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Rapid strep test

Summary

Rapid_strep_test

The rapid strep test (RST) is a rapid antigen detection test (RADT) that is widely used in clinics to assist in the diagnosis of bacterial pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci (GAS), sometimes termed strep throat. There are currently several types of rapid strep test in use, each employing a distinct technology. However, they all work by detecting the presence of GAS in the throat of a person by responding to GAS-specific antigens on a throat swab.

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Rapid strep test

Medical use

Rapid_strep_test > Medical use

A rapid strep test may assist a clinician in deciding whether to prescribe an antibiotic to a person with pharyngitis, a common infection of the throat. Viral infections are responsible for the majority of pharyngitis, but a significant proportion (20% to 40% in children and 5% to 15% in adults) is caused by bacterial infection. The symptoms of viral and bacterial infection may be indistinguishable, but only bacterial pharyngitis can be effectively treated by antibiotics. Since the major cause of bacterial pharyngitis is GAS, the presence of this organism in a person's throat may be seen as a necessary condition for prescribing antibiotics.

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Rapid strep test

Medical use

Rapid_strep_test > Medical use

GAS pharyngitis is a self-limiting infection that will usually resolve within a week without medication. However, antibiotics may reduce the length and severity of the illness and reduce the risk of certain rare but serious complications, including rheumatic heart disease.RSTs may also have a public health benefit.

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Rapid strep test

Medical use

Rapid_strep_test > Medical use

In addition to undesirable side-effects in the individual, inappropriate antibiotic use is thought to contribute to the development of drug-resistant strains of bacteria. By helping to identify bacterial infection, RSTs may help to limit the use of antibiotics in viral illnesses, where they are not beneficial.Some clinical guidelines recommend the use of RSTs in people with pharyngitis, but others do not. US guidelines are more consistently in favor of their use than their European equivalents. The use of RSTs may be most beneficial in the third world, where the complications of streptococcal infection are most prevalent, but their use in these regions has not been well studied.Microbial culture from a throat swab is a reliable and affordable alternative to an RST which has high sensitivity and specificity. However, a culture requires special facilities and usually takes 48 hours to give a result, whereas an RST can give a result within several minutes.

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Rapid strep test

Procedure

Rapid_strep_test > Procedure

The person’s throat is first swabbed to collect a sample of mucus. In most RSTs, this mucus sample is then exposed to a reagent containing antibodies that will bind specifically to a GAS antigen. A positive result is signified by a certain visible reaction.

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Rapid strep test

Procedure

Rapid_strep_test > Procedure

There are three major types of RST: First, a latex fixation test, which was developed in the 1980s and is largely obsolete. It employs latex beads covered with antigens that will visibly agglutinate around GAS antibodies if these are present. Second, a lateral flow test, which is currently the most widely used RST.

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Rapid strep test

Procedure

Rapid_strep_test > Procedure

The sample is applied to a strip of nitrocellulose film and, if GAS antigens are present, these will migrate along the film to form a visible line of antigen bound to labeled antibodies. Third, optical immunoassay is the newest and more expensive test. It involves mixing the sample with labeled antibodies and then with a special substrate on a film which changes colour to signal the presence or absence of GAS antigen.

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Rapid strep test

Interpretation

Rapid_strep_test > Interpretation

The specificity of RSTs for the presence of GAS is at least 95%, with some studies finding close to 100% specificity. Therefore, if the test result is positive, the presence of GAS is highly likely. However, 5% to 20% of individuals carry GAS in their throats without symptomatic infection, so the presence of GAS in an individual with pharyngitis does not prove that this organism is responsible for the infection. The sensitivity of lateral flow RSTs is somewhat low at 65% to 80%.

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Rapid strep test

Interpretation

Rapid_strep_test > Interpretation

Therefore, a negative result from such a test cannot be used to exclude GAS pharyngitis, a considerable disadvantage compared with microbial culture, which has a sensitivity of 90% to 95%. However, optical immunoassay RSTs have been found to have a much higher sensitivity of 94%.Although an RST cannot distinguish GAS infection from asymptomatic carriage of the organism, most authorities recommend antibiotic treatment in the event of a positive RST result from a person with a sore throat. US guidelines recommend following up a negative result with a microbial culture, whereas European guidelines suggest relying on the negative RST.

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Kessler Plan

Summary

Kessler_Plan

The Kessler Plan was the City of Dallas’s managed growth plan from 1910 through the 1930s, authored by George Kessler, a city planner. The Plan was intended to create and contain the Dallas Floodway of the Trinity River, and combine the six rail yards at Dallas Union Station. In 1909 the Dallas Chamber of Commerce established the City Plan and Improvement League (later called the Kessler Plan Association) and hired Kessler to draft a design for a long-range plan of civic improvements. Kessler drew up his plan to solve many of the city's problems, including the uncontrollable flooding of the Trinity River, the dangerous railroad crossings, and narrow, crooked downtown streets, and the construction of a Central Boulevard.

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Kessler Plan

Summary

Kessler_Plan

The plan was not implemented at the time because it was not believed to be practical, but it became increasingly clear that changes were needed. Kessler returned in 1918 to act as consulting engineer for the Dallas Property Owners' Association and in 1919 began working for the Metropolitan Development Association of the Dallas Chamber of Commerce. He remained in Dallas until January 3, 1922, when he returned to St.

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Kessler Plan

Summary

Kessler_Plan

Louis. Although Kessler died in Indianapolis, Indiana, March 20, 1923, the Trinity River was improved and the levee system was completed in the 1930s. The Central Expressway was first opened to traffic in 1950, decades after the Kessler Plan called for its construction. In addition to a plan for Dallas, Kessler drafted city plans for Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Cleveland, El Paso, Denver, Longview, WA and Syracuse.

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Hypothesis (drama)

Summary

Hypothesis_(drama)

In its ancient usage, a hypothesis is a summary of the plot of a classical drama. These hypotheses were often copied as a preface to the text of the surviving Athenian tragedies in Medieval manuscripts. They also indicated whether any other tragic poets had dramatised the story, gave its setting, identified the chorus and the character who delivered the prologue, and indicated the date of its first production and the titles of the poet's other plays performed that year, as well as the poet's rivals in the dramatic competition and the prize awarded.

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Triclabendazole

Summary

Triclabendazole

Triclabendazole, sold under the brand name Egaten among others, is a medication used to treat fascioliasis and paragonimiasis. It is very effective for both conditions. Treatment in hospital may be required.

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Triclabendazole

Summary

Triclabendazole

It is taken by mouth with typically one or two doses being required.Side effects are generally few, but can include abdominal pain and headaches. Biliary colic may occur due to dying worms. While no harm has been found with use during pregnancy, triclabendazole has not been studied well in this population.

