Datasets:

princeton-nlp

/

TextbookChapters

like 6

VLOOKUP is one of the lookup and reference functions, when you need to find things in a table or a range by row.  For example, use VLOOKUP to find a price of an automotive part or the letter grade of a final average. VLOOKUP location:  Click FORMULA tab, Lookup and Reference icon in the Function Library group. Find VLOOKUP option at the bottom of the list. VLOOKUP argument box:  When you click on VLOOKUP, an argument box appears like the one below: Taking one box at a time: Lookup Value:  The value you want to look up. Table array. The column number in the range that contains the return value. Col Index num (meaning Column Index Number) Range Lookup:  We do not need to use this box EXERCISE (not graded but helpful to you if you work your way through it.) • Prepare a simple spreadsheet like the one below. CC licensed content, Original 5.04: Student Gradebook Assignment Student Learning Outcomes: 1. Create 3D formulas across multiple worksheets 2. Use the VLOOKUP function 3. Use the IF function Preparation: (Review these terms) • 3-D Reference Information • VLOOKUP Information • IF function Information New Terms: • 3-D Referencing used in Step 5 (reference the information sheet)  Calculate grade earned (Step- 9, page 2) • VLOOKUP (Step 11, page 2) • VLOOKUP argument box (Step 12, page 2) Narrative: This assignment has many steps. All cells that you will work in must have formulas. Hopefully you will give yourself time to complete this exercise. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 20 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON MAKE 3) Grade Book Assignment 1. Download and open the ‘StudentGradebook.xlsx’ file. 2. In cell B1 replace “CIS 101 Intro. to Computers” with the title of your class. 3. In cell B2 replace “Student’s Name Here” with your actual name. 4. Become familiar with the workbook by reviewing the Final Grade, Lab Assignments, and Tests worksheets names found at the bottom of the screen. 5. Create a 3-D Reference in cell A6 in the Final Grade Sheet. You will be referencing the Lab Assignment sheet and choosing the total points earned. (Hint: See 3-D Referencing Instruction Sheet and follow the example.] 6. Repeat the steps above for a 3-D Reference in cell B6 in the Final Grade Sheet. You will be referencing the Test Sheet and the total points earned. 7. In cell C6 use the SUM function to add cells A6 and B6 together. 8. In cell C8 create a formula to calculate the Total Points Possible. (Hint: you are creating another formula that uses 3D references. You need to add the Total Points Possible in cell C2 on the Lab Assignments worksheet to the Total Points Possible in cell C2 in the Tests worksheet. Just use the plus sign between the formula of the sheets.) 9. In D6 create a formula to calculate the % earned. This formula requires the total points earned to be divided by the total points possible for the Lab Assignments and Test sheets. 10. In cell E6 create a formula to look up the letter grade in the Grade Scale table. You will be referencing the table without the title from A11 to B16. 11. Use the VLOOKUP function. (Hint: Use the VLOOKUP instruction sheet. Follow the example on the sheet to make sure you know how to do this formula.) 12. In cell C9 create a formula using the IF function to determine whether the student is passing the class with 70% or better. If the student is passing, the cell should display “Yes”. If the student is not passing, then the cell should display “No”. (Hints: Use the argument box for the IF Function. For more help with this, be sure to find IF Function Instructions in the Extra Help Folder and follow the example.) 13. Print the document if your instructor requires a hard copy or submit it online. 14. Your finished spreadsheet should look like the worksheet below. Please be sure to use formulas based upon the above instructions. Your instructor will check your formulas and take points off if you just type in the results and not a formula. 15. Save your work and submit to instructor Check the rubric below to be sure you have completed all the tasks. CC licensed content, Shared previously

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/05%3A_Week_5/5.03%3A_VLOOKUP_Information.txt

A large range of data can be summarized according to criteria supplied. In a large range of data, groups can be established within that data. For example, if the spreadsheet had data several cities each of the cities could be subtotaled for comparison with each other. To accomplish subtotaling, the spreadsheet data must be first converted to a table then converted to a range. The next step is to use the Subtotal Next button in the Outline group and complete Subtotal Dialog Box. The steps are: A. Start with a spreadsheet with data that needs to be sorted. In this example, the months are sorted by the Type and Category are not. B. Create a new sheet tab called Subtotal C. Copy the original spreadsheet into the Subtotal tab created in #2. D. Remaining in the Subtotal tab, select the entire table. E. Click INSERT tab, and look for the Tables group. Click on the Table icon F. A Create Table dialog box appears. G. Notice the range is recorded using absolute references. H. Be sure that there is a checkmark in front of “My table has headers. I. Click Ok. J. The data is now in a table and usually the rows are changed to a variegated color. K. Notice, also, that a new tool bar has appeared at the top of screen called Table Tools, with a tab for DESIGN. L. Look for the Tools group, and click on Convert To Range. M. A question comes up whether to convert the table to a normal range. Answer YES. N. Click in any cell in the table. O. Click the DATA tab. Then look for the Outline group and choose Subtotal. P. A dialog box appears that looks like this: Q. At the change in: there is an arrow by which you can chose any heading. R. Use function: SUM , COUNT, AVE, MAX, MIN are some of the choices S. Add subtotal to: Click where the subtotal should appear. T. Be sure that the other two items are checked as shown. U. Click OK. V. In the Practice Exercise, the values to use will be given to you. W. The result appears as follows. (The entire worksheet is not shown.) Notice the subtotals are divided by TYPE, and the Sales are totaled for that type. Practice Exercise : Sales Rep 1. Open the file called Sales Rep and save it to your Desktop or storage device. 2. Create a new Sheet called Subtotal. Copy the original spreadsheet and paste it to the new Subtotal sheet. ( Follow instructions for Letter B-D in the Information and Practice section page 1). 3. Continue to follow Letters E- O on Pages 1-2. 4. Starting with Letter P, complete the information for the Subtotal dialog box as follow: • At each change in: choose . • Use function: choose • Add subtotal to: choose • Make sure the other two boxes are checked. • Click OK 5. The result should appear as follows: CC licensed content, Shared previously 5.06: Employees Assignment The purpose of this assignment is to 1. Understand how to create a table from a spreadsheet 2. Understand how to Convert the table to a Range. 3. Understand the how to insert subtotals in the table. Preparation: (Review these terms) • Insert a Header • Inserting rows New Terms: • Create a Subtotal Sheet (Step7, Page 1. (Reference the Subtotal Information Sheet) Narrative: Learning to divide a table in to subtotals helps display a large range of data into manageable summaries. Following the steps in the Subtotal Information pages and doing the practice exercise, will help you quickly create this last assignment. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 20 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 2.) Employees Assignment 1. Open the file called Employees and save it to your storage device using the same name. 2. Rename Sheet 1 as Employees. 3. In Cell A1 type the label Department; in B1 type the label Job Title; in C1 type Last Name; in D1 type First Name; in E1 type Extension. 4. Center and bold all the labels in Step 3. 5. Center the data in Columns C, D and E. 6. Insert a Header with the following words on two lines in the center and your name on the right side: College of Importance Honored Employees 7. Create a Subtotal Sheet following the steps to make anew sheet, copy and paste information to this sheet, create a table, and Convert to Range. These are Steps B – M on the Subtotal Information sheet. Adjust the columns if necessary. 8. Click in any cell in the range table. Click the DATA tab and choose Subtotals from the Outline Group. 9. In the Subtotal Dialog box complete the information as follows: • At each change in: Department • Use function: COUNT • Add subtotals to: Job Title 10. Make sure Replace current Subtotals and Summary below data are checked. 11. Compare your worksheet to the Completed Subtotal Sheet below. 12. Save this document again as Employees. 13. Submit the document through Blackboard or print if instructor requests it Check the rubric below to be sure you have completed all tasks. CC licensed content, Shared previously

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/05%3A_Week_5/5.05%3A_Subtotals_Information_and_Practice.txt

