalogs.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.

War, sacrifice, death (1915) When World War is declared, Georges was mobilized as adjutant of artillery of the Territorial army (composed of men aged 34–49 years, considered too old and not enough trained to integrate an active frontline regiment nor reserve). He was assigned to the 23rd Battery of the 1st Artillery Regiment and stationed at Fort Cormeilles. On September 25, 1914, his closest younger brother, André Peignot, was killed. The shock was immense for Georges Peignot. He immediately requested to be placed on the front in the same regiment as his late brother, the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment. In March, he succeeded and was posted on the front line. Everything went fast: May 15, 1915, the youngest of his brothers, Rémy, was killed in the same Somme sector of the front. On July 25, Georges Peignot transmitted to his maternal cousin, Henri Menut, his power as manager of the company. September 28, 1915, north of Arras, between Souchez and Givenchy, Georges Peignot was struck by a bullet in the forehead « immediately after shouting to his troops: "En avant ! (Forward !)" », as Lucien Peignot reported (the fourth and last brother who will also lose his life June 29, 1916), and who had had time to conduct a long investigation to find his lost brother in the no man's land where he laid for a month. Georges Peignot, buried next to Rémy, is quoted in the order of the Division and awarded the Military Cross and Military Medal.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.Georges Peignot unsuccessfully frequented the Chaptal College in Paris, before attending an apprenticeship with his godfather, Émile Faconnet, master intaglio printer. Faconnet, an engraver, was a close friend of Marie Laporte-Peignot's parents. Marie would become the wife of Gustave Peignot and the mother of Georges and Faconnet would become Georges' godfather. A portrait of Marie Laporte-Peignot, as a girl, was painted by Auguste Renoir. It may be seen at Limoges museum, and belongs to Renoir's family. In 1890, Georges was admitted to École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs an "Arts Déco" school. In 1891, he moved to Germany, first in Leipzig in the Schwinger foundry where he discovered the world of printing and learned punchcutting. In 1892, he was in Hamburg in the Gentzsch foundry where, with the son of that family, who was of the same age, he toured the services and workshops. His passion about type continued and he passed all his spare time admiring international typographic catalogs.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.

Georges Peignot unsuccessfully frequented the Chaptal College in Paris, before attending an apprenticeship with his godfather, Émile Faconnet, master intaglio printer. Faconnet, an engraver, was a close friend of Marie Laporte-Peignot's parents. Marie would become the wife of Gustave Peignot and the mother of Georges and Faconnet would become Georges' godfather. A portrait of Marie Laporte-Peignot, as a girl, was painted by Auguste Renoir. It may be seen at Limoges museum, and belongs to Renoir's family. In 1890, Georges was admitted to École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs an "Arts Déco" school. In 1891, he moved to Germany, first in Leipzig in the Schwinger foundry where he discovered the world of printing and learned punchcutting. In 1892, he was in Hamburg in the Gentzsch foundry where, with the son of that family, who was of the same age, he toured the services and workshops. His passion about type continued and he passed all his spare time admiring international typographic catalogs.

War, sacrifice, death (1915) When World War is declared, Georges was mobilized as adjutant of artillery of the Territorial army (composed of men aged 34–49 years, considered too old and not enough trained to integrate an active frontline regiment nor reserve). He was assigned to the 23rd Battery of the 1st Artillery Regiment and stationed at Fort Cormeilles. On September 25, 1914, his closest younger brother, André Peignot, was killed. The shock was immense for Georges Peignot. He immediately requested to be placed on the front in the same regiment as his late brother, the 23rd Colonial Infantry Regiment. In March, he succeeded and was posted on the front line. Everything went fast: May 15, 1915, the youngest of his brothers, Rémy, was killed in the same Somme sector of the front. On July 25, Georges Peignot transmitted to his maternal cousin, Henri Menut, his power as manager of the company. September 28, 1915, north of Arras, between Souchez and Givenchy, Georges Peignot was struck by a bullet in the forehead « immediately after shouting to his troops: "En avant ! (Forward !)" », as Lucien Peignot reported (the fourth and last brother who will also lose his life June 29, 1916), and who had had time to conduct a long investigation to find his lost brother in the no man's land where he laid for a month. Georges Peignot, buried next to Rémy, is quoted in the order of the Division and awarded the Military Cross and Military Medal.

Back in France in 1893, Georges Peignot spent two and a half years in military service, where he was graduated as sergeant, the highest rank for those who do not have the baccalaureate. In 1896, he married Suzanne Chardon, daughter of a master intaglio printer in charge of chalcography for the Louvre, whose workshops still may be seen at 10 rue de l'Abbaye, in Paris (courtyard). They had four children (Charles, 1897; Madeleine, 1899; Geneviève, 1900; Colette, 1903). In 1896, he was hired to work in his father's "G. Peignot" foundry. Georges Peignot was responsible for the management of recently acquired types (G. Peignot et Fils had absorbed Cochard & David foundry and Longien foundry) and possibly, for creating new fonts. In 1898, his father, became ill and transformed the company into a Kommanditgesellschaft on behalf of "G. Peignot et Fils" and distributed the shares to his eight children. He had time to appoint Georges co-manager before dying the following year. In 1899, Georges Peignot officially became sole manager of the company. Board members were Robert Peignot, eldest son, engineer in charge of manufacturing, Georges Peignot, and Charles Tuleu, husband of Jane Peignot, the eldest daughter, and the owner of the rival foundry Deberny. In 1906, Paul Payet, husband of Julia Peignot, the second daughter and close ally of Gustave Peignot's widow, top executive in a railways company, joined the board on the instruction of the widow.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.

Back in France in 1893, Georges Peignot spent two and a half years in military service, where he was graduated as sergeant, the highest rank for those who do not have the baccalaureate. In 1896, he married Suzanne Chardon, daughter of a master intaglio printer in charge of chalcography for the Louvre, whose workshops still may be seen at 10 rue de l'Abbaye, in Paris (courtyard). They had four children (Charles, 1897; Madeleine, 1899; Geneviève, 1900; Colette, 1903). In 1896, he was hired to work in his father's "G. Peignot" foundry. Georges Peignot was responsible for the management of recently acquired types (G. Peignot et Fils had absorbed Cochard & David foundry and Longien foundry) and possibly, for creating new fonts. In 1898, his father, became ill and transformed the company into a Kommanditgesellschaft on behalf of "G. Peignot et Fils" and distributed the shares to his eight children. He had time to appoint Georges co-manager before dying the following year. In 1899, Georges Peignot officially became sole manager of the company. Board members were Robert Peignot, eldest son, engineer in charge of manufacturing, Georges Peignot, and Charles Tuleu, husband of Jane Peignot, the eldest daughter, and the owner of the rival foundry Deberny. In 1906, Paul Payet, husband of Julia Peignot, the second daughter and close ally of Gustave Peignot's widow, top executive in a railways company, joined the board on the instruction of the widow.

Back in France in 1893, Georges Peignot spent two and a half years in military service, where he was graduated as sergeant, the highest rank for those who do not have the baccalaureate. In 1896, he married Suzanne Chardon, daughter of a master intaglio printer in charge of chalcography for the Louvre, whose workshops still may be seen at 10 rue de l'Abbaye, in Paris (courtyard). They had four children (Charles, 1897; Madeleine, 1899; Geneviève, 1900; Colette, 1903). In 1896, he was hired to work in his father's "G. Peignot" foundry. Georges Peignot was responsible for the management of recently acquired types (G. Peignot et Fils had absorbed Cochard & David foundry and Longien foundry) and possibly, for creating new fonts. In 1898, his father, became ill and transformed the company into a Kommanditgesellschaft on behalf of "G. Peignot et Fils" and distributed the shares to his eight children. He had time to appoint Georges co-manager before dying the following year. In 1899, Georges Peignot officially became sole manager of the company. Board members were Robert Peignot, eldest son, engineer in charge of manufacturing, Georges Peignot, and Charles Tuleu, husband of Jane Peignot, the eldest daughter, and the owner of the rival foundry Deberny. In 1906, Paul Payet, husband of Julia Peignot, the second daughter and close ally of Gustave Peignot's widow, top executive in a railways company, joined the board on the instruction of the widow.

Back in France in 1893, Georges Peignot spent two and a half years in military service, where he was graduated as sergeant, the highest rank for those who do not have the baccalaureate. In 1896, he married Suzanne Chardon, daughter of a master intaglio printer in charge of chalcography for the Louvre, whose workshops still may be seen at 10 rue de l'Abbaye, in Paris (courtyard). They had four children (Charles, 1897; Madeleine, 1899; Geneviève, 1900; Colette, 1903). In 1896, he was hired to work in his father's "G. Peignot" foundry. Georges Peignot was responsible for the management of recently acquired types (G. Peignot et Fils had absorbed Cochard & David foundry and Longien foundry) and possibly, for creating new fonts. In 1898, his father, became ill and transformed the company into a Kommanditgesellschaft on behalf of "G. Peignot et Fils" and distributed the shares to his eight children. He had time to appoint Georges co-manager before dying the following year. In 1899, Georges Peignot officially became sole manager of the company. Board members were Robert Peignot, eldest son, engineer in charge of manufacturing, Georges Peignot, and Charles Tuleu, husband of Jane Peignot, the eldest daughter, and the owner of the rival foundry Deberny. In 1906, Paul Payet, husband of Julia Peignot, the second daughter and close ally of Gustave Peignot's widow, top executive in a railways company, joined the board on the instruction of the widow.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.Early years Born in 1872, Georges Peignot was the fourth child of eight. His father, Gustave Peignot (1839–1899), an engineer graduated of Arts et Métiers school, was the head of a fixed spaces foundry in Paris that specialized in the fabrication of hand-set metal type to achieve letter-spacing. It was created in 1842 by Pierre Leclerc and bought and directed by his mother, Clémentine Dupont de Vieux Pont (1815–1897), the widow of Laurent Peignot.Georges Peignot unsuccessfully frequented the Chaptal College in Paris, before attending an apprenticeship with his godfather, Émile Faconnet, master intaglio printer. Faconnet, an engraver, was a close friend of Marie Laporte-Peignot's parents. Marie would become the wife of Gustave Peignot and the mother of Georges and Faconnet would become Georges' godfather. A portrait of Marie Laporte-Peignot, as a girl, was painted by Auguste Renoir. It may be seen at Limoges museum, and belongs to Renoir's family. In 1890, Georges was admitted to École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs an "Arts Déco" school. In 1891, he moved to Germany, first in Leipzig in the Schwinger foundry where he discovered the world of printing and learned punchcutting. In 1892, he was in Hamburg in the Gentzsch foundry where, with the son of that family, who was of the same age, he toured the services and workshops. His passion about type continued and he passed all his spare time admiring international typographic catalogs.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.