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Triclabendazole

Summary

Triclabendazole

It is a member of the benzimidazole family of medications for worms.Triclabendazole was approved for medical use in the United States in 2019. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. For human use, it can be obtained from the World Health Organization. It is also used in animals.

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Triclabendazole

Chemistry

Triclabendazole > Chemistry

It is a member of the benzimidazole family of anthelmintics. The benzimidazole drugs share a common molecular structure, triclabendazole being the exception in having a chlorinated benzene ring but no carbamate group. Benzimidazoles such as triclabendazole are generally accepted to bind to beta-tubulin therefore preventing the polymerization of microtubules.

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Triclabendazole

History

Triclabendazole > History

Since late 1990s, triclabendazole became available as a generic drug, as patents expired in many countries. Many products were developed then. Among them, Trivantel 15, a 15% triclabendazole suspension, was launched by Agrovet Market Animal Health in the early 2000s. In 2009, the first triclabendazole injectable solution (combined with ivermectin) was developed and launched, also by Agrovet Market Animal Health. The product, Fasiject Plus, a triclabendazole 36% and ivermectin 0.6% solution, is designed to treat infections by Fasciola hepatica (both immature and adult liver flukes), roundworms and ectoparasites, as well.Fasinex is a brandname for veterinary use while Egaten is a brandname for human use.

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Oneirocritica

Summary

Oneirocritica

Oneirocritica (Greek: Ονειροκριτικά) (The Interpretation of Dreams) is an ancient Greek treatise on dream interpretation written by Artemidorus in the 2nd century AD, and is the first extant Greek work on the subject, in five books. The first three volumes were intended for the general public, providing an encyclopedic treatment of the subject matter of dreams, and the remaining two volumes were written for the private use of the author's son, a novice dream interpreter. Artemidorus inscribed the book "Artemidorus of Daldis", despite having been born in Ephesus, to commemorate the little-known birthplace of his mother in Lydia (3.66). Artemidorus suggests that dreams are unique to the individual, and that a person's waking life will affect the symbols in his dreams.

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Oneirocritica

Summary

Oneirocritica

He shows awareness of the dreaming mind's capacity to use metaphors in its messages. Michel Foucault, who discusses the Oneirocritica in The Care of the Self, the third volume of his The History of Sexuality (1976-1984), describes the text as a practical, experiential guide. According to Foucault, the work reveals culturally salient patterns relating to "the ethical experience of the aphrodisia."

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Oneirocritica

Books

Oneirocritica > Books

The first three books divide dreams into major groups. Book one is dedicated to the anatomy and activity of the human body: 82 sections interpret the appearance in dreams of subjects like head size, eating, and sexual activity. For example, section 52 says, concerning one activity of the body, "All tools that cut and divide things in half signify disagreements, factions, and injuries ... Tools that smooth out surfaces predict an end to enmities." The second book treats objects and events in the natural world, such as weather, animals, the gods and flying.

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Oneirocritica

Books

Oneirocritica > Books

The section on animals includes mammals (domestic and wild), sea creatures, reptiles, and those that fly. So in chapter 12 we find: "There is an affinity between all wild animals and our enemies.

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Oneirocritica

Books

Oneirocritica > Books

A wolf signifies a violent enemy ... A fox indicates that the enemy will not attack openly but will plot underhandedly." The third book is miscellaneous. Artemidorus moves from dream content to the technique of dream interpretation in book four, which is addressed to his son.

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Oneirocritica

Books

Oneirocritica > Books

He states that the interpreter needs to know the background of the dreamer, such as his occupation, health, status, habits, and age. The plausibility of dream content should be considered, which cannot be done without reference to the dreamer. The interpreter should find out how the subject feels about each component of the dream.

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Oneirocritica

Books

Oneirocritica > Books

In book five, Artemidorus presents a further 95 dreams he collected, for his son to use as practice material. Artemidorus stresses the empirical nature of his research. "I did not rely upon any simple theory of probabilities but rather on experience and the testimony of actual dream-fulfillments." His research took him to cities in Greece, Italy and its larger islands, and Asia Minor. He indicates that he reviewed all available literature on dreams, and that he spent years consulting with oral interpreters.

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Oneirocritica

Editions and translations

Oneirocritica > Editions and translations

The definitive edition of the Greek text is by Roger Pack, Artemidori Daldiani Onirocriticon Libri V (Teubner 1963) A medieval Arabic version was made of the first three books (i.e., the "public" books) in 877 AD by Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and published by Toufic Fahd with a French translation in 1964 under the title Le livre des songes Artémidore d'Éphèse The most recent English translation is by Daniel E. Harris McCoy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) The most recent Italian translation is by Dario Del Corno, Libro dei sogni (1974) The most recent French translation is by A.J. Festugière, Clef des Songes (1975) The "fragments" of other Greco-Roman oneirocritic authors were compiled by Dario Del Corno in his Graecorum de re Onirocritica Scriptorum Reliquiae (1969), with commentary in Italian. As many of the fragments are preserved by Artemidorus, Del Corno's work is also a partial commentary to the Oneirocritica. There is also a Dutch translation, by Simone Mooij-Valk, called Droomboek (2003) There is an English translation and commentary by Robert J. White, Oneirocritica (Noyes Classical Studies, 1975)

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Oneirocritica

References and sources

Oneirocritica > References and sources

References Sourcesvan de Castle, Robert L. (1994). Our Dreaming Mind. New York: Ballantine Books.

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Oneirocritica

References and sources

Oneirocritica > References and sources

pp. 66–69. ISBN 0-345-39666-9.

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Apple (symbolism)

Summary

Apple_(symbolism)

Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical or forbidden fruit. One of the problems identifying apples in religion, mythology and folktales is that as late as the 17th century, the word "apple" was used as a generic term for all (foreign) fruit other than berries, but including nuts. This term may even have extended to plant galls, as they were thought to be of plant origin (see oak apple). For instance, when tomatoes were introduced into Europe, they were called "love apples".

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Apple (symbolism)

Summary

Apple_(symbolism)

In one Old English work, cucumbers are called eorþæppla (lit. "earth-apples'), just as in French, Dutch, Hebrew, Afrikaans, Persian and Swiss German as well as several other German dialects, the words for potatoes mean "earth-apples". In some languages, oranges are called "golden apples" or "Chinese apples".