Learning Outcomes Welcome to Professional Web Accessibility Auditing Made Easy! By the time you finish reviewing the materials here, and trying the activities, you should be able to: • Create an accessibility auditing toolkit • Identify and apply key accessibility guidelines in WCAG 2.0/2.1 • Retrieve WCAG supporting documents when needed • Employ web-based automated accessibility checkers • Measure and/or assess web design elements such as colour contrast, readability, and more, using a range of publicly available test tools • Test for accessibility using assistive technologies such as the JAWS and ChromeVox screen readers • Use a screen reader to navigate the Web • Apply easy manual tests to quickly assess accessibility • Select an appropriate type of web accessibility audit and corresponding reporting strategy aimed at the audience being served • Recognize relevant accessibility guidelines, standards, and specifications and integrate these into accessibility review strategies based on international requirements Required Technology In order to practice what you’re learning as you follow along here, you will need to use the following software: • Chrome web browser (and the ChromeVox screen reader, for which links and installation instructions will be provided in unit 2) • A word processing application (e.g., Microsoft Word, OpenOffice, or Google Docs) • A PDF reader (e.g., Adobe Reader) Beyond What You’ll Learn Here For those who would like to go beyond what they’ve learned in the materials here, The Chang School has created a series of resources on web accessibility for different audiences: Disclaimer The information presented here and any related materials referred to in the content are for instructional purposes only and should not be construed as legal advice on any particular issue, including compliance with relevant laws. We specifically disclaim any liability for any loss or damage any reader may suffer as a result of the information contained. 1.02: Objectives and Activities Objectives By the end of this unit, you should be able to: • Identify the key strategies for using this learning resource. Activities • Begin to set up your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit 1.03: The Information Here Will Be Helpful To... This is aimed at those who are responsible for implementing accessibility on an organization’s website. These people tend to be web developers (sometimes referred to as webmasters) but may also include web content editors and web designers who are comfortable using HTML, CSS, and to some degree, JavaScript. Web Developers Web developers should focus on understanding the technical content, but also be familiar with the general content. That is, all of the information here will be relevant to you. Everyone Else If you are not a web developer, depending on your background and level of comfort with web technologies, you may choose to skip over the technical parts, presented within the content in blue boxes and marked as Technical. Review the Table of Contents for a full list of topics. You can focus your study on the general content, completing the activities and setting up a Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit, and, having made your way through all the reading and activities, come away with a good understanding of the requirements for developing accessible web content. 1.04: Choosing Your Learning Path As we mentioned earlier, depending on your role in your company or organization, different parts of the material may be more relevant to you than others. We’ve tried to identify the technical content in particular so you can pass over these parts if they are less relevant to you or you are trying to budget your time. To help you navigate to the information most relevant to your needs, we have colour-coded and labelled the technical content as follows. Content that does not appear in coloured boxes is aimed at everyone. Technical: Aimed more at web development staff, typically containing HTML code samples. Lulu’s Lollipops Storyline To support your understanding of the materials, the fictional story of an Ontario-based company, Lulu’s Lollipops, has been weaved throughout the content to add a sense of realism. The story unfolds as Lulu investigates the steps involved in improving the accessibility of the Lulu’s Lollipops website. In the story you will hear about Lulu’s team members – people just like you who want to learn more about web accessibility. Imagine that Lulu’s team have all downloaded this resource as a book. Lulu has a webmaster, who will closely follow the Technical information that is shared. Lulu also has a number of Customer Service Representatives, who, as part of their role in supporting clients, have a general interest in ensuring that the company and its website serve the needs of everyone. Visit the current Lulu’s Lollipops Website to familiarize yourself with it. You will be conducting an accessibility audit of the site in a later unit. Your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit Throughout the content, we’ve also identified elements that should be added to the Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit you will be assembling. These elements will include links to resource documents and online tools used during auditing activities, as well as software or browser plugins that you may need to install. These will be identified in a green Toolkit box like the following: Toolkit: Provides useful tools and resources for your future reference. Key Points Throughout you will see important or notable information highlighted and labelled in Key Point boxes like the one that follows. These will include “must know” information, as well as less obvious considerations and interesting points. Key Point: Must-know information and interesting points. Try This Try This boxes contain activities designed to get you thinking or give you firsthand experience with something you’ve just read about. Try This: Something to experience. Readings and References Readings and References: Links to various web resources for additional reading on the topics being discussed. Try This: Skip ahead to the end of the materials here and read through the Content Recap for a high-level summary of the topics covered.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/01%3A_Introduction/1.01%3A_Introduction.txt

Lulu’s Story Begins Lulu’s Lollipops is a thriving business, with 52 employees, based out of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Lulu’s business is primarily web-based and has been operating for ten years selling lollipops of various shapes, sizes, colours, and flavours. A representative of a charitable organization has approached Lulu about placing a large order for lollipops that would be part of an upcoming fundraising campaign. As part of the charity’s mandate, the representative has asked about the accessibility of Lulu’s website to ensure that staff from different chapters of the charity can easily place orders. Lulu realizes that she has never really considered the accessibility of her website and, based on a recommendation from a friend, Lulu decides to enrol herself and a number of her team members in Web Accessibility Auditing Made Easy. As a business owner, Lulu understands that there are some provincial guidelines she should consider as she works to accommodate the needs of her potential client (the charitable organization), but she still wonders why it makes sense to modify the website that has already served her company so well for over 10 years. Lulu and her team need to think about three important things: “curb cuts,” the business case, and the AODA. Read on to learn more about these compelling factors related to investment in web accessibility. View the Lulu’s Lollipops website. Curb Cuts Think about “curb cuts,” a great example of what is often thought of as universal design. Curb cuts were originally added to streets to accommodate those in wheelchairs so they could get from the road up onto a sidewalk and vice versa. But curb cuts are helpful for many people — not just those in wheelchairs. A person pushing a baby stroller can now easily get to the sidewalk. A person riding a bike can get more easily onto the sidewalk where the bike lockups are located. An elderly person who may have difficulty stepping up on a curb or who may be using a walker now has a smooth gradient and can walk onto the sidewalk rather than climb onto it. Curb cuts were designed to help those in wheelchairs but have come to benefit many. From a web accessibility perspective, most of the accessibility features you might add to a website will have that so-called “curb cut effect.” For example, the text description one might include with an image to make the image’s meaning accessible to a person who is blind also makes it possible for search engines to index the image and make it searchable. It allows a person on a slow Internet connection to turn images off and still get the same information. Or, it allows a person using a text-based browser, on a cell phone for instance, to access the same information as those using a typical visual browser. Virtually every such feature that might be put in place in web content to accommodate people with disabilities will improve access and usability for everyone else. Key Point: Think of accommodations provided to improve web accessibility for people with disabilities as “curb cuts.” They will very likely improve usability for everyone. The Business Case for Web Accessibility Karl Groves wrote an interesting series of articles in 2011 and 2012 that looked at the reality of business arguments for web accessibility. He points out that any argument needs to answer affirmatively at least one of the following questions: 1. Will it make us money? 2. Will it save us money? 3. Will it reduce risk? He outlines a range of potential arguments for accessibility: • Improved search engine optimization: Customers will be able to find your site more easily because search engines can index it more effectively. • Improved usability: Customers will have a more satisfying experience and thus spend more on or return more often to your site. • Reduced website costs: Developing to standard reduces bugs and interoperability issues, reducing development costs and problems integrating with other systems. • People with disabilities have buying power: They won’t spend if they have difficulty accessing your site; they will go to the competition that does place importance on accessibility. • Reduced resource utilization: Building to standard reduces the use of resources. • Support for low bandwidth: If your site takes too long to load, people will go elsewhere. • Social responsibility: Customers will come if they see you doing good for the world and you think of people with disabilities as full citizens. • Support for aging populations: Aging populations also have money to spend and will come to your site over the less accessible, less usable competition. • Reduced legal risk: You may be sued if you prevent equal access for citizens/customers or discriminate against people with disabilities. What accessibility really boils down to is “quality of work,” as Groves states. So, in approaching web accessibility, one may be better off not thinking so much in terms of reducing the risk of being sued or losing customers because your site takes too long to load, but rather that the work you do is quality work and the website you present to your potential customers is a quality website. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1152 Readings and References: If you’d like to learn more about business cases, here are a few references: AODA Background Video: AODA Background A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1152 For those in Ontario, Canada, we’ll provide occasional references to the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act (AODA). If you’re from outside Ontario, you might compare the AODA’s web accessibility requirements with those in your local area. They will be similar in many cases, likely based on the W3C WCAG 2.0 Guidelines. The goal in Ontario is for all obligated organizations to meet the Level AA accessibility requirements of WCAG 2.0 by 2021, which, ultimately, is the goal of most international jurisdictions. The AODA provided the motivation to create this resource, based on the MOOC course of the same name. All businesses and organizations in Ontario with more than 50 employees (and all public sector organizations) are now required by law to make their websites accessible to people with disabilities (currently at WCAG 2.0 Level A). Many businesses still don’t know what needs to be done in order to comply with the new rules. This resource hopes to fill some of that need. The AODA has its roots in the Ontario Human Rights Code, introduced in 1990. It essentially made it illegal to discriminate based on disability (among other forms of discrimination). The development of the AODA began in earnest in 1994 with the emergence of the Ontarians with Disabilities Act (ODA). Its aim was to legislate the removal and prevention of barriers that inhibit people with disabilities from participating as full members of society, improving access to employment, goods and services, and facilities. The act was secured as law in 2001. With the election of a new government in 2003, the movement that brought us the ODA sought to strengthen the legislation. The Accessibility Standards Advisory Council was established, and the AODA was passed as law in 2005, and in July of 2011 the Integrated Accessibility Standards Regulation (IASR) brought together the five standards of the AODA, covering Information and Communication, Employment, Transportation, and Design of Public Spaces, in addition to the original Customer Service standard. The AODA sets out to make Ontario fully accessible by 2025, with an incremental roll-out of accessibility requirements over a period of 20 years. These requirements span a whole range of accessibility considerations — from physical spaces to customer service, the Web, and much more. Our focus here is on access to the Web. The timeline set out in the AODA requires government and large organizations to remove all barriers in web content between 2012 and 2021. The timeline for these requirements is outlined in the table below. Any new or significantly updated information posted to the Web must comply with the given level of accessibility by the given date. This includes both Internet and intranet sites. Any content developed prior to January 1, 2012 is exempt. Level A Level AA Government January 1, 2012 (except live captions and audio description) January 1, 2016 (except live captions and audio description), January 1, 2020 (including live captions and audio description) Designated Organizations* Beginning January 1, 2014, new websites and significantly refreshed websites must meet Level A (except live captions and audio description) January 1, 2021 (except live captions and audio description) *Designated organizations means every municipality and every person or organization as outlined in the Public Service of Ontario Act 2006 Reg. 146/10, or private companies or organizations with 50 or more employees, in Ontario. For more about the AODA you can review the following references: 1.06: Activity- Start Your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit The Toolkit you will assemble will be made up of various tools and resources you can use when assessing web content. It will include links to documents, tools, and examples you can refer to as needed while auditing. For the first activity, create a folder in your browser’s bookmarks/favourites area called “Accessibility Toolkit.” You will add the tools and resources introduced here to this folder. Remember that suggestions for your Toolkit throughout the content will be highlighted in green and labelled “Toolkit.”