Georges Louis Jean Baptiste Peignot (June 24, 1872 – September 28, 1915) was a French type designer, type founder, and manager of the G. Peignot & Fils foundry until his death in combat during World War I. Father of four children (including poet Colette Peignot called Laure), he hoisted the G. Peignot & Fils foundry among the most striking French typography companies of the twentieth century (an « elite house », according to a former French Prime Minister): in 17 years of practice, he created or launched prestigious fonts, including Grasset, Cochin, and Garamont.

Early years Born in 1872, Georges Peignot was the fourth child of eight. His father, Gustave Peignot (1839–1899), an engineer graduated of Arts et Métiers school, was the head of a fixed spaces foundry in Paris that specialized in the fabrication of hand-set metal type to achieve letter-spacing. It was created in 1842 by Pierre Leclerc and bought and directed by his mother, Clémentine Dupont de Vieux Pont (1815–1897), the widow of Laurent Peignot.Georges Peignot unsuccessfully frequented the Chaptal College in Paris, before attending an apprenticeship with his godfather, Émile Faconnet, master intaglio printer. Faconnet, an engraver, was a close friend of Marie Laporte-Peignot's parents. Marie would become the wife of Gustave Peignot and the mother of Georges and Faconnet would become Georges' godfather. A portrait of Marie Laporte-Peignot, as a girl, was painted by Auguste Renoir. It may be seen at Limoges museum, and belongs to Renoir's family. In 1890, Georges was admitted to École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs an "Arts Déco" school. In 1891, he moved to Germany, first in Leipzig in the Schwinger foundry where he discovered the world of printing and learned punchcutting. In 1892, he was in Hamburg in the Gentzsch foundry where, with the son of that family, who was of the same age, he toured the services and workshops. His passion about type continued and he passed all his spare time admiring international typographic catalogs.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Maurycy Gottlieb (Polish pronunciation ; 21/28 February 1856 – 17 July 1879) was a Polish realist painter of the Romantic period. Considered one of the most talented students of Jan Matejko, Gottllieb died at the age of 23.Career Gottlieb was born in Drohobycz (then in Galicia in Austrian Poland, now in western Ukraine) to a wealthy, Yiddish and Polish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family. He was one of eleven children born to Fanya (née Tigerman) and Isaac Gottlieb. He was introduced to painting in Lemberg by Michał Godlewski. At fifteen, he enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy for three years. In 1873 he went to Kraków to study under Jan Matejko and became close friends with Jacek Malczewski. However, an anti-Semitic incident at the School of Fine Arts prompted him to leave Kraków after less than a year in spite of Malczewski's protests. He traveled to Norway and stayed in Molde. He returned to Vienna and from there travelled to Munich in 1875 to study under Karl von Piloty and Alexander von Wagner. In 1876 he won the Gold Medal at the Munich Academy for his painting, Shylock and Jessica. In the same year, he moved back to Vienna to attend the workshop of Heinrich von Angeli. He lived and worked in Vienna for the next two years and produced paintings with biblical themes, as well as illustrations for Friedrich Bruckmann Publishing of Munich.In the fall of 1878, Gottlieb travelled to Rome, where he befriended Henryk Siemiradzki. At a banquet in his residence at Via Gaeta, Gottlieb met with Matejko, who convinced him to come back to Kraków as one of his best students, to work on a series of monumental paintings including scenes from the history of the Jews in Poland. In 1879 Gottlieb settled in Kraków and began working on his new major project. He died in the same year from health complications. Matejko attended his funeral and promised his father to look after his younger brother Marcin.Gottlieb won a gold medal at the Munich art competition for his painting, Shylock and Jessica (1876), portraying a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. The painting was exhibited in Lviv in 1877, and in 1878 at Zachęta in Warsaw and widely acclaimed. Gottlieb based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Laura rejected his proposal and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage, he knowingly exposed himself to the elements, dying of complications from a cold and sore throat.Despite his premature death at the age of 23, more than three hundred of his works survive (mostly sketches, but also oil paintings), though not all are finished. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, many Polish collections unknown in the Western Bloc were popularized, and his reputation grew greatly. His brother, Leopold Gottlieb, was born five years after his death and became known as a painter as an adult.

Jane Henriot (born Jeanne Angèle Grossin; 28 April 1878 – 8 March 1900) was an actress at the Comédie-Française and a model for the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir posing in Fillette au chapeau bleu (English: Little girl in blue hat) in 1881 when she was a child. She died having suffocated and asphyxiated in an explosion and fire at the Comédie-Française having tried to save her little dog.Early life Henriot was born in 21 Rue de la Tour-d'Auvergne, 9th arrondissement of Paris, Île-de-France, France. Her mother Marie Henriette Alphonsine Grossin was also an actress and model for Renoir. Henriot used the same surname as a stage name as her mother, who was known as Henriette Henriot. She studied at the Conservatoire d’art dramatique de Paris. where she became the mistress of actor and director Charles le Bargy, who was her professor at the time. He eventually left her to marry Madame Simone, who was no happier with her than he had been with Henriot.

Jane Henriot (born Jeanne Angèle Grossin; 28 April 1878 – 8 March 1900) was an actress at the Comédie-Française and a model for the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir posing in Fillette au chapeau bleu (English: Little girl in blue hat) in 1881 when she was a child. She died having suffocated and asphyxiated in an explosion and fire at the Comédie-Française having tried to save her little dog.Early life Henriot was born in 21 Rue de la Tour-d'Auvergne, 9th arrondissement of Paris, Île-de-France, France. Her mother Marie Henriette Alphonsine Grossin was also an actress and model for Renoir. Henriot used the same surname as a stage name as her mother, who was known as Henriette Henriot. She studied at the Conservatoire d’art dramatique de Paris. where she became the mistress of actor and director Charles le Bargy, who was her professor at the time. He eventually left her to marry Madame Simone, who was no happier with her than he had been with Henriot.

Jane Henriot (born Jeanne Angèle Grossin; 28 April 1878 – 8 March 1900) was an actress at the Comédie-Française and a model for the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir posing in Fillette au chapeau bleu (English: Little girl in blue hat) in 1881 when she was a child. She died having suffocated and asphyxiated in an explosion and fire at the Comédie-Française having tried to save her little dog.Early life Henriot was born in 21 Rue de la Tour-d'Auvergne, 9th arrondissement of Paris, Île-de-France, France. Her mother Marie Henriette Alphonsine Grossin was also an actress and model for Renoir. Henriot used the same surname as a stage name as her mother, who was known as Henriette Henriot. She studied at the Conservatoire d’art dramatique de Paris. where she became the mistress of actor and director Charles le Bargy, who was her professor at the time. He eventually left her to marry Madame Simone, who was no happier with her than he had been with Henriot.

Jane Henriot (born Jeanne Angèle Grossin; 28 April 1878 – 8 March 1900) was an actress at the Comédie-Française and a model for the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir posing in Fillette au chapeau bleu (English: Little girl in blue hat) in 1881 when she was a child. She died having suffocated and asphyxiated in an explosion and fire at the Comédie-Française having tried to save her little dog.

Jane Henriot (born Jeanne Angèle Grossin; 28 April 1878 – 8 March 1900) was an actress at the Comédie-Française and a model for the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir posing in Fillette au chapeau bleu (English: Little girl in blue hat) in 1881 when she was a child. She died having suffocated and asphyxiated in an explosion and fire at the Comédie-Française having tried to save her little dog.Death, funeral and memorial service Just before noon on 8 March 1900, after a matinee where she was playing the role of the confidant Zaïde in Jean Racine's play Bajazet at the Comédie-Française, an explosion and fire broke out. Henriot was on the fourth floor of the theater. Her dresser had a better knowledge of place and could find her own way out and through a window. Mary Marquet told her to get out of the fire, however Henriot was trying to find her little dog, which was a gift from Le Bargy, whom she had recently broken-up with. Henriot was still wandered around the building when she died of asphyxiation. Her body was later found, but it was unrecognisable, her face blackened, burnt hair and body convulsed. Her mother identified the body in the morgue.

Early life Henriot was born in 21 Rue de la Tour-d'Auvergne, 9th arrondissement of Paris, Île-de-France, France. Her mother Marie Henriette Alphonsine Grossin was also an actress and model for Renoir. Henriot used the same surname as a stage name as her mother, who was known as Henriette Henriot. She studied at the Conservatoire d’art dramatique de Paris. where she became the mistress of actor and director Charles le Bargy, who was her professor at the time. He eventually left her to marry Madame Simone, who was no happier with her than he had been with Henriot.

Early life Henriot was born in 21 Rue de la Tour-d'Auvergne, 9th arrondissement of Paris, Île-de-France, France. Her mother Marie Henriette Alphonsine Grossin was also an actress and model for Renoir. Henriot used the same surname as a stage name as her mother, who was known as Henriette Henriot. She studied at the Conservatoire d’art dramatique de Paris. where she became the mistress of actor and director Charles le Bargy, who was her professor at the time. He eventually left her to marry Madame Simone, who was no happier with her than he had been with Henriot.