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Apple (symbolism)

Summary

Apple_(symbolism)

Datura is called "thorn-apple". Ethnobotanical and ethnomycological scholars such as R. Gordon Wasson, Carl Ruck and Clark Heinrich write that the mythological apple is a symbolic substitution for the entheogenic Amanita muscaria (or fly agaric) mushroom. Its association with knowledge is an allusion to the revelatory states described by some shamans and users of psychedelic mushrooms.

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Apple (symbolism)

Summary

Apple_(symbolism)

At times artists would co-opt the apple, as well as other religious symbology, whether for ironic effect or as a stock element of symbolic vocabulary. Thus, secular art as well made use of the apple as symbol of love and sexuality. It is often an attribute associated with Venus who is shown holding it.

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Apple (symbolism)

Mythology and religion

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion

Though the forbidden fruit in the Book of Genesis is not identified, popular Christian tradition holds that Adam and Eve ate an apple from the forbidden tree in the Garden of Eden. The unnamed fruit of Eden thus became an apple under the influence of the story of the golden apples in the Garden of Hesperides. As a result, the apple became a symbol for knowledge, immortality, temptation, the fall of man and sin. According to the Bible, there is nothing to show the forbidden fruit of the tree of knowledge was necessarily an apple.The classical Greek word μῆλον (mēlon), or dialectal μᾶλον (mālon), now a loanword in English as melon, meant tree fruit in general, but was borrowed into Latin as mālum, meaning 'apple'.

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Apple (symbolism)

Mythology and religion

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion

The similarity of this word to Latin mălum, meaning 'evil', may also have influenced the apple's becoming interpreted as the biblical "forbidden fruit" in the commonly used Latin translation called Vulgate. The larynx in the human throat has been called Adam's apple because of the folk tale that the bulge was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam. The apple as symbol of sexual seduction has sometimes been used to imply sexuality between men, possibly in an ironic vein.

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Apple (symbolism)

Mythology and religion

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion

The notion of the apple as a symbol of sin is reflected in artistic renderings of the fall from Eden. When held in Adam's hand, the apple symbolises sin. But, when Christ is portrayed holding an apple, he represents the Second Adam who brings life.

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Apple (symbolism)

Mythology and religion

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion

This difference reflects the evolution of the symbol in Christianity. In the Old Testament, the apple was significant of the fall of man; in the New Testament, it is an emblem of the redemption from that fall. The apple is represented in pictures of the Madonna and Infant Jesus as another sign of that redemption.

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Apple (symbolism)

Mythology and religion

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion

In some versions (such as Young's Literal Translation) of the Bible, the Hebrew word for mandrakes dudaim (Genesis 30:14) is translated as "love apples" (not to be confused with the New World tomatoes). There are several instances in the Old Testament where the apple is used in a more favourable light. The phrase 'the apple of your eye' comes from verses in Deuteronomy 32:10, Psalm 17:8 Proverbs 7:2, and Zechariah 2:8, implying an object or person who is greatly valued.

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Apple (symbolism)

Mythology and religion

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion

In Proverbs 25:11, the verse states, "a word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in settings of silver". In the love songs of the Song of Solomon, the apple is used in a sensual context.

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Apple (symbolism)

Mythology and religion

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion

In these latter instances, the apple is used as a symbol for beauty. The apple appears again in Joel 1:12 in a verse with a sense of profound loss when the apple tree withers. During the Jewish New Year - Rosh Hashanah - it is customary to eat apples dipped in honey to evoke a "new year that is good and sweet ".

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Apple (symbolism)

Greek

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Greek

The Garden of the Hesperides is Hera's orchard in the west, where either a single apple plant or a grove grows, producing golden apples. According to legend, when the marriage of Zeus and Hera took place, the different deities came with nuptial presents for the latter, and among them Gaia, with branches bearing golden apples upon them as a wedding gift. The Hesperides were given the task of tending to the grove, but occasionally picked apples from it themselves. Not trusting them, Hera also placed in the garden an immortal, never-sleeping, hundred-headed dragon named Ladon as an additional safeguard.In the myth of the Judgement of Paris, it was from the Garden that Eris, the goddess of discord, obtained the Apple of Discord.

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Apple (symbolism)

Greek

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Greek

Eris became disgruntled after she was excluded from the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. In retaliation, she tossed a golden apple inscribed Kallisti ('For the most beautiful one'), into the wedding party. Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite.

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Apple (symbolism)

Greek

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Greek

Paris of Troy was appointed to select the recipient. After being bribed by both Hera and Athena, Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta.

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Apple (symbolism)

Greek

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Greek

He awarded the apple to Aphrodite, thus indirectly causing the Trojan War.The Greek hero Heracles, as a part of his Twelve Labours, was required to travel to the Garden of the Hesperides and pick the golden apples off the Tree of Life growing at its center.Atalanta, also of Greek mythology, raced all her suitors in an attempt to avoid marriage. She outran all but Hippomenes (a.k.a. Melanion, a name possibly derived from melon the Greek word for both "apple" and fruit in general), who defeated her by cunning, not speed. Hippomenes knew that he could not win in a fair race, so he used three golden apples (gifts of Aphrodite, the goddess of love) to distract Atalanta. It took all three apples and all of his speed, but Hippomenes was finally successful, winning the race and Atalanta's hand.

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Apple (symbolism)

Norse

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Norse

In Norse mythology, Iðunn, the goddess of eternal youth, is the keeper of an eski (a wooden box made of ash wood and often used for carrying personal possessions) full of apples eaten by the gods when they begin to grow old, rendering them young again. This is described as recurring until Ragnarök. Gangleri (described as King Gylfi in disguise) states that it seems to him that the gods depend greatly upon Iðunn's good faith and care.

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Apple (symbolism)

Norse

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Norse

Iðunn was once abducted by Þjazi the giant, who used Loki to lure Iðunn and her apples out of Ásgarðr. After borrowing Freyja's falcon skin, Loki liberated Iðunn from Þjazi by transforming her into a nut for the flight back. Þjazi gave chase in the form of an eagle, whereupon reaching Ásgarðr he was set aflame by a bonfire lit by the Æsir.

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Apple (symbolism)

Norse

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Norse

English scholar Hilda Ellis Davidson notes a connection between apples and the Vanir, a group of gods associated with fertility in Norse mythology, citing an instance of eleven "golden apples" being given to woo the beautiful Gerðr by Skírnir, who was acting as messenger for the major Vanir god Freyr in stanzas 19 and 20 of the poem Skírnismál. Davidson also notes a further connection between fertility and apples in Norse mythology; in chapter 2 of the Völsunga saga when the major goddess Frigg sends King Rerir an apple after he prays to Odin for a child, Frigg's messenger (in the guise of a crow) drops the apple in his lap as he sits atop a mound.The Norse kenning apples of Hel (epli Heljar) occurs in a piece by the skald Þórbjörn Brúnason embedded in the Heiðarvíga saga. The phrase appears to refer to death itself as a subversion of Iðunn's apples. The skald says that his wife desires his death, and that she wants him to live under the earth and to give apples of Hel to him. Davidson believes this may specifically imply that the apple was thought of by the skald as the food of the dead.