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/01%3A_Introduction/1.05%3A_Why_Learn_About_Web_Accessibility_Auditing.txt

In this unit, in order to provide a foundation for your studies and activities, we identify and explain the key considerations and aspects of web accessibility review work. This overview will include topics such as: • Types of disabilities and common barriers encountered in web content • The tools and testing strategies used in detailed web accessibility auditing • Thinking beyond accessibility testing • The W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 2.0) We will look at numerous non-technical and technical aspects of web accessibility auditing. The following sections will provide a foundation of understanding for the units that follow. Watch the following video from the Government of Australia that summarizes web accessibility. Although the video is from Australia, its ideas are applicable globally. Visit the YouTube site for the video to find the described transcript in full. Video: Web Accessibility A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1166 © Department of Social Services, Australian Government. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. There are many ways to assess accessibility that are not technical in nature. Some of these will be introduced here and expanded on in the units that follow. These strategies simply require some thought, reflection, and ultimately, common sense. 2.02: Types of Disabilities and Barriers Lulu is feeling very positive about the idea that her business, and the website of which she is so proud, could soon be more accessible and easier for all of her customers to use. This brings her to the predictable question of “Where do we begin?” Lulu should start by getting a firm grasp on “the big picture” in terms of what barriers people might encounter on her website and why. From there she can begin to build practical knowledge that will support her next steps. Take a look at the content that follows to better understand the foundation of information that Lulu and her team will require. In order to understand what web accessibility auditing tests for and why, it is helpful to have a basic understanding of a range of disabilities and their related barriers with respect to the consumption of web content. Not all people with disabilities encounter barriers on the Web, and those with different types of disabilities encounter different types of barriers. For instance, if a person is in a wheelchair they may encounter no barriers at all in web content. A person who is blind will experience different barriers than a person with limited vision. Different types of disabilities and some of their commonly associated barriers are described here. Watch the following video to see how students with disabilities experience the Internet. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1172 © Jared Smith. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. In this video, David Berman talks about types of disabilities and their associated barriers. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1172 © davidbermancom. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. People Who Are Blind People who are blind tend to face many barriers in web content, given the visual nature of the Web. They will often use a screen reader to access their computer or device and may use a refreshable Braille display to convert text to Braille. Common barriers for this group include: • Visual content that has no text alternative • Functional elements that cannot be controlled with a keyboard • Overly complex or excessive amounts of content • Inability to navigate within a page of content • Content that is not structured • Inconsistent navigation • Time limits (insufficient time to complete tasks) • Unexpected actions (e.g., redirect when an element receives focus) • Multimedia without audio description For a quick look at how a person who is blind might use a screen reader like JAWS to navigate the Web, watch the following video. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1172 © rscnescotland. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. People with Low Vision People with low vision are often able to see web content if it is magnified. They may use a screen magnification program to increase the size and contrast of the content to make it more visible. They are less likely to use a screen reader than a person who is blind, though in some cases they will. People with low vision may rely on the magnification or text customization features in their web browser, or they may install other magnification or text reading software. Common barriers for this group include: • Content sized with absolute measures that is not resizable • Inconsistent navigation • Images of text that degrade or pixelate when magnified • Low contrast (inability to distinguish text from background) • Time limits (insufficient time to complete tasks) • Unexpected actions (e.g., redirect when an element receives focus) See the following video for a description of some of the common barriers for people with low vision. Video: Creating an Accessible Web A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1172 © Media Access Australia. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. People Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Most people who are Deaf tend to face barriers where audio content is presented without text-based alternatives and encounter relatively few barriers on the Web otherwise. Those who are Deaf and blind will face many more barriers, including those described for people who are blind. For those who communicate with American Sign Language (ASL) or other sign languages, such as Langue des signes québécoise (LSQ), the written language of a website may produce barriers similar to those faced when reading in a second language. Common barriers for this group include: • Audio without a transcript • Multimedia without captions or transcript • Lack of ASL interpretation (for ASL/Deaf community) People with Mobility-Related Disabilities Mobility-related disabilities are quite varied. As mentioned earlier, one could be limited to a wheelchair for getting around and face no significant barriers in web content. Those who have limited use of their hands or who have fine motor impairments that limit their ability to target elements in web content with a mouse pointer may not use a mouse at all. Instead, they might rely on a keyboard or perhaps their voice, along with switches to control mouse clicks, to control movement through web content. Common barriers for this group include: • Clickable areas that are too small • Functional elements that cannot be controlled with a keyboard • Time limits (insufficient time to complete tasks) People with Learning or Cognitive Disabilities Learning and cognitive-related disabilities can be as varied as mobility-related disabilities, perhaps more so. These disabilities can range from a mild reading-related disability to very severe cognitive impairments that may result in limited use of language and difficulty processing complex information. For most of the disabilities in this range, there are some common barrier and others that only affect those with more severe cognitive disabilities. Common barriers for this group include: • Use of overly-complex/advanced language • Inconsistent navigation • Overly complex or excessive amounts of content • Time limits (insufficient time to complete tasks) • Unstructured content (no visible headings, sections, topics, etc.) • Unexpected actions (e.g., redirect when an element receives focus) More specific disability-related issues include: • Reading: text justification (inconsistent spacing between words) • Reading: images of text (not readable with a text reader) • Visual: visual content with no text description • Math: images of math equations (not readable with a math reader) Everyone While we generally think of barriers in terms of access for people with disabilities, there are some barriers that impact all types of users, though these are often thought of in terms of usability. Usability and accessibility go hand-in-hand. Adding accessibility features improves usability for others. Many people, including those who do not consider themselves to have a specific disability (such as those over the age of 50) may find themselves experiencing typical age-related loss of sight, hearing, or cognitive ability. Those with varying levels of colour blindness may also fall into this group. Some of these usability issues include: • Link text that does not describe the destination or function of the link • Overly complex content • Inconsistent navigation • Low contrast • Unstructured content To learn more about disabilities and associated barriers, read the following: Readings and References: How People with Disabilities Use the Web 2.03: Common Sense Gaining awareness of the potential for barriers in web content takes many forms. Perhaps you read a book to educate yourself. Maybe your workplace has sponsored training in this area. Or, you may know someone who experiences these barriers firsthand and who has shared their frustrations or insights with you. In Lulu’s case, a prospective client drew her attention to the issue. No matter how you gain your awareness, it is important that breaking down the barriers becomes both common sense and common practice. Key Point: Common sense may require personal experience before it becomes common sense. Seek out ways to interact with assistive technology and those who use it. If you’ve never used assistive technology yourself, or interacted with someone who does, take a moment for the video below and visit his YouTube channel The Blind Film Critic for a humorous look at being blind. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1194 © The Tommy Edison Experience. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/02%3A_Aspects_of_Web_Accessibility_Auditing/2.01%3A_Aspects_of_Web_Accessibility_Auditing.txt