Jane Henriot (born Jeanne Angèle Grossin; 28 April 1878 – 8 March 1900) was an actress at the Comédie-Française and a model for the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir posing in Fillette au chapeau bleu (English: Little girl in blue hat) in 1881 when she was a child. She died having suffocated and asphyxiated in an explosion and fire at the Comédie-Française having tried to save her little dog.

Jane Henriot (born Jeanne Angèle Grossin; 28 April 1878 – 8 March 1900) was an actress at the Comédie-Française and a model for the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir posing in Fillette au chapeau bleu (English: Little girl in blue hat) in 1881 when she was a child. She died having suffocated and asphyxiated in an explosion and fire at the Comédie-Française having tried to save her little dog.Early life Henriot was born in 21 Rue de la Tour-d'Auvergne, 9th arrondissement of Paris, Île-de-France, France. Her mother Marie Henriette Alphonsine Grossin was also an actress and model for Renoir. Henriot used the same surname as a stage name as her mother, who was known as Henriette Henriot. She studied at the Conservatoire d’art dramatique de Paris. where she became the mistress of actor and director Charles le Bargy, who was her professor at the time. He eventually left her to marry Madame Simone, who was no happier with her than he had been with Henriot.

Jane Henriot (born Jeanne Angèle Grossin; 28 April 1878 – 8 March 1900) was an actress at the Comédie-Française and a model for the French artist Pierre-Auguste Renoir posing in Fillette au chapeau bleu (English: Little girl in blue hat) in 1881 when she was a child. She died having suffocated and asphyxiated in an explosion and fire at the Comédie-Française having tried to save her little dog.Early life Henriot was born in 21 Rue de la Tour-d'Auvergne, 9th arrondissement of Paris, Île-de-France, France. Her mother Marie Henriette Alphonsine Grossin was also an actress and model for Renoir. Henriot used the same surname as a stage name as her mother, who was known as Henriette Henriot. She studied at the Conservatoire d’art dramatique de Paris. where she became the mistress of actor and director Charles le Bargy, who was her professor at the time. He eventually left her to marry Madame Simone, who was no happier with her than he had been with Henriot.

Biography Keo Sarath was born on March 10, 1956, in Wat Kampheng Village, Srong Battambang District, Battambang Province. After escaping alive from the bloody Khmer Rouge regime, he lived in a refugee camp on the Khmer-Thai border of Khao-I-Dang where he began his musical career and married with his first wife. While their newborn just had been born she left for another man, which broke the heart of Keo Sarath. He then sought asylum and traveled on his own to the United States, to Boston. He married another Khmer woman named Chan Thou. They had 3 more children.After the death under the Khmer Rouge of Sinn Sisamouth which was seen as an irreplaceable loss for Khmer singing, Keo Sarath was one of the first popular singers to arouse such enthusiasm, along with female singer Song Senhorn. He was nicknamed the "Tiger Jaw Emperor" and was a living artist with whom new generations could compare.He struggled through the cruel Khmer-Rouge regime. After escaping he lived in the border of Thailand and then got married with his first wife.While their newborn just had been born she left for another man. Doing so, left Mr. Sarath full of sadness and abandoned with his child. He later went back to visit his birthplace and home, Cambodia. While visiting, he was fascinated by the new atmosphere and surroundings as the country returned to peace and monarchy. Keo Sarath died on September 5, 1991, in Long Beach, California, at the age of 35 from Hepatitis B, which he has contracted in the camps.

Biography Keo Sarath was born on March 10, 1956, in Wat Kampheng Village, Srong Battambang District, Battambang Province. After escaping alive from the bloody Khmer Rouge regime, he lived in a refugee camp on the Khmer-Thai border of Khao-I-Dang where he began his musical career and married with his first wife. While their newborn just had been born she left for another man, which broke the heart of Keo Sarath. He then sought asylum and traveled on his own to the United States, to Boston. He married another Khmer woman named Chan Thou. They had 3 more children.After the death under the Khmer Rouge of Sinn Sisamouth which was seen as an irreplaceable loss for Khmer singing, Keo Sarath was one of the first popular singers to arouse such enthusiasm, along with female singer Song Senhorn. He was nicknamed the "Tiger Jaw Emperor" and was a living artist with whom new generations could compare.He struggled through the cruel Khmer-Rouge regime. After escaping he lived in the border of Thailand and then got married with his first wife.While their newborn just had been born she left for another man. Doing so, left Mr. Sarath full of sadness and abandoned with his child. He later went back to visit his birthplace and home, Cambodia. While visiting, he was fascinated by the new atmosphere and surroundings as the country returned to peace and monarchy. Keo Sarath died on September 5, 1991, in Long Beach, California, at the age of 35 from Hepatitis B, which he has contracted in the camps.

Biography Keo Sarath was born on March 10, 1956, in Wat Kampheng Village, Srong Battambang District, Battambang Province. After escaping alive from the bloody Khmer Rouge regime, he lived in a refugee camp on the Khmer-Thai border of Khao-I-Dang where he began his musical career and married with his first wife. While their newborn just had been born she left for another man, which broke the heart of Keo Sarath. He then sought asylum and traveled on his own to the United States, to Boston. He married another Khmer woman named Chan Thou. They had 3 more children.After the death under the Khmer Rouge of Sinn Sisamouth which was seen as an irreplaceable loss for Khmer singing, Keo Sarath was one of the first popular singers to arouse such enthusiasm, along with female singer Song Senhorn. He was nicknamed the "Tiger Jaw Emperor" and was a living artist with whom new generations could compare.He struggled through the cruel Khmer-Rouge regime. After escaping he lived in the border of Thailand and then got married with his first wife.While their newborn just had been born she left for another man. Doing so, left Mr. Sarath full of sadness and abandoned with his child. He later went back to visit his birthplace and home, Cambodia. While visiting, he was fascinated by the new atmosphere and surroundings as the country returned to peace and monarchy. Keo Sarath died on September 5, 1991, in Long Beach, California, at the age of 35 from Hepatitis B, which he has contracted in the camps.

Death Hasni's fame and controversial songs led to his receiving death threats from Islamic fundamentalist extremists. His primary residence remained in Oran, even though his family lived in the safer environment of France. On 29 September 1994, he was the first raï musician to be murdered, outside his parents' home in the Gambetta district of Oran.His death came amid other violent actions against notable Maghrebi performers. A few days before his death, the Kabyle Berber singer Lounès Matoub was abducted by the GIA. The following year, on 15 February 1995, Raï producer Rachid Baba-Ahmed was assassinated in Oran.

Roberto Fraile Fernández (1974 – 26 April 2021) was a Spanish journalist and cameraman.Biography Born in Barakaldo, he lived and worked in various media in Salamanca. He was a cameraman for Salamanca television since the 1990s and for some years he was also at La 8 de Salamanca. During a good part of his career he was linked to Radio Televisión Castilla y León.He combined this work with filming armed conflicts. In 2012 he was injured by an explosion in Aleppo, where he was filming insurgent troops in the context of the Syrian civil war and was operated on in a hospital and evacuated to Turkey. During the last years of his life he made documentaries in Colombia and Brazil.

Murder On 26 April 2021, Fraile was killed at the age of 46, alongside fellow Spanish journalist David Beriáin and Irish conservationist Rory Young, while they were filming a documentary about poaching in Pama, Burkina Faso. Their convoy was ambushed by Nusrat al-Islam, which then opened fire against them. He had two sons.

Murder On 26 April 2021, Fraile was killed at the age of 46, alongside fellow Spanish journalist David Beriáin and Irish conservationist Rory Young, while they were filming a documentary about poaching in Pama, Burkina Faso. Their convoy was ambushed by Nusrat al-Islam, which then opened fire against them. He had two sons.

Biography Born in Barakaldo, he lived and worked in various media in Salamanca. He was a cameraman for Salamanca television since the 1990s and for some years he was also at La 8 de Salamanca. During a good part of his career he was linked to Radio Televisión Castilla y León.He combined this work with filming armed conflicts. In 2012 he was injured by an explosion in Aleppo, where he was filming insurgent troops in the context of the Syrian civil war and was operated on in a hospital and evacuated to Turkey. During the last years of his life he made documentaries in Colombia and Brazil.

Roberto Fraile Fernández (1974 – 26 April 2021) was a Spanish journalist and cameraman.Biography Born in Barakaldo, he lived and worked in various media in Salamanca. He was a cameraman for Salamanca television since the 1990s and for some years he was also at La 8 de Salamanca. During a good part of his career he was linked to Radio Televisión Castilla y León.He combined this work with filming armed conflicts. In 2012 he was injured by an explosion in Aleppo, where he was filming insurgent troops in the context of the Syrian civil war and was operated on in a hospital and evacuated to Turkey. During the last years of his life he made documentaries in Colombia and Brazil.

Roberto Fraile Fernández (1974 – 26 April 2021) was a Spanish journalist and cameraman.Biography Born in Barakaldo, he lived and worked in various media in Salamanca. He was a cameraman for Salamanca television since the 1990s and for some years he was also at La 8 de Salamanca. During a good part of his career he was linked to Radio Televisión Castilla y León.He combined this work with filming armed conflicts. In 2012 he was injured by an explosion in Aleppo, where he was filming insurgent troops in the context of the Syrian civil war and was operated on in a hospital and evacuated to Turkey. During the last years of his life he made documentaries in Colombia and Brazil.