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Apple (symbolism)

Celtic

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Celtic

The pome fruit and tree of the apple is celebrated in numerous functions in Celtic mythology, legend, and folklore; it is an emblem of fruitfulness and sometimes a means to immortality. Wands of druids were made from wood either of the yew or of the apple. Allantide (Cornish: Kalan Gwav, meaning first day of winter) is a Cornish festival that was traditionally celebrated on the night of 31 October, as well as the following day time. One of the most important parts of this festival was the giving of Allan apples, large glossy red apples that were highly polished, to family and friends as tokens of good luck.

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Apple (symbolism)

Celtic

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Celtic

Allan apple markets used to be held throughout West Cornwall in the run up to the feast. and in the town of St Just it surpassed Christmas as a time for giving gifts until the late 20th century.

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Apple (symbolism)

Celtic

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Celtic

A game was also recorded in which two pieces of wood were nailed together in the shape of a cross. It was then suspended, with 4 lit candles on each arm and Allan apples suspended underneath. The aim being to catch the apples with your mouth without getting molten wax on your face.

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Apple (symbolism)

Celtic

Apple_(symbolism) > Mythology and religion > Celtic

For unmarried recipients the apples would be placed under their pillows in the hope that they would bring dreams of their future wife or husband.The acquisition of the Silver Branch in The Voyage of Bran, a silver apple branch with white blossoms, is the incident which sends the eponymous hero Bran mac Febail on a journey to the Otherworld.A magical silver branch with three golden apples belonged to the sea deity Manannán mac Lir and was given to the high king Cormac mac Airt in the narrative of the Echtra Cormaic. The branch created magical soporific music that assuaged those afflicted with injury or illness to sleep. In the Irish tale Echtra Condla, Conle the son of Conn is fed an apple by a fairy lover, which sustains him in terms of food and drink for a month without diminishing; but it also makes him long for the woman and the beautiful country of women to which his lover is enticing him.In the Arthurian mythos, the island of Avalon is considered the Isle of Apples, and its very name, originally Welsh, refers to the fruit. Geoffrey of Monmouth's Vita Merlini describes the enchanted isle as being populated by many apple trees. Avalon from its first inception was considered the home of the magical Morgan le Fay, her sisters, and their mystical practices.After being killed by brigands, the Breton pseudo-saint Konorin was transformed into a mysterious apple which, when eaten by a young virgin, causes her impregnation and his rebirth as the "son of the apple, the fruit of wisdom".

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Apple (symbolism)

Legends, folklore, and traditions

Apple_(symbolism) > Legends, folklore, and traditions

In North America a Native American is called an "apple" (a slur that stands for someone who is "red on the outside, white on the inside.") primarily by other Native Americans to indicate someone who has lost touch with their cultural identity. First used in the 1980s. Savior of the Apple Feast Day is celebrated on August 19 in Russia and Ukraine.

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Apple (symbolism)

Legends, folklore, and traditions

Apple_(symbolism) > Legends, folklore, and traditions

A boatbuilder's superstition holds that it is unlucky to build a boat out of wood from an apple tree because this wood was previously used to manufacture coffins. Since 1990, Apple Day has been held across the UK and beyond, on October 21. This is a festival created by charity Common Ground to support localism: folksongs, biodiversity, buried orchards, children's games.

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Apple (symbolism)

Legends, folklore, and traditions

Apple_(symbolism) > Legends, folklore, and traditions

Irish and Finnish folklore claims that if an apple is peeled into one continuous ribbon and thrown behind a woman's shoulder, it will land in the shape of the future husband's initials. A popular folk art involves a process to turn apples into wrinkly representations of human heads, usually be placed on dolls. In 1975, Vincent Price promoted a horror-themed kit that used a similar process to create faux shrunken heads, Shrunken Head Apple Sculpture, by Whiting Crafts.

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Apple (symbolism)

Legends, folklore, and traditions

Apple_(symbolism) > Legends, folklore, and traditions

In some places, apple bobbing is a traditional Halloween activity. During the Jewish New Year - - it is customary to eat apples dipped in honey to evoke a "sweet new year". In the United States, Denmark, Finland and Sweden, a fresh, polished apple was a traditional children's gift for a teacher, starting in the 19th century.

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Apple (symbolism)

Legends, folklore, and traditions

Apple_(symbolism) > Legends, folklore, and traditions

The symbol of an apple is still strongly associated with teachers to this day, with apples being a popular theme for gifts and awards given to exemplary teachers. The Apple Wassail is a traditional form of wassailing practiced in cider orchards of South West England during the winter. The ceremony is said to 'bless' the apple trees to produce a good crop in the forthcoming season.

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Apple (symbolism)

Legends, folklore, and traditions

Apple_(symbolism) > Legends, folklore, and traditions

"Comparing apples and oranges" means to examine the similarities of things that are completely different; in German and Dutch the corresponding expression is "comparing apples with pears". "An apple a day keeps the doctor away" is a popular saying, the apple obviously symbolizing health, but also the advantages of eating fresh fruit. Johnny Appleseed is said to have wandered the early United States planting apple trees by leaving seeds wherever he went.

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Apple (symbolism)

Legends, folklore, and traditions

Apple_(symbolism) > Legends, folklore, and traditions

The design concept for the Design and Arts Arcadia of Myungseung, located in Chuncheon, Korea, is based on an apple with the top-third and the bottom-third sliced off while having the skin peeled around the circumference.' In Kazakhstan, the ex-capital city's name "Almaty" derives from the Kazakh word for 'apple' (алма), and thus is often translated as "full of apples;" alma is also 'apple' in other Turkic languages, as well as in Hungarian. When Eris tossed the Golden Apple of Discord into the feast of the gods at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, at least in historic literary terms, the reference to 'apple' would more likely have been an extinct species of the Balkans similar to the pomegranate. In North Caucasian mythology, the Narts possessed a tree which grew apples that would guarantee a child to the person who consumed them, based on which side of the apple was eaten.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Summary

Transportation_in_Connecticut

The transportation system of Connecticut is a cooperation of complex systems of infrastructure. Trains and highways are the central pieces of the system.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Rail