It is important for Lulu and her team to realize that the barriers that exist in their web content are not necessarily unique and that one thing that simplifies the job of a web accessibility auditor is that there are a relatively small number of issues that occur over and over again. Being aware of these common barriers means it is often possible to quickly scan through content and identify most accessibility issues. Lulu and her webmaster should become familiar with the following list of the top ten potential barriers to watch for, and you should too! It is by no means a complete list, but represents the most common accessibility problems. 1. Images without a Text Description Images without a text description will be inaccessible to those who are blind. Text descriptions are typically added using the `"alt"` attribute with the HTML img element. Note that the length of alt text should be no longer than 125 characters. Screen readers will typically stop reading the text at that point. If a longer description is needed, there are a variety of ways to describe the image further, either in the surrounding text, in a figure caption, or using the ARIA attribute aria-describedby. ARIA will be discussed further in Unit 8. In each case alt would still be used to provide a brief description and refer to the longer description elsewhere. Technical: Using the alt attribute to refer to a longer description `<img src="abelincoln.jpg" alt="Abraham Lincoln at his desk, see description below" / >` In the image above, Abraham Lincoln is preparing the text for the Emancipation Proclamation. Several others are seated around the desk, consulting with Lincoln on the document. Images of text will also be inaccessible to blind users, and also potentially inaccessible to people with low vision, who may attempt to magnify the image resulting in the text often degrading to the point that it becomes unreadable. People with reading disabilities who use reading software may also have trouble with images of text as they cannot be read by the software. There are occasions where images are strictly decorative or contain no useful information. In such cases the alt attribute should still be used, but its value left empty (i.e., `alt=""`). This forces a screen reader to ignore the image. If an empty alt attribute is not included, screen readers will read the file name of the image, which can interfere with comprehension of the surrounding information, or leave a screen reader user wondering if they are missing something in the image. Key Point: Be sure all images are adequately described using text. 2. Functional Elements That Only Work with a Mouse People who are blind are not likely to use a mouse when operating a computer (though there are some that do). Most rely exclusively on a keyboard to navigate through page features. Any element that only operates with a mouse will not be accessible to blind users. People with limited mobility may rely on a keyboard. People with low vision may also rely on keyboard access. “Power users” also tend to use a keyboard to navigate more than average users. Usability will be affected for all of these people when keyboard access is missing. Figure: Drag and Drop elements should be controlled by keyboard, or an equivalent alternate provided Key Point: Be sure all functional elements operate with both a mouse and a keyboard. 3. Text That Looks Like a Heading, But Is Not People who are blind and using a screen reader to navigate through web content will have a feature in the screen reader to list the headings on a page, so they can potentially jump to any one of those headings and begin reading. The list of headings also provides a good overview of the content on the page, making it easier to find specific information. When “heading-like” presentation of text is used (e.g., making the text bold and large), the structure provided by proper headings will be missing, requiring these users to navigate through the entire page to discover its content. This greatly increases the effort needed to move through web content. Always be sure proper HTML headings are used to represent page sections instead of styled text. Technical: Using proper headings: Accessible: `<h1>The Last Chapter</h1>` Inaccessible: `<p style="font-size:22pt; font-weight:bold;">The Last Chapter</p>` Likewise, headings should not be used to style large bold text, where the text is not a heading or section title. This creates confusion when listening to a heading list with a screen reader. Key Point: Be sure all heading or section titles within web content are created using proper HTML heading markup (h1, h2, etc.). 4. Links That Do Not Describe the Destination or Function Like headings, screen readers can list all of the links on a page to gather a summary of the resources that lead from it. If the link list is made up of meaningless phrases like “click here” or “this link” or “more”, little or no useful information is provided to the screen reader user. For most users, meaningless links like this make content more difficult to use. If you are able to see, imagine yourself coming across these links and having to read through the surrounding text to figure out where the link leads, or having to click the link to discover its destination. Key Point: Be sure all links describe the destination of the link, or its function if it is used to open a window or pop up a dialog box, for instance. 5. Lists That Look Like Lists, But Are Not Screen readers will recognize a properly-formatted list using HTML ordered or unordered list markup (OL or UL), announcing the list and the number of list items, and indicating one’s position in the list while navigating through it. This information helps with memory and comprehension. Without the proper list markup, more effort is often required to comprehend a list of items. Key Point: If a collection of items looks like a list, be sure HTML list markup is used to format it as a list. If the order of the items is important, an ordered list should be used; otherwise, use an unordered list. 6. Missing “Within-Page” Navigation You have already been introduced to two potential ways to navigate within pages, using headings and links. There are a variety of other ways to move around within pages, such as providing “bypass links,” often created to allow assistive technology users to skip over repetitive elements like navigation menus, and jump to an anchor further down the page. ARIA landmarks can also be used for this purpose, assigning specific roles to elements (e.g., banner, navigation, main) that can be listed by screen readers and directly jumped to (e.g., `<div role="main">...</div>`). Without ways to navigate within a page, screen reader users may be required to move through the content in sequence from beginning to end to find the information they are looking for, which requires a lot of unnecessary effort. Key Point: Be sure there are ways to navigate around within web content, using headings, bypass links or landmarks, etc. 7. Poor Visibility, Contrast, or Use of Colour On Its Own Providing good contrast between text and the background on which it appears is important for a variety of reasons. For those with low vision, or for older readers, text may become unreadable if it does not contrast well with the background. Using an image as a background can also be problematic, particularly when content resizes and text moves over various shades of dark and light, making parts of the text difficult to read. Key Point: Be sure there is good contrast between text and background colour. The visibility of the cursor’s focus indicator is also important when navigating using a keyboard. Someone with low vision who may have the screen magnified several times may find it easier to navigate with a keyboard than a mouse. If they are unable to see where the keyboard focus is located, keyboard navigation becomes difficult or unusable. Key Point: Be sure the cursor’s focus location is easily visible when navigating by keyboard. As an example, you may come across a feature that uses a green start button and a red stop button. Some colour blind users or those with low vision may not be able to tell the buttons apart. Adding the words “Start” to the green button, and “Stop” to the red button provides the extra indicator in addition to colour. Key Point: When colour is used to represent meaning, be sure there is some other indicator provided to express that meaning. 8. Video with No Captions (Or Automatic Captions) It is quite common nowadays for organizations to host their video collections with services like YouTube or Vimeo. It is important that any meaningful spoken dialogue in the videos be captioned so the content of the audio track is available to those who cannot hear it. Obviously this will include people who are Deaf, but it might also include people watching the video in a noisy environment, or watching with the sound turned down where quiet is necessary. YouTube now provides automated captioning. It takes the audio track from the video and uses voice-recognition technology to convert the sound to text. This can be a handy feature to quickly caption a video, but video producers must not rely on automated caption to provide captions for their videos. The accuracy rate in many cases will be quite low, to the point where the captions make no sense. The automated captions can be used as a starting point for manually-generated captions, but are not considered to be an acceptable alternative to the audio track in a video for accessibility purposes. There are a variety of free tools now available, such as YouTube’s caption editor or the Amara caption editor, that make it relatively easy for anyone to create captions. Here’s an example of what can happen with automated captions. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1196 © McMaster Libraries. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. Key Point: Ensure that all video with meaningful spoken dialogue has human-generated captions. Do not rely on automated captions. 9. Information That Updates without Reloading the Page It is very common nowadays for parts of web pages to update automatically with new information, such as news feeds or Twitter feeds, for example. Screen readers typically take a static snapshot of a web page before they start reading, so any new information that might be added to a page after loading will generally go unnoticed. When updated content is presented on a site, it must be formatted in such a way that screen reader users are informed of the changes. Fortunately, with the emergence of ARIA, providing the updates to screen readers is relatively simple. Developers must add a “live region” where updating information is present, using the “aria-live” attribute within the element containing the updating information. Technical: Presenting updating information: A live region added to a div. `<div aria-live="polite">updating information goes here</div>` Note that the value for aria-live specifies when the content of the region gets announced. The “polite” value in the example means the updates are announced when the screen reader is not reading something else. You may also use the value “assertive” which interrupts the screen reader to read the updating information. Developers can also add the aria-relevant and aria-atomic attributes to define what gets read when a live region updates: aria-relevant set to “additions” for new content, “removals” for items removed, and “all” to announce both, and aria-atomic set to “false” to announce only the changes, or “true” to announce the live region as a whole. Key Point: Ensure that any updating information on a webpage is formatted to be discoverable by screen readers using aria-live. 10. Tables Presenting Data That Have No Row or Column Headers When navigating through tables containing data using a screen reader, it is often necessary for screen reader users to know the column or row headers to determine the meaning of data in a table data cell, particularly for larger tables where it is difficult to track one’s location auditorily in the table. For table header cells to be readable from within a data cell (TD) they must be marked as a proper table header cell (TH). Key Point: Be sure tables that are used to lay out data are formatted with proper headings using the HTML TH element. Try This: Take a look at the demonstrations of accessible and inaccessible techniques used to create web content. You will revisit these demos in a later unit when we talk about screen reader testing. For more detailed information and further reading, you may wish to review: Readings and References: ⇧ Back to Top

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/02%3A_Aspects_of_Web_Accessibility_Auditing/2.04%3A_Things_to_Watch_For.txt

“What types of testing might a web accessibility auditor do on my site, and what should my webmaster and I learn about them?” Lulu wonders. It is recommended practice to use both automated and manual testing when reviewing the accessibility of web content. Let’s begin with automated testing. There are many automated web accessibility testing tools available with varying degrees of accuracy and coverage. They will be introduced here in general terms, and covered in more detail in the unit Automated Testing Tools. Using automated tools to assess web accessibility does not take much technical knowledge, but one often must have some understanding of web accessibility to be able to interpret the reports these tools generate. Most automated testing tools will take a URL from a website, extract the HTML from the page at that URL, then run a collection of test algorithms to detect the presence or absence of particular features in the HTML. For example, if a checker detects an img element, it will run several tests on that element to determine if the “alt” attribute is present, whether it is empty or not, how long the value is, and so on. What they cannot do is tell whether the alt text accurately describes the image, or whether the image is an image of text. In most cases, when HTML is involved, automated checkers are good at detecting missing accessibility features and detecting the presence of features that may create barriers. When meaning is involved, automated checkers do not do well. A human will generally need to make those decisions. Different automated accessibility checkers can do different things. Here are some examples: • Some allow you to customize the checks or provide a list of the checks being done • Some run scripts to ensure that any hidden HTML is also evaluated • Some generate large reports covering entire websites; others report only on single pages • Some monitor the accessibility of a site and send out reports when issues are identified • Some are free, open-source applications that you can download, install and modify to suit your needs; others are proprietary and charge licensing fees Regardless of the features automated checkers have, you cannot rely on them to find all potential barriers in web content. A human being must also be a part of the checking process and make decisions on potential issues, particularly when meaning is involved. Key Point: No automated web accessibility checker can identify all potential barriers. Other Types of Accessibility Testing Tools In addition to the typical web accessibility checkers, there are a variety of other tools you can use to test specific aspects of accessibility. Colour Contrast Checkers: Colour contrast checkers can be used to determine whether colour being used in web content provides enough contrast to be readable for those with low vision or colour blindness. These tools take two colour codes (e.g., #ffffff for white, #000000 for black) and use a contrast algorithm to produce a colour contrast ratio. Many colour testing tools can be found on the Web, others can be installed as a plugin for a browser, and still others are built into web accessibility checkers. Readability Testing Tools: There are also a variety of readability testing tools that can be used to determine the level of education one might require to effectively understand the text in web content. These tools run a series of algorithms that take characteristics of text like the length of words, the density of longer words, the length of sentences, the number of clauses in sentences, etc., and generate a score. For public web content the recommended reading level is about grade 9, or lower-level high school. Markup Validation Tools: Markup validation tools are also available on the Web, and they are often found in HTML authoring tools used to create content for the Web. These tools will determine whether the HTML is valid, or well-formed and compliant with a formal grammar set out in HTML specifications. These tools essentially identify broken or incorrect usage of HTML that could potentially affect assistive technologies’ ability to read web content effectively. These tools and others will be looked at in more detail in the units following.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/02%3A_Aspects_of_Web_Accessibility_Auditing/2.05%3A_Automated_Web_Accessibility_Testing.txt