Juan José Landaeta (10 March 1780 – 16 October 1814) was a Venezuelan composer.Life Born in Caracas, his parents (Juan José Landaeta and Maria Candelaria Arévalo) were free mulatos. He studied music at the school of Padre Sojo, with Juan Manuel Olivares. Later, he worked at various churches of Caracas as a violinist and music director. He was a participant in the Venezuelan War of Independence. In 1811 he founded the Concert Society Certamen de Música vocal e instrumental. After the demise of the First Republic, he was in prison, from which he was freed by the conquest of Simon Bolivar's conquest of Caracas. He then fell into the hands of José Tomás Boves, who had him executed. He died in Cumaná.

Life Born in Caracas, his parents (Juan José Landaeta and Maria Candelaria Arévalo) were free mulatos. He studied music at the school of Padre Sojo, with Juan Manuel Olivares. Later, he worked at various churches of Caracas as a violinist and music director. He was a participant in the Venezuelan War of Independence. In 1811 he founded the Concert Society Certamen de Música vocal e instrumental. After the demise of the First Republic, he was in prison, from which he was freed by the conquest of Simon Bolivar's conquest of Caracas. He then fell into the hands of José Tomás Boves, who had him executed. He died in Cumaná.

Juan José Landaeta (10 March 1780 – 16 October 1814) was a Venezuelan composer.Legacy He was a noted writer of religious and patriotic songs. In 1810 he wrote the melody of Gloria al bravo pueblo ("Glory to the brave people") to the lyrics by Vicente Salias. In 1881, it was declared the Venezuelan national anthem by General Antonio Guzmán Blanco. However, its authorship is disputed, others claim it was composed by Lino Gallardo.Today, the Venezuelan National Conservatory of Music is named for him.Works Tantum ergo (1798), composed with his son Francisco José Velásquez Benedictus (1799) Salve regina (1800) Benedictus y pésame a la Virgen Gloria al Bravo Pueblo (1810)

Juan José Landaeta (10 March 1780 – 16 October 1814) was a Venezuelan composer.Life Born in Caracas, his parents (Juan José Landaeta and Maria Candelaria Arévalo) were free mulatos. He studied music at the school of Padre Sojo, with Juan Manuel Olivares. Later, he worked at various churches of Caracas as a violinist and music director. He was a participant in the Venezuelan War of Independence. In 1811 he founded the Concert Society Certamen de Música vocal e instrumental. After the demise of the First Republic, he was in prison, from which he was freed by the conquest of Simon Bolivar's conquest of Caracas. He then fell into the hands of José Tomás Boves, who had him executed. He died in Cumaná.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.Personal life Widowed since 1978, she was a mother of five and grandmother of nine. Arns was killed by the Haiti earthquake of 12 January 2010 in Port-au-Prince, where she was carrying out humanitarian activities on behalf of Pastoral da Criança. She was struck in the head by falling debris from the roof of a church in which she had just given a speech. She was 75 years old at the time. Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva attended her funeral.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.Personal life Widowed since 1978, she was a mother of five and grandmother of nine. Arns was killed by the Haiti earthquake of 12 January 2010 in Port-au-Prince, where she was carrying out humanitarian activities on behalf of Pastoral da Criança. She was struck in the head by falling debris from the roof of a church in which she had just given a speech. She was 75 years old at the time. Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva attended her funeral.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.Personal life Widowed since 1978, she was a mother of five and grandmother of nine. Arns was killed by the Haiti earthquake of 12 January 2010 in Port-au-Prince, where she was carrying out humanitarian activities on behalf of Pastoral da Criança. She was struck in the head by falling debris from the roof of a church in which she had just given a speech. She was 75 years old at the time. Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva attended her funeral.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.

Career After she worked in local hospitals tending to infants, she was then given charge of a string of clinics on the impoverished outskirts of the southern city of Curitiba.Arns was the founder coordinator of Pastoral da Criança (Pastoral Care for Children), an organ for social action of the National Conference of Bishops of Brazil. The Care for Children has one of the largest programs in the world devoted to child health and nutrition. The pro has about 260,000 volunteers and has reduced infant mortality by more than half in over 31,000 urban and rural communities of intense poverty. Arns also coordinated Pastoral da Pessoa Idosa (Pastoral Care for Elderly Persons), and social action organisms of the Episcopal Conference of Brazil. As a Catholic, Arns condemned contraception. Her approach was based on familial education in order to help decrease the rates of petty crime and preventable diseases.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.Early life and education Born in the rural town of Forquilhinha, Arns was one of the 13 children of Gabriel Arns (1890–1965) and Helene Arns (née Steiner) (1894–1974). She was the aunt of Senator Flávio Arns. Two of Arns' memories were of seeing her father go door-to-door on his horse to help contain a smallpox epidemic and watching her mother arrange for a sick neighbour to be taken to the nearest hospital on the back of a cart, a journey of three hours. Those acts inspired her contemplate life as a doctor, even most of her priests or teachers.Having studied medicine, she graduated from university in 1959, UFPR - Federal University of Paraná. Arns further studied public health, with the aim of assisting poor children in environments plagued with high child mortality rates, malnutrition and violence.

Early life and education Born in the rural town of Forquilhinha, Arns was one of the 13 children of Gabriel Arns (1890–1965) and Helene Arns (née Steiner) (1894–1974). She was the aunt of Senator Flávio Arns. Two of Arns' memories were of seeing her father go door-to-door on his horse to help contain a smallpox epidemic and watching her mother arrange for a sick neighbour to be taken to the nearest hospital on the back of a cart, a journey of three hours. Those acts inspired her contemplate life as a doctor, even most of her priests or teachers.Having studied medicine, she graduated from university in 1959, UFPR - Federal University of Paraná. Arns further studied public health, with the aim of assisting poor children in environments plagued with high child mortality rates, malnutrition and violence.

Early life and education Born in the rural town of Forquilhinha, Arns was one of the 13 children of Gabriel Arns (1890–1965) and Helene Arns (née Steiner) (1894–1974). She was the aunt of Senator Flávio Arns. Two of Arns' memories were of seeing her father go door-to-door on his horse to help contain a smallpox epidemic and watching her mother arrange for a sick neighbour to be taken to the nearest hospital on the back of a cart, a journey of three hours. Those acts inspired her contemplate life as a doctor, even most of her priests or teachers.Having studied medicine, she graduated from university in 1959, UFPR - Federal University of Paraná. Arns further studied public health, with the aim of assisting poor children in environments plagued with high child mortality rates, malnutrition and violence.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.

Zilda Arns Neumann (August 25, 1934 – January 12, 2010) was a Brazilian pediatrician and aid worker. A sister of Cardinal Dom Paulo Evaristo Arns, the former Archbishop of São Paulo known for his efforts against the Brazilian military dictatorship, Zilda Arns became internationally known by founding a Catholic pastoral care for poor children. Her humanitarian work, which also included the poor and the elderly, spanned over three decades.Arns died on January 12, 2010, as a result of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Five years after her death, the Archdiocese of São Paulo formally launched a diocesan investigation, opening the way to canonization and recognition of her status as a saint.

Laura Daners Chao (1 February 1967 – 17 September 2010) was an Uruguayan television presenter and journalist. Daners was a very successful synchronized swimmer and competed for Uruguay at the 1987 Pan American Games in Indianapolis. She started her journalistic career at Canal 5. She then became known to a wider public as the presenter of Telemundo 12 alongside Néber Araújo. Daners had multiple sclerosis, which ultimately led to death. She was the mother of two children and was buried in the Cementerio del Buceo, Montevideo.

Laura Daners Chao (1 February 1967 – 17 September 2010) was an Uruguayan television presenter and journalist. Daners was a very successful synchronized swimmer and competed for Uruguay at the 1987 Pan American Games in Indianapolis. She started her journalistic career at Canal 5. She then became known to a wider public as the presenter of Telemundo 12 alongside Néber Araújo. Daners had multiple sclerosis, which ultimately led to death. She was the mother of two children and was buried in the Cementerio del Buceo, Montevideo.

Laura Daners Chao (1 February 1967 – 17 September 2010) was an Uruguayan television presenter and journalist. Daners was a very successful synchronized swimmer and competed for Uruguay at the 1987 Pan American Games in Indianapolis. She started her journalistic career at Canal 5. She then became known to a wider public as the presenter of Telemundo 12 alongside Néber Araújo. Daners had multiple sclerosis, which ultimately led to death. She was the mother of two children and was buried in the Cementerio del Buceo, Montevideo.

Laura Daners Chao (1 February 1967 – 17 September 2010) was an Uruguayan television presenter and journalist. Daners was a very successful synchronized swimmer and competed for Uruguay at the 1987 Pan American Games in Indianapolis. She started her journalistic career at Canal 5. She then became known to a wider public as the presenter of Telemundo 12 alongside Néber Araújo. Daners had multiple sclerosis, which ultimately led to death. She was the mother of two children and was buried in the Cementerio del Buceo, Montevideo.

Laura Daners Chao (1 February 1967 – 17 September 2010) was an Uruguayan television presenter and journalist. Daners was a very successful synchronized swimmer and competed for Uruguay at the 1987 Pan American Games in Indianapolis. She started her journalistic career at Canal 5. She then became known to a wider public as the presenter of Telemundo 12 alongside Néber Araújo. Daners had multiple sclerosis, which ultimately led to death. She was the mother of two children and was buried in the Cementerio del Buceo, Montevideo.