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Transit systems > Rail

Southwestern Connecticut is served by MTA's Metro-North Railroad New Haven Line, providing commuter service to New York City and New Haven, with branches servicing New Canaan, Danbury, and Waterbury. Connecticut lies along Amtrak's Northeast Corridor which features frequent Northeast Regional and Acela Express service. Towns between New Haven and New London are also served by the Shore Line East commuter line. Operation of commuter trains from New Haven to Springfield on Amtrak's New Haven-Springfield Line is under consideration. Amtrak also operates a shuttle service between New Haven and Springfield, Massachusetts, servicing Hartford and other towns on the corridor.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Bus

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Transit systems > Bus

Statewide bus service is supplied by Connecticut Transit, owned by the Connecticut Department of Transportation, with smaller municipal authorities providing local service. Bus networks are an important part of the transportation system in Connecticut, especially in urban areas like Hartford, Stamford, Norwalk, Bridgeport and New Haven. The state also operates CTfastrak, a bus rapid transit line linking New Britain and Hartford.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Roads and freeways

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways

The Interstate highways in the state are I-95 (the majority of the Connecticut Turnpike) traveling southwest to northeast along the coast, I-84 traveling southwest to northeast in the center of the state, I-91 traveling south to north in the center of the state, and I-395 (the rest of the Connecticut Turnpike) traveling south to north near the eastern edge of the state. The other major highways in Connecticut are the Merritt Parkway and Wilbur Cross Parkway, which together form Route 15, traveling from the Hutchinson River Parkway in New York State parallel to I-95 before turning north of New Haven and traveling parallel to I-91, finally becoming a surface road in Berlin. Route 15 and I-95 were originally toll roads; they relied on a system of toll plazas at which all traffic stopped and paid fixed tolls. A series of terrible crashes at these plazas eventually contributed to the decision to remove the tolls in 1988.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Roads and freeways

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways

Other major arteries in the state include U.S. Route 7 (US 7) in the west traveling parallel to the NY state line, Route 8 farther east near the industrial city of Waterbury and traveling south to north along the Naugatuck River Valley nearly parallel with US 7, and Route 9 in the east. Between New Haven and New York City, I-95 is one of the most congested highways in the United States.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Roads and freeways

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways

Many people now drive longer distances to work in the New York City area. This strains the three lanes of traffic capacity, resulting in lengthy rush hour delays.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Roads and freeways

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways

Frequently, the congestion spills over to clog the parallel Merritt Parkway. The state has encouraged traffic reduction schemes, including rail use and ride-sharing.Connecticut also has a very active bicycling community, with one of the highest rates of bicycling ownership and use in the United States. New Haven's cycling community, organized in a local advocacy group called ElmCityCycling, is particularly active. According to the U.S. Census 2006 American Community Survey, New Haven has the highest percentage of commuters who bicycle to work of any major metropolitan center on the East Coast.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Bridges and tunnels

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways > Bridges and tunnels

The Heroes Tunnel on the Wilbur Cross Parkway is the only tunnel in Connecticut to pass under a natural obstacle, though there are other vehicular tunnels in Hartford and New Haven. Connecticut has many bridges, especially along the coast of Long Island Sound.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Rules of the road

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways > Rules of the road

Specific rules of the road in Connecticut, especially those that may differ from those of the United States in general, include: PassengersDrivers aged 16 to 17 years are not allowed to have any other passengers besides a driving instructor, parents or legal guardians, or a licensed driver 20 years or older during the first 6 months of having a license. After 6 months of holding a driver’s license, drivers aged 16 to 17 years are only permitted to have immediate family members as passengers.Seat beltsThe driver and front seat passengers are required to wear seat belts. Drivers who are 16 or 17 years old and each of their passengers are required to wear seat belts. People aged under 8, or who weigh less than 60 pounds, must be in a safety seat designed for their height and weight.Cell phonesIt is illegal to use a handheld cell phone or other mobile electronic device while driving or when temporarily stopped.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Rules of the road

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways > Rules of the road

Hands-free devices are permitted. Drivers aged 16 or 17 years are not permitted to use a cell phone or other electronic device, including hands-free options, while driving unless there is an emergency situation requiring fire or police.Right-of-wayGenerally, pedestrians have the right-of-way in crosswalks. There are crosswalks at every intersection, even if it is not marked by painted lines.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Rules of the road

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways > Rules of the road

Drivers from any direction must stop for a school bus that is stopped with red lights flashing, unless a median or other physical barrier separates their roadways.ParkingParking lights are allowed for parked vehicles only. It is illegal to drive with only parking lights on. No-parking zones include:Within 25 feet of a stop sign.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Rules of the road

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways > Rules of the road

Within 10 feet of a fire hydrant. More than one foot from the curbCurfewDrivers aged 16 to 17 years are not allowed to drive between 11pm and 5am.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Rules of the road

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways > Rules of the road

Drunk drivingDriving while intoxicated (DWI) is defined as a blood alcohol content of 0.02% for those under 21 years of age, and 0.08% for older drivers. Move overDrivers must move over one lane when it is safe to do so when there is an emergency vehicle, tow truck or road maintenance vehicle with its lights flashing stopped on the road or highway. Turn on redA right turn on red is allowed after stopping, unless it is prohibited by a traffic sign.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Rules of the road

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways > Rules of the road

Left turn on red is not permitted. HorsesDrivers must slow down or stop if necessary when approaching a horse and rider. Blowing the horn when approaching or even passing a horse is illegal.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Rules of the road

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Roads and freeways > Rules of the road

Studded tiresStudded tires are permitted between November 15th and April 30th unless there are signs or other regulations that do not allow them on certain roadways. Slower vehiclesMotorists who are driving slowly and have several cars behind them must pull over when it is safe to allow them to pass, or increase speed to the posted speed limit. HeadlightsIf wipers are required because of weather conditions, the headlights must be on as well. AccidentsAny accident involving property damage, injury or death must be reported to the police.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Airports

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Port Infrastructure > Airports

Bradley International Airport is located in Windsor Locks, 15 miles (24 km) north of Hartford. Regional air service is provided at Tweed New Haven Regional Airport. Larger civil airports include Danbury Municipal Airport (private planes only) and Waterbury-Oxford Airport in western Connecticut. Sikorsky Memorial Airport is located in Stratford and mostly services cargo, helicopter and private aviation. The Westchester County Airport in Harrison, New York serves much of southwestern Connecticut.

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Transportation in Connecticut

Current, future and proposed projects

Transportation_in_Connecticut > Current, future and proposed projects

The Long Island Sound link is a proposed bridge or tunnel that would link Long Island with either Connecticut or New York across the Long Island Sound. The currently proposed tunnel, however, does not enter Connecticut.