In addition to the many automated tools you might use when auditing web accessibility, there are also a variety of manual tests or strategies you can employ to identify potential barriers in web content. Some of these are very simple, quick, and easily done by anyone. Try This: Place the cursor in the location/URL area of a web browser, then press the Tab key repeatedly and follow the cursor as it moves through elements on the page. Any functional elements like links, buttons, form fields, etc. that don’t receive focus when “tabbing” through the page are likely going to be inaccessible to those that require keyboard access (e.g., people who are blind, some low-vision users, others with mobility impairments). Tab key testing and other manual tests will be covered in the unit Manual Testing Strategies. Screen Reader Testing Another manual test strategy that should be used during web auditing is to navigate through web content with a screen reader. Screen readers are useful for identifying accessibility and usability issues. You can easily determine that an image is missing alt text, for instance, if the screen reader reads a file name, or reads nothing at all when it comes across the image. Usability issues can also be identified that automated and manual tests may not identify. For example, if a dynamic error message is injected into a page after some interaction fails, like the messages shown below each field in the login form below, you may see the message but not hear it with the screen reader. In such a case the feedback may need ARIA (discussed in Web Accessibility Initiative – Accessible Rich Internet Applications (WAI-ARIA) ) added to make the message readable, which might only be confirmed by listening to a screen reader’s output. Figure: Login form with dynamically injected error messages below form fields where required information is missing We will look at using screen readers and other assistive technologies during accessibility testing in more detail in the unit Assistive Technology Testing. 2.07: Introduction to User Testing Though in many cases using automated and manual testing strategies is sufficient to identify and address potential accessibility issues, it can be helpful to have users with disabilities, or others such as older users, use a site in addition to the other auditing strategies. Actual users can turn up a variety of potential usability issues. Depending on the audience a site serves, user testers might include a few different people with different accessibility needs, such as a person who is blind using a screen reader, a person with low vision using a magnifier, or perhaps a person with motor impairments using speech recognition and switches to navigate through web content. User testing will be covered in depth in the unit User Testing. 2.08: Introduction to Code Examination and Repair Technical: The content on this page is aimed primarily at web developers and is technical in nature. Code Examination While you are testing with automated tools or other manual strategies, it is often helpful and sometimes necessary to look at the HTML markup to confirm, or investigate further, potential barriers tools or strategies have turned up. All browsers have a View Source feature (or something equivalent) to view the HTML underlying a web page. Though using View Source is one potential way to view the HTML markup, it can be time-consuming to find specific bits of HTML associated with potential barriers that have been identified. A better strategy for examining code is to use the Inspect Element feature most browsers today provide. You can typically right click on the element you want to view (such as an image), then choose “Inspect Element” to look at the HTML and CSS used to display the image. Look at the markup of the image element to see whether the alt attribute is present and what its value is, as well as what other attributes it might contain (e.g., ARIA attributes that may be present to address a potential barrier a checker has identified). A browser’s developer tools (e.g., Chrome’s DevTools or tools in Firefox Developer Edition) provide a whole variety of information about the markup of a page in addition to being able to examine specific elements in the HTML. Examining the code with the built-in inspector or with a plugin is a good way to find colour codes in the style sheets associated with a web page when doing colour contrast evaluation. We will look at code examination in more detail in the section Code Examination and Repair. Code Repair It is often necessary to adjust code manually while auditing, and to retest to come up with solutions to correct accessibility issues. Using the browser’s developer tools, it’s possible to dynamically adjust the HTML markup and CSS to test possible solutions, perhaps running potential fixes through a screen reader, before making recommendations. Firefox Quantum (Developer Edition), Chrome, Internet Explorer, Edge, and Safari all have tools that allow you to dynamically adjust code. When writing web accessibility reports it can be helpful to provide small code snippets to demonstrate to developers what needs to be done to correct an issue, or at least describe the code changes in written words. Having good knowledge of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript is a prerequisite to providing solutions in your accessibility reports. We will talk more about code repair in the section Code Examination and Repair. The video below provides an introduction to code examination and repair using a browser’s Inspect view. Video: Code Examination and Repair A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1240

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/02%3A_Aspects_of_Web_Accessibility_Auditing/2.06%3A_Manual_Web_Accessibility_Testing.txt

We will introduce you to ChromeVox, the screen reader we will be using, early on, so you have plenty of opportunity to practice using it. It will be a key tool used in auditing the accessibility of web content, and will be used in the activity for this unit. For day-to-day screen reader testing, ChromeVox (particularly the ChromeVox plugin for the Chrome web browser) is our screen reader of choice because of its simple installation and configuration, ability to work across computer platforms, and the fact that it’s free and open source. Technical: One reason ChromeVox works well for accessibility testing is its good support for ARIA. We will cover ARIA in greater detail in the unit Other Accessibility Standards. ARIA is still a relatively new technology, and as of late 2019, it is still being supported inconsistently across available screen readers. When developing for the Web, do use ARIA as it is intended to be used as documented in the ARIA Specification, and test it with ChromeVox. You will still want to test with JAWS or perhaps NVDA, as these are most likely to be used by blind users. You may, however, find that what works in ChromeVox does not work with the other screen readers. So, for the time being, it may be necessary to provide workarounds when developing custom web elements, so they will work across technologies, with the assumption that these other technologies will catch up eventually. While a relatively small number of screen reader users currently use ChromeVox, it is a highly effective tool for developers when testing web content. Also, ChromeVox is tailored to work with elements of Google Drive, so even for users of other screen readers, ChromeVox may be preferable when compiling Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides. Toolkit: Visit the Chrome store while using the Chrome web browser to install the ChromeVox screen reader. It will be a key element of your Toolkit. Key Point: Though we recommend using ChromeVox for activities that follow, and as a tool that works well for screen reader testing while accessibility auditing, you are free to use other screen readers if you prefer. The videos below will help show you how to install and begin using ChromeVox. Video: Installing ChromeVox A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1242 Video: ChromeVox Demo A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1242 © Google Open Online Education. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. ChromeVox Testing and Associated Key Commands Key Point: Download the ChromeVox Keyboard Commands [docx], outlined in the table below, print it, and have it beside you when completing the activity in this unit. Also be sure you have set the ChromeVox modifier key*, described in the following line, or you are going to have difficulty with the activity. * The ChromeVox modifier key (i.e., Cvox) is set in Chrome’s Settings > Extensions > ChromeVox Options, typically set to Alt or Ctrl. Task Task Description Keyboard Command Default Reading When a webpage loads, ChromeVox will read the element that takes focus on the page. Use the Cvox + arrow keys to read through content. Listen to the spoken output and note any inconsistencies from what one might expect to hear based on what is visible on the screen. Cvox + up and down arrows Tab Navigation When a page has loaded, press the Tab key to navigate through operable element of the page like links and forms. Listen to the output when these elements are in focus, and note any elements that are clickable, but not focusable with the keyboard. Also listen for hidden elements such as bypass links or other elements that are not visible but are read aloud by ChromeVox. Tab, Shift Tab Navigate Through Headings Step through all the headings on a page. Note whether all headings are announced as expected. Note the heading level announced. Are they sequenced to create semantic structure (i.e., nested in the proper order)? Cvox + L + H then up/down arrows Navigate Through Landmarks Step through the landmarks, key navigation points on a page. Are all areas of the page contained in a landmarked region? Note any missing Landmarks. Cvox + L + ; (semi-colon) then up/down arrows List Links List the links and navigate through them using the arrow keys, listen for meaningfulness, or listen for context when links are otherwise meaningless. Cvox + L + L then up/down arrows Navigate Through Forms Navigate to forms on a page, then press the Tab or F keys to listen to each of the fields. Are fields announced effectively, including required fields? Cvox + L + F then up/down arrows Navigate Through Tables Navigate to Tables on a page, press Enter to go to a table, press up/down arrow keys to move through cells in sequence (left to right, top to bottom), press Ctrl + Alt + arrow to move to adjacent cells, press Ctrl-Alt and 5 on the number pad to list column and row headers where applicable. Note whether header cells are read or not. Are fieldset labels announced, where applicable? Cvox + L + T then up/down arrows then Enter to select Table Cvox + arrow to move within table Cvox +TH to announce headers

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/02%3A_Aspects_of_Web_Accessibility_Auditing/2.09%3A_ChromeVox_Screen_Reader.txt

NOTE: If you are a regular day-to-day screen reader user (i.e., you are blind or have significant vision loss and must use a screen reader) do the alternate activity below instead of this one. This first activity is for first-time, or novice, screen reader users, and those who do not use a screen reader on a regular basis. This exercise will help you understand accessibility firsthand, by experiencing the Web as someone who is blind might experience it. If you have not already, go back to the ChromeVox section earlier in this unit, and setup ChromeVox yourself. Be sure to review the ChromeVox Keyboard Commands [docx] before completing this activity, or have it printed off beside you for easy reference. If you do not regularly use a screen reader, turn off your computer monitor while navigating through a familiar website with ChromeVox to experience what it’s like to access web content by screen reader only. Note some of your thoughts and feelings on this experience as self-reflection. Screen Reader User Alternate Activity NOTE: This alternate activity is for people who use a screen reader on a regular basis. You are likely blind or have significant vision loss that requires you to use a screen reader to access your computer, and the Web. If you are not a regular screen reader user, do the activity above instead of this one. The goal of the activity above is to help people who do not use a screen reader better understand the challenges of navigating the Web without being able to see what one is navigating through. If you are a regular screen reader user, you already know these challenges. Here are a few questions to consider as self-reflection about your experience: • What screen reader(s) do you use, and for how long? • Which web browser do you typically use, and why? • What are some of the most common barriers you encounter on the Web? • How would you recommend non-screen reader users use screen readers in their accessibility auditing activities? 2.11: Self-Test 1 Question 1 Which of the following are automated accessibility checkers not good at identifying? Please select all that apply. 1. missing text descriptions 2. if link text effectively describes the function or destination of the link 3. whether alt text describes an image effectively 4. whether alternatives are provided for inaccessible elements 5. if a Web page has a title or not 6. whether the title effectively describes a Web page Question 2 Which of the following groups of people with disabilities are least likely to face barriers in Web content? People who: 1. are Deaf 2. are blind 3. use a wheelchair 4. have limited hand mobility 5. are learning disabled Question 3 Which of the following were mentioned as key things to watch for when auditing the accessibility of Web content? Please select all that apply. 1. images without a text alternative 2. elements that work with a mouse but not with a keyboard 3. text too complex for some to understand 4. using bold large text to create headings 5. using text and background colours that do not contrast well 6. elements that flash or flicker Answers to Self-Test 1 A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/02%3A_Aspects_of_Web_Accessibility_Auditing/2.10%3A_Activity-_Experience_Web_Content_From_a_Different_Perspective.txt