Trial On 30 June 2004, Saddam Hussein, held in custody by US forces at the US base "Camp Cropper," along with 11 other senior Ba'athist leaders, was handed over to the interim Iraqi government to stand trial for crimes against humanity and other offences. A few weeks later, he was charged by the Iraqi Special Tribunal with crimes committed against residents of Dujail in 1982, following a failed assassination attempt against him. Specific charges included the murder of 148 people, torture of women and children and the illegal arrest of 399 others. Among the many challenges of the trial were:

Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937– 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who was the fifth president of Iraq, from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq, first from 16 July 1979 until 23 March 1991, and later from 29 May 1994 to 9 April 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, which espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism. Saddam was born near Tikrit to a prominent Sunni Muslim family. He joined the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1957, and the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party, and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. Saddam nationalised the Iraq Petroleum Company, diversifying the Iraqi economy. He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975). Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power in 1979, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population.In September 1980, Saddam abrogated the Algiers Agreement and invaded Iran, marking the start of the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), which resulted in a stalemate ceasefire. Later, Saddam accused its ally Kuwait of slant-drilling Iraqi oil fields and occupied Kuwait, initiating the Gulf War (1990–1991). Iraq was defeated by a 39-country coalition led by the United States. The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq. He suppressed the 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shia Muslims, which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Afterward, Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign, pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq. Saddam's rule was marked by numerous human rights abuses, including an estimated 250,000 arbitrary killings. In 2003, the United States and its allies invaded Iraq, falsely accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda. The Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, the trial of Saddam Hussein took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by an Iraqi court of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shi'a and sentenced to death by hanging. He was executed on 30 December 2006. A highly pervasive cult of personality, Saddam is accused of repressive authoritarian government, which several analysts have described as totalitarian, although the applicability of that label has been contested.

Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937– 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who was the fifth president of Iraq, from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq, first from 16 July 1979 until 23 March 1991, and later from 29 May 1994 to 9 April 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, which espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism. Saddam was born near Tikrit to a prominent Sunni Muslim family. He joined the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1957, and the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party, and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. Saddam nationalised the Iraq Petroleum Company, diversifying the Iraqi economy. He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975). Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power in 1979, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population.In September 1980, Saddam abrogated the Algiers Agreement and invaded Iran, marking the start of the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), which resulted in a stalemate ceasefire. Later, Saddam accused its ally Kuwait of slant-drilling Iraqi oil fields and occupied Kuwait, initiating the Gulf War (1990–1991). Iraq was defeated by a 39-country coalition led by the United States. The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq. He suppressed the 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shia Muslims, which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Afterward, Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign, pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq. Saddam's rule was marked by numerous human rights abuses, including an estimated 250,000 arbitrary killings. In 2003, the United States and its allies invaded Iraq, falsely accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda. The Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, the trial of Saddam Hussein took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by an Iraqi court of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shi'a and sentenced to death by hanging. He was executed on 30 December 2006. A highly pervasive cult of personality, Saddam is accused of repressive authoritarian government, which several analysts have described as totalitarian, although the applicability of that label has been contested.

Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937– 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who was the fifth president of Iraq, from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq, first from 16 July 1979 until 23 March 1991, and later from 29 May 1994 to 9 April 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, which espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism. Saddam was born near Tikrit to a prominent Sunni Muslim family. He joined the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1957, and the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party, and its regional organization, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. Saddam nationalised the Iraq Petroleum Company, diversifying the Iraqi economy. He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975). Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power in 1979, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population.In September 1980, Saddam abrogated the Algiers Agreement and invaded Iran, marking the start of the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), which resulted in a stalemate ceasefire. Later, Saddam accused its ally Kuwait of slant-drilling Iraqi oil fields and occupied Kuwait, initiating the Gulf War (1990–1991). Iraq was defeated by a 39-country coalition led by the United States. The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq. He suppressed the 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shia Muslims, which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Afterward, Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign, pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq. Saddam's rule was marked by numerous human rights abuses, including an estimated 250,000 arbitrary killings. In 2003, the United States and its allies invaded Iraq, falsely accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda. The Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, the trial of Saddam Hussein took place under the Iraqi Interim Government. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by an Iraqi court of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 killing of 148 Iraqi Shi'a and sentenced to death by hanging. He was executed on 30 December 2006. A highly pervasive cult of personality, Saddam is accused of repressive authoritarian government, which several analysts have described as totalitarian, although the applicability of that label has been contested.

Execution Saddam was hanged on the first day of Eid ul-Adha, 30 December 2006, despite his wish to be executed by firing squad (which he argued was the lawful military capital punishment, citing his military position as the commander-in-chief of the Iraqi military). The execution was carried out at Camp Justice, an Iraqi army base in Kadhimiya, a neighborhood of northeast Baghdad. Saudi Arabia condemned Iraqi authorities for carrying on with the execution on a holy day. A presenter from the Al-Ikhbariya television station officially stated: "There is a feeling of surprise and disapproval that the verdict has been applied during the holy months and the first days of Eid al-Adha. Leaders of Islamic countries should show respect for this blessed occasion ... not demean it."Video of the execution was recorded on a mobile phone and his captors could be heard insulting Saddam. The video was leaked to electronic media and posted on the Internet within hours, becoming the subject of global controversy. It was later claimed by the head guard at the tomb where his remains lay that Saddam's body had been stabbed six times after the execution. Saddam's demeanor while being led to the gallows has been discussed by two witnesses, Iraqi Judge Munir Haddad and Iraqi national security adviser Mowaffak al-Rubaie. The accounts of the two witnesses are contradictory as Haddad describes Saddam as being strong in his final moments whereas al-Rubaie says Saddam was clearly afraid.Saddam's last words during the execution, "May God’s blessings be upon Muhammad and his household. And may God hasten their appearance and curse their enemies." Then one of the crowd repeatedly said the name of the Iraqi Shiite cleric, Moqtada Al-Sadr. Saddam laughed and later said, "Do you consider this manhood?" The crowd shouted, "go to Hell." Saddam replied, "To the hell that is Iraq!?" Again, one of the crowd asked those who shouted to keep quiet for God. Saddam Hussein started recitation of final Muslim prayers, "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." One of the crowd shouted, "The tyrant [dictator] has collapsed!" Saddam said, "May God’s blessings be upon Muhammad and his household (family)". He recited the shahada one and a half times, as while he was about to say ‘Muhammad’ on the second shahada, the trapdoor opened, cutting him off mid-sentence. The rope broke his neck, killing him instantly.Not long before the execution, Saddam's lawyers released his last letter.A second unofficial video, apparently showing Saddam's body on a trolley, emerged several days later. It sparked speculation that the execution was carried out incorrectly as Saddam Hussein had a gaping hole in his neck.Saddam was buried at his birthplace of Al-Awja in Tikrit, Iraq, on 31 December 2006. He was buried 3 km (2 mi) from his sons Uday and Qusay Hussein. His tomb was reported to have been destroyed in March 2015. Before it was destroyed, a Sunni tribal group reportedly removed his body to a secret location, fearful of what might happen.

Execution Saddam was hanged on the first day of Eid ul-Adha, 30 December 2006, despite his wish to be executed by firing squad (which he argued was the lawful military capital punishment, citing his military position as the commander-in-chief of the Iraqi military). The execution was carried out at Camp Justice, an Iraqi army base in Kadhimiya, a neighborhood of northeast Baghdad. Saudi Arabia condemned Iraqi authorities for carrying on with the execution on a holy day. A presenter from the Al-Ikhbariya television station officially stated: "There is a feeling of surprise and disapproval that the verdict has been applied during the holy months and the first days of Eid al-Adha. Leaders of Islamic countries should show respect for this blessed occasion ... not demean it."Video of the execution was recorded on a mobile phone and his captors could be heard insulting Saddam. The video was leaked to electronic media and posted on the Internet within hours, becoming the subject of global controversy. It was later claimed by the head guard at the tomb where his remains lay that Saddam's body had been stabbed six times after the execution. Saddam's demeanor while being led to the gallows has been discussed by two witnesses, Iraqi Judge Munir Haddad and Iraqi national security adviser Mowaffak al-Rubaie. The accounts of the two witnesses are contradictory as Haddad describes Saddam as being strong in his final moments whereas al-Rubaie says Saddam was clearly afraid.Saddam's last words during the execution, "May God’s blessings be upon Muhammad and his household. And may God hasten their appearance and curse their enemies." Then one of the crowd repeatedly said the name of the Iraqi Shiite cleric, Moqtada Al-Sadr. Saddam laughed and later said, "Do you consider this manhood?" The crowd shouted, "go to Hell." Saddam replied, "To the hell that is Iraq!?" Again, one of the crowd asked those who shouted to keep quiet for God. Saddam Hussein started recitation of final Muslim prayers, "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." One of the crowd shouted, "The tyrant [dictator] has collapsed!" Saddam said, "May God’s blessings be upon Muhammad and his household (family)". He recited the shahada one and a half times, as while he was about to say ‘Muhammad’ on the second shahada, the trapdoor opened, cutting him off mid-sentence. The rope broke his neck, killing him instantly.Not long before the execution, Saddam's lawyers released his last letter.A second unofficial video, apparently showing Saddam's body on a trolley, emerged several days later. It sparked speculation that the execution was carried out incorrectly as Saddam Hussein had a gaping hole in his neck.Saddam was buried at his birthplace of Al-Awja in Tikrit, Iraq, on 31 December 2006. He was buried 3 km (2 mi) from his sons Uday and Qusay Hussein. His tomb was reported to have been destroyed in March 2015. Before it was destroyed, a Sunni tribal group reportedly removed his body to a secret location, fearful of what might happen.