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Intertriginous

Summary

Intertriginous

In medicine, an intertriginous area is where two skin areas may touch or rub together. Examples of intertriginous areas are the axilla of the arm, the anogenital region, skin folds of the breasts and between digits. Intertriginous areas are known to harbor large amounts of aerobic cocci and aerobic coryneform bacteria, which are both parts of normal skin flora.

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Evolution and Human Behavior

Summary

Evolution_and_Human_Behavior

Evolution and Human Behavior is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal covering research in which evolutionary perspectives are brought to bear on the study of human behavior, ranging from evolutionary psychology to evolutionary anthropology and cultural evolution. It is primarily a scientific journal, but articles from scholars in the humanities are also published. Papers reporting on theoretical and empirical work on other species may be included if their relevance to the human animal is apparent. The journal was established in 1980, and beginning with Volume 18 in 1997 has been published by Elsevier on behalf of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society.

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Evolution and Human Behavior

Summary

Evolution_and_Human_Behavior

The editor-in-chief is Debra Lieberman (University of Miami). Among more than 300 other psychology and medical journals, Evolution and Human Behavior has adopted result-blind peer review (i.e. where studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs and the theoretical justifications for their statistical analysis techniques before data collection or analysis is done) as part of an initiative organized by the Center for Open Science in response to concerns about the replicability of experimental findings in the sciences and medicine, publication bias, and p-hacking. Early analysis of such reforms in psychology journals has estimated that 61 percent of result-blind studies have led to null results, in contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 percent in earlier psychological research.

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Evolution and Human Behavior

Abstracting and indexing

Evolution_and_Human_Behavior > Abstracting and indexing

The journal is abstracted and indexed in: According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 4.178.

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Evolution and Human Behavior

Best paper award

Evolution_and_Human_Behavior > Best paper award

The "Margo Wilson Award" is an annual award presented for the best paper published in the journal in the previous year.

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William Riley Parker Prize

Summary

William_Riley_Parker_Prize

The William Riley Parker Prize is the oldest award given by the Modern Language Association, the principal professional organization in the United States and Canada for scholars of language and literature. The Parker Prize is awarded each year for an “outstanding article” published in PMLA—the association's primary journal, and widely considered the most prestigious in the study of modern languages and literatures. It was first awarded in 1964 to David J. DeLaura, then a professor at the University of Texas at Austin, for his article, “Arnold and Carlyle,” which had been published in the March 1964 issue of PMLA.In 1968, the prize was named for former PMLA editor and MLA Secretary William Riley Parker. Parker, a professor at Indiana University, was a Milton biographer whose scholarship also considered the formation of literary studies in the United States.

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William Riley Parker Prize

Notable winners

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > Notable winners

Previous winners of the prize have included Fredric Jameson, Walter Ong, and Pauline Yu. Only two scholars have won the award multiple times. Elisabeth Schneider of the University of California at Santa Barbara, received the award in 1966 and 1973.

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William Riley Parker Prize

Notable winners

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > Notable winners

George T. Wright of the University of Minnesota received the award in 1974 and 1981.The prize has only twice been awarded for an article published by a scholar still in graduate school. David Wayne Thomas, now an associate professor at the University of Notre Dame, was awarded the prize for an article he published while a graduate student at the University of California, Davis. Thomas's article, "Gödel's Theorem and Postmodern Theory," appeared in the March 1995 issue PMLA.

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William Riley Parker Prize

Notable winners

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > Notable winners

More recently, Gordon Fraser was awarded the prize for "Troubling the Cold War Logic of Annihilation," an article published in the May 2015 issue of PMLA. Fraser, now a faculty member at the University of Manchester, was at the time a Ph.D. candidate in English at the University of Connecticut.Scholars from the University of Virginia have won the award the greatest number of times, having received the prize in 2000, 1997, and 1979, and having received an honorable mention in 1969.

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William Riley Parker Prize

2010

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > List of William Riley Parker Prize Winners > 2010

Paul Benzon, Temple University, for “Lost in Transcription: Postwar Typewriting Culture, Andy Warhol’s Bad Book, and the Standardization of Error” (PMLA, January 2010) 2009 Enrique García Santo-Tomás, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, for “Fortunes of the Occhiali Politici in Early Modern Spain: Optics, Vision, Points of View” (PMLA, January 2009) 2008 Nergis Ertürk, Pennsylvania State University, for "Modernity and Its Fallen Languages: Tanpınar's Hasret, Benjamin's Melancholy" (PMLA, January 2008) 2007 Pauline Yu, American Council of Learned Societies, for "'Your Alabaster in This Porcelain': Judith Gautier's Le livre de jade" (March 2007) Honorable mention: Joseph R. Slaughter, Columbia University, for "Enabling Fictions and Novel Subjects: The Bildungsroman and International Human Rights Law" (October 2006) 2006 Lorraine Piroux, Rutgers University, for "The Encyclopedist and the Peruvian Princess: The Poetics of Illegibility in French Enlightenment Book Culture" (January 2006) 2005 Bill Brown, University of Chicago, for "The Dark Wood of Postmodernity (Space, Faith, Allegory)" (May 2005) Honorable mention: Feisal G. Mohamed, Texas Tech University, for "Confronting Religious Violence: Milton's Samson Agonistes" (March 2005) 2004 Rolf J. Goebel, University of Alabama, Huntsville, for "Berlin's Architectural Citations: Reconstruction, Simulation, and the Problems of Historical Authenticity" (October 2003) 2003 Anne Mallory, University of Georgia, for "Burke, Boredom, and the Theater of Counterrevolution" (March 2003) Honorable mention: Paul Giles, University of Oxford, for "Transnationalism and Classic American Literature" (January 2003) 2002 Geoffrey Sanborn, Bard College, for "Keeping Her Distance: Cisneros, Dickinson, and the Politics of Private Enjoyment" (October 2001) 2001 Ian Baucom, Duke University, for "Globalit, Inc.; or, The Cultural Logic of Global Literary Studies" (January 2001)

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William Riley Parker Prize

2000

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > List of William Riley Parker Prize Winners > 2000