Now that Lulu has a better understanding of what a web accessibility audit entails and has decided with certainty to move forward with one, she is seeking a recommended resource that might allow her webmaster to familiarize herself more thoroughly with the features of accessible web content. Without a doubt, WCAG 2.0 is the resource that she is looking for. Review the content below to understand the significance and purpose of this critical element of Lulu’s, and your, toolkit. Though it is possible to conduct informal accessibility reviews with basic understanding of the types of barriers faced by people with disabilities, and knowledge of the common elements in web content that often produce barriers, a thorough, professional review requires a solid understanding of the W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 2.0 or WCAG 2.1, aka ISO/IEC 40500:2012). This unit will introduce you to WCAG (pronounced “wuh-kag”), which provides the basis for most international accessibility rules and legislation, along with its supporting documents. WCAG should be a key element of your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit. You should develop a basic understanding of WCAG to start, then use it and its supporting documents as references while conducting your audits and build upon the basics as you go about auditing web content. Toolkit: Add the W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 2.1) to your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit. REQUIRED READING. Key Point: As of June 5, 2018, WCAG 2.1 was released, extending WCAG 2.0 with one additional guideline, and 17 new success criteria, that address accessibility across devices and for people with cognitive disabilities. Readers should refer to the newer version of the WCAG guidelines moving forward, though in many cases WCAG 2.0 remains the standard on which international legislation around web accessibility is based. WCAG 2.1 was designed so that complying with it, includes compliance with WCAG 2.0. Watch the following video for a brief overview of WCAG 2.0. Video: WCAG-WAI Basics A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1253 © Richard Fouchaux. Released under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution license. Documents Accompanying WCAG Accompanying the WCAG specification itself are a variety of documents that expand on the guidelines. The two types of documents we would like to draw your attention to are: • Understanding Guidelines • How to Meet WCAG (referred to as Success Criteria) These documents are conveniently linked next to their corresponding guideline, as shown in the figure below. Figure: Links to supporting documents appear next to each guideline in WCAG 2.0 10 Key Guidelines Required Reading: The 10 Key Guidelines of WCAG 2.0/2.1 have been summarized in a downloadable PDF document. Download the 10 Key Guidelines [PDF] document, and read through it to familiarize yourself with the manner in which WCAG 2.0/2.1 addresses the most common accessibility issues. More About WCAG Toolkit: If you would like to explore WCAG 2.1 in greater detail than this Unit provides, bookmark the Introduction to Web Accessibility course. 3.02: Objectives and Activities Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • List and interpret the meaning of the four principles of web accessibility. • List the three levels of WCAG conformance and recognize current targets that are implemented internationally. • Examine in depth ten key WCAG Guidelines. • Add relevant WCAG materials to your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit. Activities • Download and study WCAG 2.1 Audit Template • Read a Completed Sample WCAG 2.0 Audit • Update your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit • Self-Test 2

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/03%3A_Introduction_to_WCAG/3.01%3A_Introduction_to_WCAG.txt

If you are interested in knowing about the history behind WCAG, take a look at the timeline of milestones described below. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. 1995: Web Accessibility Begins It was during the mid-1990s that web accessibility awareness began to take hold, first mentioned by Tim Berners-Lee in his keynote speech at the 1994 Second International World Wide Web conference in Chicago. The Unified Web Site Accessibility Guidelines were compiled shortly after that at the TRACE Centre at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1995. Version 8 of the Unified Web Site Accessibility Guidelines became the seed document for WCAG 1.0. 1999: WCAG 1.0 Released It was not until 1999 that the first version of the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 1.0) was released by the W3C’s Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). This was a significant advancement in the promotion of an accessible web. With WCAG 1.0 it was possible to assess accessibility based on a standard, without the need to use applications like JAWS. That standard was also used by assistive technology (AT) developers (of screen readers, for instance) to better understand how AT should interact with content on the Web. One could then judge accessibility based on what the WCAG specification suggested should be done. But, there were problems with WCAG 1.0 that slowed its adoption. These problems would be addressed with the release of WCAG 2.0. 2008: WCAG 2.0 Released In 2008 WCAG 2.0 was released to address the shortcomings of its predecessor. One of the significant changes included technology independence. This meant that what might previously have been associated with a barrier in HTML content was now a barrier regardless of the technology used. For example, “include alt text with images,” `"alt"` being an HTML attribute, became “include text alternatives for visual content,” with no reference to the technology presenting the content. WCAG 2.0 addressed accessibility across a whole range of web technologies, including things like Flash, Java, JavaScript, and other such technologies. A second major change was the acceptance of JavaScript in WCAG 2.0 as a legitimate web technology. With WCAG 1.0, developers had to create alternatives to JavaScript elements they may have added to create interactivity in their web content. In other words, a website needed to operate with the same functionality if JavaScript was turned off in a user’s browser. This severely limited what developers could do while complying with WCAG 1.0 and became another contributing factor to the slow uptake of WCAG 1.0. With the release of WCAG 2.0 this restriction was lifted. It is no longer a requirement to create alternatives to scripted features, though it is still a requirement to make those features accessible – certainly doable for most JavaScript interactivity we see in today’s websites. 2015: HTML5 & WAI ARIA Today we have a number of new additions to the collection of accessibility standards with the introduction of specifications such as WAI-ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications). WAI-ARIA is an extension of HTML5, that allows developers to add information about roles, states, and properties to custom features they might create using JavaScript, that would have previously been inaccessible to AT users. For example, a developer might wish to use a collection of <div> elements to create a form. This is certainly possible with some script added, but a <div> was never intended to be used as a form element or to be interactive for that matter. They have no role or states or properties that would indicate to an AT user they were in a form, unlike a <form> element in HTML, which has all those semantic characteristics built in by default. ARIA now allows developers to assign a `role="form"` to a `<div>` to identify it as a form. A `<div>` used to create a checkbox could now have a `role="checkbox"` added, and `aria-checked="true"` set to have its role and state (checked or not checked) announced to AT the same way the standard HTML form elements get announced. We’ll talk a bit more about WAI-ARIA in unit 8, but for now know that it is perhaps the most significant accessibility technology to emerge in recent years. 2018: WCAG 2.1 and Project Silver When WCAG 2.0 was introduced in 2008, the iPhone had only just been released the year before, and it would not be until 2009 that it would be usable by blind individuals. WCAG 2.0 provided little guidance on developing accessible content to be accessed through mobile devices. WCAG 2.1 is intended to fill that gap, producing guidelines to help developers comply with accessibility guidelines when developing mobile web and responsive designs for web content, among other things. WCAG 2.1 was released in June of 2018, adding one new guideline, and 17 new success criteria. Recent Article by Scott Hollier, on changes in WCAG 2.1: WCAG 2.1: Reflections on the New Guidelines and Success Criteria. In parallel with WCAG 2.1, project Silver has also been launched. Silver is the code name for WCAG 3.0. The focus of Silver is on integrating accessibility standards into the emerging Internet of Things (IoT). With everything from refrigerators, to home climate control systems, to security monitoring now connecting to the Internet, Silver is being developed to ensure these emerging technologies are accessible to everyone. Why Silver? Silver’s element symbol is Ag, which represents Accessibility Guidelines.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/03%3A_Introduction_to_WCAG/3.03%3A_The_Evolution_of_Web_Accessibility.txt

The four guiding principles of WCAG say that web content must be Perceivable, Operable, Understandable, and Robust (POUR) in order to be accessible to people with disabilities. 1. Perceivable – Information and user interface components must be presentable to users in ways they can perceive. • This means that users must be able to perceive the information being presented (it can’t be invisible to all of their senses) 2. Operable – User interface components and navigation must be operable. • This means that users must be able to operate the interface (the interface cannot require interaction that a user cannot perform) 3. Understandable – Information and the operation of user interface must be understandable. • This means that users must be able to understand the information as well as the operation of the user interface (the content or operation cannot be beyond their understanding) 4. Robust – Content must be robust enough that it can be interpreted reliably by a wide variety of user agents, including assistive technologies. • This means that users must be able to access the content as technologies advance (as technologies and user agents evolve, the content should remain accessible) Perceivable For content to be perceivable it must be possible to perceive it through multiple senses. While there are a variety of ways to provide alternatives perceivable through alternate senses (e.g., audio descriptions for visual content for those who are blind, or sign language interpretation of audio content for those who are Deaf), text alternatives are generally the best choice. Text can be converted into a variety of forms. It can be read aloud by screen reading software or converted to braille for those who are blind. It can be translated into other languages for those reading in a second language or it can be magnified without losing its sharp appearance for those with low vision. Its colour can be changed easily to make it more readable for those who are colour blind, or need high contrast. Key Point: Plain text is the most adaptable alternate format because it can be easily converted into a variety of forms to make content perceivable across a wide range of accessibility needs. Operable In the context of web accessibility, operability generally means that something is functional using a keyboard. If functional items are not keyboard operable, they will be inaccessible to many users. Developers often create features that operate with a mouse, sometimes overlooking keyboard functionality. Most people accessing the Internet do use a mouse, but many do not. A person who is blind is unlikely to use a mouse, but will instead rely almost exclusively on keyboard access. Power users, often developers or programmers, also tend to be keyboard users, so usability is lost for this group as well when keyboard access is not programmed in. Operable can also mean functional using one’s voice. Some people with severe motor impairments use voice recognition software along with switches (see figure below) to operate their computers and navigate the Web. This means there must be text associated with functional elements like graphical buttons, so one can speak the text to bring focus to an element, and those elements must be keyboard operable so a switch can be used to activate the element. Pressing a switch is much like pressing the Enter key or Spacebar on a keyboard, or clicking a mouse. Figure: A button switch used to replicate a mouse click Source: Wikipedia Key Point: All functional elements in web content that operate with a mouse must also operate with a keyboard. Understandable Understandable refers to comprehending both the content and features of a website. Content that uses more complex or advanced language than is necessary may be difficult to understand for some people with disabilities, as well as those reading in a second language, or perhaps older users with diminishing cognitive abilities. Particularly for public access sites, the reading level of the language used should be minimized, using simpler language wherever possible. A second aspect of understanding relates to the consistency and ease of use of the navigation elements on a site, reducing the number of navigation elements, and presenting these elements consistently throughout a website. This can improve usability for many users, including those who are blind, those with cognitive or learning disabilities, and older users. A person who is blind and using a screen reader to navigate a site will often dedicate some effort to mapping to memory the navigation structure of a site, much like one might visualize traveling from point A to point B through a building or through city streets. If the navigation structure changes, it can often lead to confusion, and to having to map the navigation structure over again. If the navigation stays consistent, it only needs to be learned once, after which cognitive effort can focus on understanding the important content of a webpage or website. Key Point: Use simple, consistent, predictable navigation elements throughout a website. Robust Robust, as described by W3C, means that content works well across a wide range of Web and assistive technologies. This generally means using technology to standard. Web browsers and assistive technologies base their development around standards such as HTML, and are able to interpret content that is created in a standard way. When content varies from the standard, assistive technologies often have trouble interpreting it. Not all content must comply with the standards, but when custom content is created that does not comply, a secondary standardized version should be provided so the content “degrades gracefully.” Web content that degrades gracefully is intended to function best in the most current browsers and assistive technologies, and then as older, less feature-rich technologies view it, it should degrade in a way that is still functional, but with fewer features. Technical: With the advent of WAI ARIA, it is now possible to veer from the standard, perhaps using HTML in new ways that were not initially intended. ARIA attributes can be used to describe the role, states, and properties of custom elements. For example, an HTML `<div>` element was never intended to be clickable, but with some JavaScript it is possible to add click functionality, though from an assistive technology’s perspective the `<div>` is just a container with no functionality. A `<div>` has been used in a non-standard way in this case. ARIA can now be added to that customized `<div>` to give it a `role="button"` for instance, and made focusable adding a `tabindex` attribute, and made clickable by adding `aria-pressed` attribute to describe its state as pressed or not pressed, and so on. There are other occasions where non-standard technologies such as embedded Flash objects or Java applets might be used. Though it is possible to make these objects somewhat accessible, they are often challenging to access and operate effectively with assistive technologies. In such cases alternatives are generally needed. Some Flash development tools, for instance, provide an option to generate an HTML version, though these tend to be static representations of what was interactive in the Flash. Where possible, HTML5, with CSS, scripting, and ARIA should be used to develop interactive content for the Web. HTML5 and ARIA will be discussed in greater detail in unit 8[1]. Key Point: Where non-standard technologies are used, or where standard technologies are used in non-standard ways, provide standardized alternatives to allow content to degrade gracefully.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/03%3A_Introduction_to_WCAG/3.04%3A_WCAG_Principles.txt