Execution Saddam was hanged on the first day of Eid ul-Adha, 30 December 2006, despite his wish to be executed by firing squad (which he argued was the lawful military capital punishment, citing his military position as the commander-in-chief of the Iraqi military). The execution was carried out at Camp Justice, an Iraqi army base in Kadhimiya, a neighborhood of northeast Baghdad. Saudi Arabia condemned Iraqi authorities for carrying on with the execution on a holy day. A presenter from the Al-Ikhbariya television station officially stated: "There is a feeling of surprise and disapproval that the verdict has been applied during the holy months and the first days of Eid al-Adha. Leaders of Islamic countries should show respect for this blessed occasion ... not demean it."Video of the execution was recorded on a mobile phone and his captors could be heard insulting Saddam. The video was leaked to electronic media and posted on the Internet within hours, becoming the subject of global controversy. It was later claimed by the head guard at the tomb where his remains lay that Saddam's body had been stabbed six times after the execution. Saddam's demeanor while being led to the gallows has been discussed by two witnesses, Iraqi Judge Munir Haddad and Iraqi national security adviser Mowaffak al-Rubaie. The accounts of the two witnesses are contradictory as Haddad describes Saddam as being strong in his final moments whereas al-Rubaie says Saddam was clearly afraid.Saddam's last words during the execution, "May God’s blessings be upon Muhammad and his household. And may God hasten their appearance and curse their enemies." Then one of the crowd repeatedly said the name of the Iraqi Shiite cleric, Moqtada Al-Sadr. Saddam laughed and later said, "Do you consider this manhood?" The crowd shouted, "go to Hell." Saddam replied, "To the hell that is Iraq!?" Again, one of the crowd asked those who shouted to keep quiet for God. Saddam Hussein started recitation of final Muslim prayers, "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." One of the crowd shouted, "The tyrant [dictator] has collapsed!" Saddam said, "May God’s blessings be upon Muhammad and his household (family)". He recited the shahada one and a half times, as while he was about to say ‘Muhammad’ on the second shahada, the trapdoor opened, cutting him off mid-sentence. The rope broke his neck, killing him instantly.Not long before the execution, Saddam's lawyers released his last letter.A second unofficial video, apparently showing Saddam's body on a trolley, emerged several days later. It sparked speculation that the execution was carried out incorrectly as Saddam Hussein had a gaping hole in his neck.Saddam was buried at his birthplace of Al-Awja in Tikrit, Iraq, on 31 December 2006. He was buried 3 km (2 mi) from his sons Uday and Qusay Hussein. His tomb was reported to have been destroyed in March 2015. Before it was destroyed, a Sunni tribal group reportedly removed his body to a secret location, fearful of what might happen.

Saddam developed a reputation for liking expensive goods, such as his diamond-coated Rolex wristwatch, and sent copies of them to his friends around the world. To his ally Kenneth Kaunda Saddam once sent a Boeing 747 full of presents—rugs, televisions, ornaments.Saddam enjoyed a close relationship with Russian intelligence agent Yevgeny Primakov that dated back to the 1960s; Primakov may have helped Saddam to stay in power in 1991.Saddam visited only two Western countries. The first visit took place in December 1974, when the Caudillo of Spain, Francisco Franco, invited him to Madrid and he visited Granada, Córdoba and Toledo. In September 1975 he met with Prime Minister Jacques Chirac in Paris, France.Several Iraqi leaders, Lebanese arms merchant Sarkis Soghanalian and others have claimed that Saddam financed Chirac's party. In 1991 Saddam threatened to expose those who had taken largesse from him: "From Mr. Chirac to Mr. Chevènement, politicians and economic leaders were in open competition to spend time with us and flatter us. We have now grasped the reality of the situation. If the trickery continues, we will be forced to unmask them, all of them, before the French public." France armed Saddam and it was Iraq's largest trade partner throughout Saddam's rule. Seized documents show how French officials and businessmen close to Chirac, including Charles Pasqua, his former interior minister, personally benefitted from the deals with Saddam.Because Saddam Hussein rarely left Iraq, Tariq Aziz, one of Saddam's aides, traveled abroad extensively and represented Iraq at many diplomatic meetings. In foreign affairs, Saddam sought to have Iraq play a leading role in the Middle East. Iraq signed an aid pact with the Soviet Union in 1972, and arms were sent along with several thousand advisers. The 1978 crackdown on Iraqi Communists and a shift of trade toward the West strained Iraqi relations with the Soviet Union; Iraq then took on a more Western orientation until the Gulf War in 1991.After the oil crisis of 1973, France had changed to a more pro-Arab policy and was accordingly rewarded by Saddam with closer ties. He made a state visit to France in 1975, cementing close ties with some French business and ruling political circles. In 1975 Saddam negotiated an accord with Iran that contained Iraqi concessions on border disputes. In return, Iran agreed to stop supporting opposition Kurds in Iraq. Saddam led Arab opposition to the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel (1979). Saddam initiated Iraq's nuclear enrichment project in the 1980s, with French assistance. The first Iraqi nuclear reactor was named by the French "Osirak". Osirak was destroyed on 7 June 1981 by an Israeli air strike (Operation Opera). Nearly from its founding as a modern state in 1920, Iraq has had to deal with Kurdish separatists in the northern part of the country. Saddam did negotiate an agreement in 1970 with separatist Kurdish leaders, giving them autonomy, but the agreement broke down. The result was brutal fighting between the government and Kurdish groups and Iraqi bombing of Kurdish villages in Iran, which caused Iraqi relations with Iran to deteriorate. After Saddam negotiated the 1975 treaty with Iran, the Shah withdrew support for the Kurds, who were defeated.Dr. Ibrahim was arrested a few days after his removal from the cabinet. He was known to have publicly declared before that arrest that he was "glad that he got away alive." Pieces of Ibrahim's dismembered body were delivered to his wife the next day.Iraq quickly found itself bogged down in one of the longest and most destructive wars of attrition of the 20th century. During the war, Iraq used chemical weapons against Iranian forces fighting on the southern front and Kurdish separatists who were attempting to open up a northern front in Iraq with the help of Iran. These chemical weapons were developed by Iraq from materials and technology supplied primarily by West German companies as well as using dual-use technology imported following the Reagan administration's lifting of export restrictions. The US government also supplied Iraq with "satellite photos showing Iranian deployments." In a US bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly, this was because of improvement in the regime's record, although former US Assistant Secretary of Defense Noel Koch later stated, "No one had any doubts about [the Iraqis'] continued involvement in terrorism ... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran." The Soviet Union, France, and China together accounted for over 90% of the value of Iraq's arms imports between 1980 and 1988.Saddam reached out to other Arab governments for cash and political support during the war, particularly after Iraq's oil industry severely suffered at the hands of the Iranian navy in the Persian Gulf. Iraq successfully gained some military and financial aid, as well as diplomatic and moral support, from the Soviet Union, China, France, and the US, which together feared the prospects of the expansion of revolutionary Iran's influence in the region. The Iranians, demanding that the international community should force Iraq to pay war reparations to Iran, refused any suggestions for a cease-fire. Despite several calls for a ceasefire by the United Nations Security Council, hostilities continued until 20 August 1988. On 16 March 1988, the Kurdish town of Halabja was attacked with a mix of mustard gas and nerve agents, killing 5,000 civilians, and maiming, disfiguring, or seriously debilitating 10,000 more. (see Halabja massacre) The attack occurred in conjunction with the 1988 al-Anfal Campaign designed to reassert central control of the mostly Kurdish population of areas of northern Iraq and defeat the Kurdish peshmerga rebel forces. Claims by Saddam's government and its international supporters that Iran had actually gassed the Kurds at Halabja have been thoroughly debunked.The bloody eight-year war ended in a stalemate. Encyclopædia Britannica states: "Estimates of total casualties range from 1,000,000 to twice that number. The number killed on both sides was perhaps 500,000, with Iran suffering the greatest losses." Neither side had achieved what they had originally desired and the borders were left nearly unchanged. The southern, oil rich and prosperous Khuzestan and Basra area (the main focus of the war, and the primary source of their economies) were almost completely destroyed and were left at the pre-1979 border, while Iran managed to make some small gains on its borders in the Northern Kurdish area. Both economies, previously healthy and expanding, were left in ruins. Saddam borrowed tens of billions of dollars from other Arab states and a few billions from elsewhere during the 1980s to fight Iran, mainly to prevent the expansion of Shi'a radicalism. This backfired on Iraq and the Arab states, for Khomeini was widely perceived as a hero for managing to defend Iran and maintain the war with little foreign support against the heavily backed Iraq and only managed to boost Islamic radicalism not only within the Arab states, but within Iraq itself, creating new tensions between the Sunni Ba'ath Party and the majority Shi'a population. Faced with rebuilding Iraq's infrastructure and internal resistance, Saddam desperately re-sought cash, this time for postwar reconstruction.Al-Anfal Campaign The Al-Anfal Campaign was a genocidal campaign against the Kurdish people (and many others) in Kurdish regions of Iraq led by the government of Saddam Hussein and headed by Ali Hassan al-Majid. The campaign takes its name from Qur'anic chapter 8 (al-ʾanfāl), which was used as a code name by the former Iraqi Ba'athist administration for a series of attacks against the peshmerga rebels and the mostly Kurdish civilian population of rural Northern Iraq, conducted between 1986 and 1989 culminating in 1988. This campaign also targeted Shabaks and Yazidis, Assyrians, Turkoman people and Mandaeans and many villages belonging to these ethnic groups were also destroyed. Human Rights Watch estimates that between 50,000 and 100,000 people were killed. Some Kurdish sources put the number higher, estimating that 182,000 Kurds were killed.

Execution Macrinus realised that his life was in danger but struggled to decide upon a course of action and remained at Antioch. He sent a force of cavalry commanded by Ulpius Julianus to regain control of the rebels, but they failed and Ulpius died in the attempt. This failure further strengthened Elagabalus' army. Soon after, a force under Elagabalus' tutor Gannys marched on Antioch and engaged Macrinus' army on 8 June 218 near the village of Immae, located approximately 24 miles from Antioch. At some point during the ensuing Battle of Antioch, Macrinus deserted the field and returned to Antioch. He was then forced to flee from Antioch as fighting erupted in the city as well. Elagabalus himself subsequently entered Antioch as the new ruler of the Roman Empire. Macrinus fled for Rome; he travelled as far as Chalcedon before being recognized and captured. His son and co-emperor Diadumenianus, sent to the care of Artabanus IV of Parthia, was himself captured in transit at Zeugma and killed in June 218. Diadumenianus' reign lasted a total of 14 months, and he was about 10 years old when he died. Macrinus, upon learning of his son's death, tried to escape captivity, but he injured himself in the unsuccessful attempt and was afterward executed in Cappadocia; his head was sent to Elagabalus. Much like Macrinus, Diadumenianus' head was also cut off and sent to Elagabalus as a trophy.