Rita Felski, University of Virginia, for "Nothing to Declare: Identity, Shame, and the Lower Middle Class" (January 2000) 1999 Phillip Novak, Le Moyne College, for "'Circles and Circles of Sorrow': In the Wake of Morrison's Sula" (March 1999) 1998 Henry Staten, University of Washington, for "Ethnic Authenticity, Class, and Autobiography: The Case of Hunger of Memory" (January 1998) 1997 Jahan Ramazani, University of Virginia, for "The Wound of History: Walcott's Omeros and the Postcolonial Poetics of Affliction" (May 1997) 1996 Lawrence Lipking, Northwestern University, for "The Genius of the Shore: Lycidas, Adamastor, and the Poetics of Nationalism" (March 1996) Honorable mention: Ann Louise Kibbie, Bowdoin College, for "Monstrous Generation: The Birth of Capital in Defoe's Moll Flanders and Roxana" (October 1995) 1995 David Wayne Thomas, University of California, Davis, for "Gödel's Theorem and Postmodern Theory" (March 1995) 1994 Claire Cavanagh, University of Wisconsin, Madison, for "Rereading the Poet's Ending: Mandelstam, Chaplin, and Stalin" (January 1994) 1993 Alan Nadel, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, for "God's Law and the Wide Screen: The Ten Commandments as Cold War 'Epic'" (May 1993) 1992 Edward Hirsch, University of Houston, for "The Imaginary Irish Peasant" (October 1991) 1991 Beth S. Newman, Southern Methodist University, for "'The Situation of the Looker-On': Gender, Narration, and Gaze in Wuthering Heights" (October 1990), and David K. Herzberger, University of Connecticut, for "Narrating the Past: History and the Novel of Memory in Postwar Spain" (January 1991)

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William Riley Parker Prize

1990

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > List of William Riley Parker Prize Winners > 1990

William L. Andrews, University of Kansas, for "The Novelization of Voice in Early African American Narrative" (January 1990) 1989 Margaret Waller, Pomona College, for "Cherchez la Femme: Male Malady and Narrative Politics in the French Romantic Novel" (March 1989) 1988 Thomas C. Caramagno, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, for "Manic-Depressive Psychosis and Critical Approaches to Virginia Woolf's Life and Work" (January 1988) 1987 Donald W. Foster, Vassar College, for "Master W. H., R.I.P." (January 1987) 1986 Thomas Hyde, Yale University, for "Boccaccio: The Genealogies of Myth" (October 1985) 1985 Terry Castle, Stanford University, for "The Carnivalization of Eighteenth-Century English Narrative" (October 1984) 1984 A. Kent Hieatt, University of Western Ontario, for "The Genesis of Shakespeare's Sonnets: Spenser's Ruines of Rome: by Bellay" (October 1983) Honorable mention: Marshall Brown, University of Colorado, for "'Errours Endlesse Traine': On Turning Points and the Dialectical Imagination" (January 1984) 1983 Paul B. Armstrong, Georgia Institute of Technology, for "The Conflict of Interpretations and the Limits of Pluralism" (May 1983) 1982 Hans Eichner, University of Toronto, for "The Rise of Modern Science and the Genesis of Romanticism" (January 1982) 1981 George T. Wright, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, for "Hendiadys and Hamlet" (March 1981) Honorable mention: Gerhard Joseph, Lehman College, City University of New York, for "The Antigone as Cultural Touchstone: Matthew Arnold, Hegel, George Eliot, Virginia Woolf, and Margaret Drabble" (January 1981) Honorable mention: Marshall Brown, University of Colorado, for "The Logic of Realism: A Hegelian Approach" (March 1981)

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William Riley Parker Prize

1980

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > List of William Riley Parker Prize Winners > 1980

Roger W. Herzel, State University of New York, Albany, for "'Much Depends on the Acting': The Original Cast of Le Misanthrope" (May 1980) 1979 David H. Miles, University of Virginia, for "Portrait of the Marxist as a Young Hegelian: Lukács' Theory of the Novel" (January 1979) 1978 Morris E. Eaves, University of New Mexico, for "Blake and the Artistic Machine: An Essay in Decorum and Technology" (October 1977) 1977 Evelyn J. Hinz, University of Manitoba, for "Hierogamy versus Wedlock: Types of Marriage Plots and Their Relationship to Genres of Prose Fiction" (October 1976) 1976 R. G. Peterson, Saint Olaf College, for "Critical Calculations: Measure and Symmetry in Literature" (May 1976) 1975 Walter J. Ong, SJ, Saint Louis University, for "The Writer's Audience Is Always a Fiction" (January 1975) Honorable mention: A. Dwight Culler, Yale University, for "Monodrama and the Dramatic Monologue" (May 1975) 1974 George T. Wright, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, for "The Lyric Present: Simple Present Verbs in English Poems" (May 1974) 1973 Elisabeth Schneider, University of California, Santa Barbara, for "Prufrock and After: The Theme of Change" (October 1972) Honorable mention: Frances W. Weber, University of Michigan, for "Unamuno's Niebla: From Novel to Dream" (March 1973) 1972 R. A. Yoder, Northeastern University, for "Toward the 'Titmouse Dimension': The Development of Emerson's Poetic Style" (March 1972) 1971 Fredric R. Jameson, University of California, San Diego, for "Metacommentary" (January 1971) and "La Cousine Bette and Allegorical Realism" (March 1971) Honorable mention: Alan E. Knight, Pennsylvania State University, for "The Medieval Theater of the Absurd" (March 1971) Honorable mention: Robert Champigny, Indiana University, for "Implicitness in Narrative Fiction" (October 1970)

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William Riley Parker Prize

1970

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > List of William Riley Parker Prize Winners > 1970

E. D. Lowry, Dunbarton College of Holy Cross, for "The Lively Art of Manhattan Transfer" (October 1969) Honorable mention: W. B. Carnochan, Stanford University, for "Satire, Sublimity, and Sentiment: Theory and Practice in Post-Augustan Satire" (March 1970) Honorable mention: William V. Spanos, State University of New York, Binghamton, for "'Wanna Go Home, Baby? ': Sweeney Agonistes as Drama of the Absurd" (January 1970) 1969 Rudolf B. Gottfried, Indiana University, Bloomington, for "Our New Poet: Archetypal Criticism and The Faerie Queene" (October 1968) Honorable mention: Leon Gottfried, Washington University, for "Death's Other Kingdom: Dantesque and Theological Symbolism in 'Flowering Judas'" (January 1969) Honorable mention: Jules Brody, City University of New York, for "Don Juan and Le Misanthrope, or the Esthetics of Individualism in Molière" (May 1969) Honorable mention: L. A. Beaurline, University of Virginia, for "Ben Jonson and the Illusion of Completeness" (January 1969) Honorable mention: Nina Baym, University of Illinois, for "Fleda Vetch and the Plot of The Spoils of Poynton" (January 1969) 1968 Stanley B. Greenfield, University of Oregon, for "Grammar and Meaning in Poetry" (October 1967) Honorable mention: Joseph J. Moldenhauer, University of Texas, for "Murder as a Fine Art: Basic Connections between Poe's Aesthetics, Psychology, and Moral Vision" (May 1968) Honorable mention: Glauco Cambon, Rutgers University, for "Eugenio Montale's 'Motets': The Occasions of Epiphany" (December 1967) 1967 Donald Rackin, Temple University, for "Alice's Journey to the End of Night" (October 1966) 1966 Elisabeth Schneider, University of California, Santa Barbara, for "The Wreck of the Deutschland: A New Reading" (March 1966) 1965 René Girard, Johns Hopkins University, for "Camus's Stranger Retried" (December 1964)