Lulu’s webmaster has been reading through WCAG 2.0 and at times finds it overwhelming. However, if she understands the POUR principles, the 3 levels of conformance, and the success criteria associated with each guideline, she will have a solid basis upon which to build her skills in the realm of web accessibility. To help the webmaster further frame her understanding of conformance, she should be reminded that, as an Ontario-based company, to achieve AODA compliance, Lulu’s Lollipops’ two main target years are 2014 (WCAG 2.0 Level A – except live captions and audio description), and 2021 (WCAG 2.0 Level AA – except live captions and audio description). For further information regarding the specifics of AODA compliance, a link that may be of use to the Lulu’s webmaster and others in similar roles is the Integrated Accessibility Standards. For further information on WCAG compliance levels, read on. Conformance Levels In addition to being grouped by principles, WCAG is also grouped by level of conformance. These levels are described by W3C as follows: 1. Conformance Level: One of the following levels of conformance is met in full. • Level A: For Level A conformance (the minimum level of conformance), the web page satisfies [definition] all the Level A Success Criteria, or a conforming alternate version is provided. • Level AA: For Level AA conformance, the web page satisfies all the Level A and Level AA Success Criteria, or a Level AA conforming alternate version is provided. • Level AAA: For Level AAA conformance, the web page satisfies all the Level A, Level AA and Level AAA Success Criteria, or a Level AAA conforming alternate version is provided. Note 1: Although conformance can only be achieved at the stated levels, authors are encouraged to report (in their claim) any progress toward meeting success criteria from all levels beyond the achieved level of conformance. Note 2: It is not recommended that Level AAA conformance be required as a general policy for entire sites because it is not possible to satisfy all Level AAA Success Criteria for some content. Conformance levels can be thought of in terms of their importance toward removing barriers with Level A being the most important. It is helpful to think of levels as things you must do, should do, and could do. • Level A: These issues must be resolved or some group will not be able to access the content. The issues at this level represent significant barriers that may not be overcome with work-arounds. An example of a Level A barrier is missing alternative text to describe an image. There is little a blind person can do on their own to understand the content of an image without a text description. • Level AA: These issues should be resolved or some group will find it difficult to access or use the content. These issues can often be circumvented with some effort, but will make using or understanding web content more effortful. An example of a Level AA barrier is not being able to follow the focus of the cursor when navigating through content with a keyboard. For a person with low vision navigating with a keyboard, or a fully able keyboard user for that matter, navigating through content can be very difficult if one cannot see where the cursor is located and is unable to tell when to press the Enter key to activate a link or button. • Level AAA: These issues could be resolved to improve usability for all groups. Web content may be technically accessible, but usability can be improved by resolving these issues. An example of a Level AAA barrier would be presenting acronyms or abbreviations without providing their full wording. For a person who is blind, an acronym read by a screen reader may sound like gibberish. For a fully able user who is not familiar with a short form, an acronym or abbreviation may have no useful meaning, at least not without having to search out the meaning elsewhere. Selecting a Level of Conformance While Level A conformance is an honourable accomplishment, and will allow most people to access the content of a website, it is generally considered “minimal conformance.” If you are working with a limited budget (or no budget) this may be an acceptable level of accessibility, but it is generally accepted that most sites should strive for Level AA, and perhaps conform with a few of the Level AAA success criteria (defined below). Key Point: Level AA is the generally agreed upon level of compliance websites should strive to meet. If you are working on a new website, Level AA should be the goal from the start. Assuming the developers know what needs to be done, there is very little extra effort required to jump from Level A to Level AA. If you are working with an existing site that is receiving an accessibility retrofit, then you may want to first aim for Level A, then with time resolve all Level AA issues. Generally speaking it is less costly to build a site to be accessible from the start, than it is to build a site and retrofit it later to conform. Level AAA conformance is unattainable for many websites. While it is possible to conform with some of the requirements at this level, they can often be counter-productive or unnecessary. Take for instance the reading level requirement (WCAG success criterion 3.1.5). Public sites will want to strive to meet this guideline, to reach the broadest audience possible by reducing the reading level, but for other sites that focus on a particular, perhaps highly-educated audience, it may be impossible or even inadvisable to comply with this requirement. Imagine an advanced course in biomechanics written at a lower-level secondary school reading level required to satisfy this guideline. If it were possible, replacing the advanced terminology and jargon with low level paraphrasing would likely make the content unusable by the intended audience. Success Criteria and Techniques Success criteria are essentially accessibility requirements. For example, the success criterion for an image conforming with guideline 1.1 (see below), is providing an equivalent text alternative. Note the success criterion does not specify any technology-specific solution or strategy on how that equivalent text should be provided. Alternatives for an image can take different forms, hence the techniques for satisfying success criteria. For success criterion 1.1.1 possible techniques might include providing alt text, including an image caption, or describing the image in the surrounding text and referring to the description in the alt text for the image. Each of these techniques potentially satisfies the requirements or success criteria of Guideline 1.1. You may also notice techniques are grouped into Sufficient Techniques and Advisory Techniques. Sufficient techniques are those that reliably satisfy success criteria, while an advisory technique may not reliably satisfy success criteria but may be beneficial for improving usability or improving accessibility for specific users. Developers should apply sufficient techniques to satisfy success criteria, and where feasible also apply advisory techniques to improve accessibility or usability further. There is a third category of techniques called Failures. These are not techniques to satisfy success criteria, but rather techniques that introduce barriers and thus should be avoided. Other Conformance Considerations In addition to meeting all the Level A or AA or AAA requirements before being able to claim conformance at one of these levels, there are other conformance requirements, listed here: • Full pages: Conformance applies to full web pages only. It cannot apply to parts of pages. • Complete processes: When a conformance claim is being made on a collection of pages that make up a web application, for instance, all pages in the collection must conform. If one were to claim “the discussion forum conforms at Level AA,” all aspects of the forum must conform, from logging in, to reading posts, to posting new messages, and so on. • Accessibility supported: Techniques to implement accessibility requirements are done in a way that is supported by assistive technologies. For instance, a linked image that is clicked to open a feature that does not have alt text to describe the function of the image, but does include text nearby that says “click the button to open the feature,” would not be accessibility supported even though the image has been described with text. The image has not been described in a way that assistive technologies can make use of. Adding alt text to the image in this case would be considered accessibility supported, because assistive technologies can read alt text. Accessibility support is a very complex issue with many grey areas. Read through “Understanding Accessibility Support” for a discussion of other things to consider when assessing accessibility support. • Non-interference: When non-accessible technologies are used and accessible alternatives are provided, the inaccessible version must not interfere with access to the accessible version. For instance, an embedded Flash object may have a link to an accessible HTML version on the page following the object. If while navigating through the page by keyboard or using an assistive technology, the cursor becomes trapped in the Flash object, it is interfering with the accessible version that follows. In this case, even though an accessible version is provided, it cannot be accessed; thus, the page does not conform. If a bypass link were provided to skip over the Flash object, and users were able to back out of the object, the page would conform. Ideally, the Flash object should be created in a way that does not trap the cursor. Making Conformance Claims Once a website has addressed all the issues required for a certain level of conformance, it may be desirable to “claim” conformance, though there is no requirement that a claim be made in order to conform. Basic Conformance Claim A basic claim must include the date the site was judged to be conformant. Because web content tends to change over time, conformance can typically only be claimed for a specific date (with exceptions such as numbered versions of web software). The basic claim must also include the specification or standard the site is claiming conformance with, and must include the level of conformance. A basic conformance claim may look like the following: On January 20, 2015 this site conformed with the Web Content Accessibility Guideline 2.0 at Level AA. A conformance claim can be more extensive than just a basic claim like that described above. It can also provide documentation about the accessibility features found on a site, so those accessing the site with assistive technologies can read about these features rather than having to discover them on their own. This documentation is often found linked prominently in the navigation elements of a website, usually near the start of a page so it is easily found by assistive technology users, and is often labelled “Accessibility” or “Accessibility Statement.” If the conformance claim does not apply to the whole site (e.g., there may be some older content that remains inaccessible), the scope of the claim should also be specified. For instance, add to the basic claim above, “…for any content added to the site after January 1, 2012.” The claim can also list known issues, if there are areas of the site that are known to be inaccessible, perhaps because there isn’t a suitable accessible alternative to a particular technology being used. For example, “…the video conferencing area of the site remains non-conformant due to the lack of an alternative accessible conferencing system.”