Background and career Macrinus was born in Caesarea (modern Cherchell, Algeria) in the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis to an equestrian family of Berber origins. According to David Potter, his family traced its origins to the Berber tribes of the region and his pierced ear was an indication of his Berber heritage. He received an education which allowed him to ascend to the Roman political class. Over the years, he earned a reputation as a skilled lawyer; and, under Emperor Septimius Severus, he became an important bureaucrat. Severus' successor Caracalla later appointed him a prefect of the Praetorian Guard.While Macrinus probably enjoyed the trust of Emperor Caracalla, this may have changed when, according to tradition, it was prophesied that he would depose and succeed the emperor. Macrinus, fearing for his safety, resolved to have Caracalla murdered before he was condemned.In the spring of 217, Caracalla was in the eastern provinces preparing a campaign against the Parthian Empire. Macrinus was among his staff, as were other members of the Praetorian Guard. In April, Caracalla went to visit a temple of Luna near the site of the battle of Carrhae and was accompanied only by his personal guard, which included Macrinus. On 8 April, while travelling to the temple, Caracalla was stabbed to death by Justin Martialis, a soldier whom Macrinus had recruited to commit the murder. In the aftermath, Martialis was killed by one of Caracalla's men.For two or three days, Rome remained without an emperor. On 11 April, Macrinus proclaimed himself emperor and assumed all of the imperial titles and powers, without waiting for the Senate. The army backed his claim as emperor and the Senate, so far away, was powerless to intervene. Macrinus never returned to Rome as emperor and remained based in Antioch for the duration of his reign. Macrinus was the first emperor to hail from the equestrian class, rather than the senatorial and also the first emperor of Mauretanian descent. He adopted the name of Severus, in honour of the Severan dynasty, and conferred the imperial title of Augusta to his wife Nonia Celsa and the title of Caesar and name of Antoninus to his son Diadumenianus in honour of the Antonine dynasty, thus making him second in command. At the time of Diadumenian's accession he was eight years old.

Execution Macrinus realised that his life was in danger but struggled to decide upon a course of action and remained at Antioch. He sent a force of cavalry commanded by Ulpius Julianus to regain control of the rebels, but they failed and Ulpius died in the attempt. This failure further strengthened Elagabalus' army. Soon after, a force under Elagabalus' tutor Gannys marched on Antioch and engaged Macrinus' army on 8 June 218 near the village of Immae, located approximately 24 miles from Antioch. At some point during the ensuing Battle of Antioch, Macrinus deserted the field and returned to Antioch. He was then forced to flee from Antioch as fighting erupted in the city as well. Elagabalus himself subsequently entered Antioch as the new ruler of the Roman Empire. Macrinus fled for Rome; he travelled as far as Chalcedon before being recognized and captured. His son and co-emperor Diadumenianus, sent to the care of Artabanus IV of Parthia, was himself captured in transit at Zeugma and killed in June 218. Diadumenianus' reign lasted a total of 14 months, and he was about 10 years old when he died. Macrinus, upon learning of his son's death, tried to escape captivity, but he injured himself in the unsuccessful attempt and was afterward executed in Cappadocia; his head was sent to Elagabalus. Much like Macrinus, Diadumenianus' head was also cut off and sent to Elagabalus as a trophy.

Early life Huhai (Chinese: 胡亥) was the personal name of the Second Emperor. Its Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as *Ga-gə′. Although his parentage was questioned by many historians including Sima Qian, they accepted Qin Er Shi as a member of the Kingdom of Qin's House of Ying. Huhai is the eighteenth son of Qin Shi Huang. As the youngest son, he was doted on by his father. It is not clear who his mother was, although most likely she was "The Hu (barbarian) princess" Hu Ji (胡姬). Although he is sometimes known as "Ying Huhai" according to the practice of modern Chinese names, the ancient custom was not to combine the names in this way: his personal name never appears in combination with Ying, Zhao, or Qin. From an early age, Huhai was apprenticed to the minister Zhao Gao to learn Legalism, by the decree of Qin Shi Huang.There is a strong possibility that Hu Ji was a princess from the Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid dynasty offered to Ying Zheng as an alliance gift from neighboring Gansu in 230 BC.

In popular culture The name of the emperor, Er Shi (二世), is included in the popular Cantonese term 二世祖. The phrase is a pejorative term used to describe spoiled children raised by wealthy parents who grow up with few or no moral values or everyday skills. The incident of the horse-deer has been cited as the etymology of the Japanese word baka (馬鹿), "fool".

Second Emperor of Qin dynasty In the first year of his reign in 210 BCE, Huhai was made the second emperor of Qin at the age of 19. His regnal name Qin Er Shi, (秦二世), means "Second Generation of the Qin" and is a contraction of Qin Ershi Huangdi (秦二世皇帝), the "Second-Generation Emperor of the Qin". The name followed the nomenclature established by the First Emperor, who envisioned an empire that would last for ten thousand generations and for his successors to bear the aspiration in their reign names. The practice ended abruptly with the third emperor, Ziying, when the Qin dynasty was overturned by Chu and Han. Qin Er Shi depended on the eunuch Zhao Gao so much so that he acted as a puppet emperor, with the eunuch as puppeteer. Zhao Gao was made the Qin prime minister during Qin Er Shi's reign, which was cruel and brought much suffering to the people. From his reign onwards, the Qin dynasty declined. After one of the tours, Zhao Gao suggested for him to examine the governors and military commandants and to punish those guilty of some crime. That way, he could do away with those who disapprove of the emperor's actions. Six imperial princes were killed at Tu (杜). The emperor then further punished people for petty crimes. The emperor's brother Jianglu (將閭) and two other brothers were imprisoned. A messenger was then sent to read them a death sentence. Jianglu looked to the heavens and cried out loud three times that he did not commit any crime (天乎! 吾無罪!). All three brothers cried and drew their own swords to commit suicide. Zhao Gao said that the second emperor was young and that as the Son of Heaven, his own voice must never be heard, and his face must never be shown. Accordingly, the emperor remained in the inner palaces and consulted only with Zhao Gao. Therefore, the high ministers rarely had the opportunity to see the emperor in court.

Early life Huhai (Chinese: 胡亥) was the personal name of the Second Emperor. Its Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as *Ga-gə′. Although his parentage was questioned by many historians including Sima Qian, they accepted Qin Er Shi as a member of the Kingdom of Qin's House of Ying. Huhai is the eighteenth son of Qin Shi Huang. As the youngest son, he was doted on by his father. It is not clear who his mother was, although most likely she was "The Hu (barbarian) princess" Hu Ji (胡姬). Although he is sometimes known as "Ying Huhai" according to the practice of modern Chinese names, the ancient custom was not to combine the names in this way: his personal name never appears in combination with Ying, Zhao, or Qin. From an early age, Huhai was apprenticed to the minister Zhao Gao to learn Legalism, by the decree of Qin Shi Huang.There is a strong possibility that Hu Ji was a princess from the Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid dynasty offered to Ying Zheng as an alliance gift from neighboring Gansu in 230 BC.

Legacy Joan is one of the most studied people of the Middle Ages, partly because her two trials provided a wealth of documents. Her image, changing over time, has included being the savior of France, an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence.

Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc pronounced [ʒan daʁk]; c. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France. Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination. Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege. Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the King of France with Joan at his side. These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later. After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November. Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her. In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English. She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November. She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen. In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors. Joan has been revered as a martyr, and viewed as an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence. After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France. In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France. She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater.

Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc pronounced [ʒan daʁk]; c. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France. Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination. Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege. Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the King of France with Joan at his side. These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later. After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November. Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her. In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English. She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November. She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen. In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors. Joan has been revered as a martyr, and viewed as an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence. After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France. In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France. She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater.Military leader and symbol of France Joan's reputation as a military leader who helped drive the English from France began to form before her death. Just after Charles's coronation, Christine de Pizan wrote the poem Ditié de Jehanne D'Arc, celebrating Joan as a supporter of Charles sent by Divine Providence; the poem captured the "surge of optimism" and "sense of wonder and gratitude" that "swept through the whole of the French" after the triumph at Orléans, according to Kennedy and Varty (1977). As early as 1429, Orléans began holding a celebration in honor of the raising of the siege on 8 May.After Joan's execution, her role in the Orléans victory encouraged popular support for her rehabilitation. Joan became a central part of the annual celebration, and by 1435 a play, Mistère du siège d'Orléans (Mystery of the Siege of Orléans), portrayed her as the vehicle of the divine will that liberated Orléans. The Orléans festival celebrating Joan continues in modern times.Less than a decade after her rehabilitation trial, Pope Pius II wrote a brief biography describing her as the maid who saved the kingdom of France. Louis XII commissioned a full-length biography of her around 1500.Joan's early legacy was closely associated with the divine right of the monarchy to rule France. During the French Revolution, her reputation came into question because of her association with the monarchy and religion, and the festival in her honor held at Orléans was suspended in 1793. In 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte authorized its renewal and the creation of a new statue of Joan at Orléans, stating: "The illustrious Joan ... proved that there is no miracle which French genius cannot accomplish when national independence is threatened."Since then, she has become a prominent symbol as the defender of the French nation. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Joan became a rallying point for a new crusade to reclaim Lorraine, the province of her birth. The Third Republic held a patriotic civic holiday in her honor, on 8 May to celebrate her victory at Orléans. During World War I, her image was used to inspire victory. In World War II, all sides of the French cause appealed to her legacy: she was a symbol for Philippe Pétain in Vichy France, a model for Charles de Gaulle's leadership of the Free French, and an example for the Communist resistance. More recently, her association with the monarchy and national liberation has made her a symbol for the French far right, including the monarchist movement Action Française and the National Front Party. Joan's image has been used by the entire spectrum of French politics, and she is an important reference in political dialogue about French identity and unity.Saint and heroic woman Joan is a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. She was viewed as a religious figure in Orléans after the siege was lifted and an annual panegyric was pronounced there on her behalf until the 1800s. In 1849, the Bishop of Orlėans Félix Dupanloup delivered an oration that attracted international attention, and in 1869 petitioned Rome to begin beatification proceedings. She was beatified by Pope Pius X in 1909, and canonized on 16 May 1920 by Pope Benedict XV. Her feast day is 30 May, the anniversary of her execution. In an apostolic letter, Pope Pius XI declared Joan one of the patron saints of France on 2 March 1922.Joan was canonized as a Virgin, not as a Christian martyr because she had been put to death by a canonically constituted court, which did not execute for her faith in Christ, but for her private revelation. Nevertheless, she has been popularly venerated as a martyr since her death: one who suffered for her modesty and purity, her country, and the strength of her convictions. Joan is also remembered as a visionary in the Church of England with a commemoration on 30 May. She is revered in the pantheon of the Cao Dai religion.While Joan was alive, she was already being compared to biblical women heroes, such as Esther, Judith, and Deborah. Her claim of virginity, which signified her virtue and sincerity, was upheld by women of status from both the Armagnac and Burgundian-English sides of the Hundred Years' War: Yolande of Aragon, Charles's mother-in-law, and Anne of Burgundy, Duchess of Bedford.Joan has been described as a model of an autonomous woman who challenged traditions of masculinity and femininity to be heard as an individual in a patriarchal culture—setting her own course by heeding the voices of her visions. She fulfilled the traditionally male role of a military leader, while maintaining her status as a valiant woman. Merging qualities associated with both genders, Joan has inspired numerous artistic and cultural works for many centuries. In the nineteenth century, hundreds of work of art about her—including biographies, plays, and musical scores—were created in France, and her story became popular as an artistic subject in Europe and North America. By the 1960s, she was the topic of thousands of books. Her legacy has become global, and inspires novels, plays, poems, operas, films, paintings, children's books, advertising, computer games, comics and popular culture across the world.

Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc pronounced [ʒan daʁk]; c. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France. Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination. Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege. Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the King of France with Joan at his side. These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later. After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November. Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her. In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English. She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November. She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen. In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors. Joan has been revered as a martyr, and viewed as an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence. After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France. In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France. She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater.

Birth and historical background Joan of Arc was born around 1412 in Domrémy, a small village in the Meuse valley now in the Vosges department in the north-east of France. Her date of birth is unknown and her statements about her age were vague. Her parents were Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée. Joan had three brothers and a sister. Her father was a peasant farmer with about 50 acres (20 ha) of land, and he supplemented the family income as a village official, collecting taxes and heading the local watch.She was born during the Hundred Years' War between England and France, which had begun in 1337 over the status of English territories in France and English claims to the French throne. Nearly all the fighting had taken place in France, devastating its economy. At the time of Joan's birth, France was divided politically. The French king Charles VI had recurring bouts of mental illness and was often unable to rule; his brother Louis, Duke of Orléans, and his cousin John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, quarreled over the regency of France. In 1407, the Duke of Burgundy ordered the assassination of the Duke of Orléans, precipitating a civil war. Charles of Orléans succeeded his father as duke at the age of thirteen, and was placed in the custody of Bernard, Count of Armagnac; his supporters became known as "Armagnacs", while supporters of the Duke of Burgundy became known as "Burgundians". The future French king Charles VII had assumed the title of Dauphin (heir to the throne) after the deaths of his four older brothers, and was associated with the Armagnacs.Henry V of England exploited France's internal divisions when he invaded in 1415. The Burgundians took Paris in 1418. In 1419, the Dauphin offered a truce to negotiate peace with the Duke of Burgundy, but the duke was assassinated by Charles's Armagnac partisans during the negotiations. The new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, allied with the English. Charles VI accused the Dauphin of murdering the Duke of Burgundy and declared him unfit to inherit the French throne. During a period of illness, Charles's wife Isabeau of Bavaria stood in for him and signed the Treaty of Troyes, which gave their daughter Catherine of Valois in marriage to Henry V, granted the succession of the French throne to their heirs, and effectively disinherited the Dauphin. This caused rumors that the Dauphin was not King Charles VI's son, but the offspring of an adulterous affair between Isabeau and the murdered duke of Orléans. In 1422, Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other; the 9-month-old Henry VI of England was the nominal heir of the Anglo-French dual monarchy as agreed in the treaty, but the Dauphin also claimed the French throne.

Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc pronounced [ʒan daʁk]; c. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France. Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination. Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege. Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the King of France with Joan at his side. These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later. After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November. Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her. In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English. She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November. She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen. In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors. Joan has been revered as a martyr, and viewed as an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence. After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France. In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France. She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater.

Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc pronounced [ʒan daʁk]; c. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the coronation of Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War. Claiming to be acting under divine guidance, she became a military leader who transcended gender roles and gained recognition as a savior of France. Joan was born to a propertied peasant family at Domrémy in northeast France. In 1428, she requested to be taken to Charles, later testifying that she was guided by visions from the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine to help him save France from English domination. Convinced of her devotion and purity, Charles sent Joan, who was about seventeen years old, to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She arrived at the city in April 1429, wielding her banner and bringing hope to the demoralized French army. Nine days after her arrival, the English abandoned the siege. Joan encouraged the French to aggressively pursue the English during the Loire Campaign, which culminated in another decisive victory at Patay, opening the way for the French army to advance on Reims unopposed, where Charles was crowned as the King of France with Joan at his side. These victories boosted French morale, paving the way for their final triumph in the Hundred Years' War several decades later. After Charles's coronation, Joan participated in the unsuccessful siege of Paris in September 1429 and the failed siege of La Charité in November. Her role in these defeats reduced the court's faith in her. In early 1430, Joan organized a company of volunteers to relieve Compiègne, which had been besieged by the Burgundians—French allies of the English. She was captured by Burgundian troops on 23 May. After trying unsuccessfully to escape, she was handed to the English in November. She was put on trial by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on accusations of heresy, which included blaspheming by wearing men's clothes, acting upon visions that were demonic, and refusing to submit her words and deeds to the judgment of the church. She was declared guilty and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, aged about nineteen. In 1456, an inquisitorial court reinvestigated Joan's trial and overturned the verdict, declaring that it was tainted by deceit and procedural errors. Joan has been revered as a martyr, and viewed as an obedient daughter of the Roman Catholic Church, an early feminist, and a symbol of freedom and independence. After the French Revolution, she became a national symbol of France. In 1920, Joan of Arc was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and, two years later, was declared one of the patron saints of France. She is portrayed in numerous cultural works, including literature, music, paintings, sculptures, and theater.

Loire Campaign After the success at Orléans, Joan insisted that the Armagnac forces should advance promptly toward Reims to crown the Dauphin. Charles allowed her to accompany the army under the command of John II, Duke of Alençon, who collaboratively worked with Joan and regularly heeded her advice. Before advancing toward Reims, the Armagnacs needed to recapture the bridge towns along the Loire: Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, and Beaugency. This would clear the way for Charles and his entourage, who would have to cross the Loire near Orléans to get from Chinon to Reims.The campaign to clear the Loire towns began on 11 June when the Armagnac forces led by Alençon and Joan arrived at Jargeau and forced the English to withdraw inside the town's walls. Joan sent a message to the English to surrender; they refused and she advocated for a direct assault on the walls the next day. By the end of the day, the town was taken. The Armagnac took few prisoners and many of the English who surrendered were killed. During this campaign, Joan continued to serve in the thick of battle. She began scaling a siege ladder with her banner in hand but before she could climb the wall, she was struck by a stone which split her helmet.Alençon and Joan's army advanced on Meung-sur-Loire. On 15 June, they took control of the town's bridge, and the English garrison withdrew to a castle on the Loire's north bank. Most of the army continued on the south bank of the Loire to besiege the castle at Beaugency.Meanwhile, the English army from Paris under the command of Sir John Fastolf had linked up with the garrison in Meung and traveled along the north bank of the Loire to relieve Beaugency. Unaware of this, the English garrison at Beaugency surrendered on 18 June. The main English army retreated toward Paris; Joan urged the Armagnacs to pursue them, and the two armies clashed at the Battle of Patay later that day. The English had prepared their forces to ambush an Armagnac attack with hidden archers, but the Armagnac vanguard detected and scattered them. A rout ensued that decimated the English army. Fastolf escaped with a small band of soldiers, but many of the English leaders were captured. Joan arrived at the battlefield too late to participate in the decisive action, but her encouragement to pursue the English had made the victory possible.

Name Joan of Arc's name was written in a variety of ways. There is no standard spelling of her name before the sixteenth century; her last name was usually written as "Darc" without an apostrophe, but there are variants such as "Tarc", "Dart" or "Day". Her father's name was written as "Tart" at her trial. She was called "Jeanne d'Ay de Domrémy" in Charles VII's 1429 letter granting her a coat of arms. Joan may never have heard herself called "Jeanne d'Arc". The first written record of her being called by this name is in 1455, 24 years after her death.She was not taught to read and write in her childhood, and so dictated her letters. She may have later learned to sign her name, as some of her letters are signed, and she may even have learned to read. Joan referred to herself in the letters as "Jeanne la Pucelle" (Joan the Maiden) or as "la Pucelle" (the Maiden), emphasizing her virginity, and she signed "Jehanne". In the sixteenth century, she became known as the "Maid of Orleans".