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William Riley Parker Prize

1964

William_Riley_Parker_Prize > List of William Riley Parker Prize Winners > 1964

David J. DeLaura, University of Texas, Austin, for "Arnold and Carlyle" (March 1964) Honorable mention: William M. Manly, Simmons College, for "Journey to Consciousness: The Symbolic Pattern of Camus's L'étranger" (June 1964) Honorable mention: Isidore Silver, Washington University, for "Ronsard's Reflections on Cosmogony and Nature" (June 1964) == References ==

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Radical Reference

Summary

Radical_Reference

Radical Reference is a distributed collective of library workers, students and information activists who work on social justice issues. They provide professional research support, education and access to information to activist communities, progressive organizations, and independent journalists who they describe as their "patron base".The organization was formed in 2004 by Jenna Freedman, Chuck Munson, Ellen Knutson, Kris Kasianovitz, James R. Jacobs, and Shinjoung Yeo in order to coordinate a team of volunteer library workers in assisting demonstrators and activists with their activities surrounding the Republican National Convention in New York City. The group used a combination of pre-made "ready reference kits" which contained "maps, legal information, lists of events".

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Radical Reference

Summary

Radical_Reference

The reference volunteers who were working at the event wearing "Info Here" shirts were also connected to home support volunteers who could answer more complex questions using their home computers.Librarians Melissa Morrone & Lia Friedman say the group is "a traditional and technological mashup of activism, outreach, and teaching for a new socially conscious user." Michael Hughes comments that the group "eschew neutral practice, recognizing that information access is always political." Radical Reference has spawned over fifteen local Radical Reference Collectives which have worked on activist issues in their communities. As one example, the North Texas Radical Reference Collective created an Alternative Guide to Dallas in advance of the American Library Association's 2012 conference which highlighted restaurants with vegan offerings and bike and public transportation options.Other members of the group have worked on other information projects including: Signing up as a partner organization of the NYC Grassroots Media Conference organizing committee in 2007 Creating a lending library of books and resources at Bitch Magazine in Portland Oregon in 2009 Hosting an unconference as an unofficial preconference to the Association of College and Research Libraries meeting in Seattle in 2009 Organizing a Critical Library Symposium, "Practical Choices for Powerful Impacts: Realizing the Activist Potential of Librarians," in Boston in 2012 Setting up Radical Reference "stations" at existing activist events such as the Really Really Free Market in Manhattan and the Mid Atlantic Radical Bookfair Publishing a zine We Are All Suspects: a Guide for People Navigating the Expanded Powers of Surveillance in the 21st century in 2014The group is decentralized and international, communicating mostly via email and a drupal-based website which also serves as a knowledge base of archived reference questions. They answered reference questions through their website from 2006 through 2013.

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Reverse speech

Summary

Reverse_speech

Reverse speech is a pseudoscientific topic first advocated by David John Oates which gained publicity when it was mentioned on Art Bell's nightly Coast to Coast AM radio talk show. It is based upon the theory that during spoken language production, human speakers subconsciously produce hidden messages that give insights into their innermost thoughts. Oates claims that it therefore has applications in psychotherapy, criminology and business negotiation. The theory has been rejected by mainstream science and academia.

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Reverse speech

Claims

Reverse_speech > Claims

Oates' claim is that, on average, once in every 15–20 seconds of casual conversation a person produces two related sentences—a "forward-spoken" message that is heard consciously, and a "backwards" message unconsciously embedded in the person's speech. These two modes of speech, forward and backward, are supposedly dependent upon each other and form an integral part of human communication. In the dynamics of interpersonal communication, both modes of speech combine to communicate the total psyche of the person, conscious as well as unconscious. Oates claims that backward speech is always honest and reveals the truth about the speaker's intentions and motivations.

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Reverse speech

Claims

Reverse_speech > Claims

The most famous recording that allegedly demonstrates this is the speech given by Neil Armstrong at the time of the first human lunar landing on 20 July 1969. If played backwards, the words "small step for man" sound somewhat like "Man will spacewalk. "An alternative explanation for this phenomenon is pareidolia, the tendency of the human brain to perceive meaningful patterns in random noise.

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Reverse speech

Claims

Reverse_speech > Claims

Pareidolia is even more likely to occur when a person consciously tries to detect a pattern, as is the case for someone listening for intelligible phrases in backwards speech. The power of suggestion is then used to nudge the listener to hear what the presenter wants him to hear. David John Oates, for example, almost always tells the listener in advance what he should expect to hear, thereby planting a suggestion that would make the listener more likely to actually "hear" that phrase. A study has shown that when listening to the same clips without being told in advance what to expect, the results have a higher variation.

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Reverse speech

Rejection by the scientific community

Reverse_speech > Rejection by the scientific community

Most academics in the field of linguistics have not paid attention to Oates' work, and it has been called a pseudoscience. For the most part, universities and research institutes have refused to test Oates' theories because of a lack of theoretical basis to make his predictions even worth testing, and the fact that many of his claims are untestable, but one of the few scientific experiments to evaluate Oates' claims did not support his findings. Others have criticized "reverse speech" as lacking a rigorous methodology and not being informed by an understanding of issues in linguistics, and characterized Oates as "more interested in making a profit than educating others," pointing out the large amount of merchandise and services his website sells. Reverse speech has been compared to the controversial field (labelled a pseudoscience by some) of neuro-linguistic programming.

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Reverse speech

Rejection by the scientific community

Reverse_speech > Rejection by the scientific community

Because of the "dogmatic" tone of Oates' material, reverse speech has been compared to "fringe literature. "Oates' own claims about the applications of reverse speech have also been challenged. One report has questioned whether reverse speech was ever really used in police work, as Oates claimed.

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Reverse speech

Rejection by the scientific community

Reverse_speech > Rejection by the scientific community

Likewise, his claim that reverse speech has applications in psychology and psychotherapy is not supported by mainstream research in those fields. Oates' work has been described as "dangerous" because of its potential for misuse and the likelihood of leading to false accusations of people in criminal courts, similarly to the controversial practice of facilitated communication. == References ==