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/03%3A_Introduction_to_WCAG/3.05%3A_WCAG_Accessibility_Conformance.txt

The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 2.1) include 13 guidelines, made up of 78 success criteria (or WCAG 2.0 has 12 guidelines, 61 success criteria). Not all of these guidelines are applicable to all websites, though there are some that are more frequently relevant than others. Required Reading: Earlier in this unit, we encouraged you to become familiar with 10 Key Guidelines [PDF] that we provided in a downloadable document. If you have not already done so, please take the time now to download and read this document. 3.07: WCAG Web Auditing Review Template Now that you have an understanding of WCAG, we will introduce you to an accessibility auditing template. You can use the template to record issues when you conduct audits, but it also acts as a checklist to help commit the guidelines to memory. For now, review the layout and elements of the Web Auditing Review Template and add it to your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit. Toolkit: Download the WCAG 2.1 review template[doc] and add it to your Toolkit. Create a “webaudits” file folder on your hard drive, and save it there. As you complete audits, save them to subfolders you create here to organize the audit reports you generate. Elements of the Review Template Title: This field should indicate the type of review, either General, Template, or Detailed (to be covered in greater detail in the unit Web Accessibility Audit Reporting) and the guideline it is based on. Location: The URL of the homepage of the site being reviewed. Date: The date the review was finished. Reviewer: The name of the person(s) who completed the review. Guideline Reference: A link to the guideline(s) the review is based upon. Tools Used During This Review: A list of the tools used in the review, including automated checkers, browsers, browser plugins, readability test tool, colour contrast test tool, screen readers, and any other tools used. Be sure to mention version numbers if applicable. General Comments: An overview of the result of the WCAG 2.1 Review (below), outlining the key issues, why they are issues, with brief mention of potential solutions. This section is written for a general audience, minimizing the use of technical language. WCAG 2.1 Review: The main content of the review. This is a list of WCAG 2.1 success criteria, each one’s conformance level (A, AA, AAA), the evaluation received (Pass, Fail, Pass?, Fail? N/A), and comments associated with the evaluations. These comments should identify accessibility issues relevant to the guideline, explain why an issue presents a barrier, and offer potential solutions to resolve issues. The review should be aimed at the web developers who will be resolving the issues identified and may contain technical language and sample code that can be replicated. Screenshots and other graphics can be used to enhance explanations given in the text of the comments. There will likely be cases when borderline issues are identified, where it could be argued that some element may pass or fail the associated success criteria. In such cases “Pass?” (with the question mark) is used where the auditor is leaning toward a pass, but others might argue it fails. And, use “Fail?” where the auditor is leaning toward a fail, though others might argue it passes. One example might be a description for an image provided in an alt attribute that does not fully describe the meaningful information in the image. In such cases it is often a subjective decision by the auditor, commenting to the author of the alt text to review the text to determine whether it “adequately” describes the meaning one should take away from the image if it were being viewed. Questionable pass or fail is described more thoroughly in the example linked in the Toolkit box below. Note that the AAA items are greyed out, as well as the two AA success criteria (1.2.4, 1.2.5) that are not required by AODA (this is relevant to Ontario-based participants). If you are auditing in a jurisdiction that requires these guidelines, you might choose to adjust the template by removing the grey for these two guidelines. Otherwise grey items are optional, though when reviewing content issues associated with these guidelines, recommendations can still be made to implement techniques associated with these guidelines to improve overall usability. Other Notes: While not included in the template, there are occasions when a reviewer needs to comment on issues not associated with the accessibility of the site being reviewed. For instance, a reviewer might mention potential bugs that may have been identified, include information about posting an accessibility statement or provide details on next steps following the review, such as planning a follow-up review after issues are addressed, or arranging a time to address questions that arise from the report. Appendix: While not included in the template, the Appendix should include a list of the pages sampled from the site that was reviewed. Example of a Completed Review In 2012 a General Review of Canvas was posted by OCAD University in Toronto, which was in the process of selecting a new LMS for the university. The review was posted publicly, so it works well as an example of what a completed review might look like. This review looked at a series of tasks, like reading a post in the forums and posting a reply, reviewing test results and checking marks in the Gradebook, and so on (these scenarios were described in the appendices, missing from the publicly-posted review). The result of these scenarios were combined into a General Review (see the unit Web Accessibility Audit Reporting for a description of different types of reviews). Read through parts of the review to get an idea of the types of information it contains. Toolkit: Study the Canvas Accessibility Review 2012 [doc] for examples of the types of information that can be found in a web accessibility review. Add it to your Toolkit as a reference. You might ask, if there are so many issues, why did we use Canvas to deliver the online course version of the content here? Following the publication of the review, Canvas did pay attention and put considerable effort into improving the accessibility of their system. In 2014, Canvas accessibility had been much improved, though with still a few areas where improvements could be made. Compared with other Learning Management Systems, the current version of Canvas fares well in terms of accessibility. 3.08: Activity-WCAG Scavenger Hunt Now that you have been introduced to the key guidelines you’ll refer to often when conducting accessibility reviews, it will be necessary for you to expand on your understanding of WCAG 2.1 by eventually reading through the full specification (if possible, before completing the reading and activities here). To become comfortable with WCAG 2.1 and its associated documentation, try this Scavenger Hunt challenge. Below is a list of barriers that you’ll likely see on many websites. For each barrier, find a relevant guideline and match a sufficient technique (with its ID) to remove the barrier. How to Meet WCAG 2.1 is a good reference. Happy hunting! Example Barrier: Pre-recorded video does not audibly describe meaningful visual activity Technique ID: G78: Providing a second, user-selectable, audio track that includes audio descriptions. List of Barriers 1. Image has no text alternative 2. Video has no captions 3. Colour is used on its own to represent meaning 4. Contrast between text and background colours is insufficient (<4.5:1) 5. Form button is not keyboard operable 6. Page redirects to another before contents can be read 7. Webpage does not have a descriptive title 8. No means is provided to skip past large main menu on a webpage 9. The language of a page is not defined 10. Page redirects when a form radio button receives focus Suggested Answers to Activity 3.09: Self-Test 2 Question 1 Which WCAG 2.0 level of conformance is considered the generally agreed upon level that organizations should aim for when addressing the accessibility of their websites? 1. Level A 2. Level AA 3. Level AAA Question 2 Which TWO of these guidelines are considered the most important in terms of reducing the greatest number of potential barriers, according to “10 Key Guidelines” introduced in Unit 2? 1. 1.1.1 Non-Text Content 2. 2.1.1 Keyboard Accessible 3. 2.4.1 Bypass Blocks 4. 3.1.1 Language of Page 5. 3.1.5 Reading Level 6. 4.1 Parsing Question 3 Which of the following are NOT principles of WCAG 2.0? Please select all that apply. 1. Perceivable 2. Operable 3. Understandable 4. Reproducible 5. Predictable 6. Robust Answers to Self-Test 2 A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/03%3A_Introduction_to_WCAG/3.06%3A_10_Key_Guidelines.txt

In this unit and the next, we will move from the general overview to look more closely at the necessary tools and strategies for assessing the accessibility of web content. Specifically, we will examine: • Automated web accessibility testing tools (i.e., accessibility checkers) • Tools for evaluating colour contrast, validating HTML markup, and determining the reading level of web content • Assistive technologies (AT) • Manual testing strategies Building on the general understanding of automated review tools introduced in the unit Aspects of Web Accessibility Auditing, this unit focuses on a few specific tools that you will want to add to your toolkit. We won’t cover all the potential tools you might use, but rather focus on learning how to use some of the popular tools. Feel free to explore beyond those introduced here. The first group of tools we will look at are automated accessibility checkers. These are typically web-based tools that take a URL or a copied HTML page, scan through the HTML and run a variety of tests to determine the presence or absence of accessibility features. We will look at: • AChecker, developed at the Inclusive Design Research Centre at OCAD University in Toronto • The WAVE Accessibility Evaluation Tool, developed by the WebAIM group at the Center for Persons with Disabilities at Utah State University We’ll list a few others too, that you may want to investigate on your own. After familiarizing yourself with the automated accessibility testing tools, we’ll look at a few other automated tools for: • Testing colour contrast • Evaluating reading level • Validating HTML markup 4.02: Objectives and Activities Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Practice using one or more automated web content accessibility checkers. • Evaluate the strengths and limitations of automated web content accessibility checkers. • Select the automated web content accessibility checker that you wish to include in your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit. • Operate other tools used in accessibility testing. Activities • View walk-through/screencast videos of AChecker and WebAIM tools • Test websites you are familiar with • Test for colour contrast conformance • Test for readability conformance • Build your Toolkit (add bookmarks for tools introduced) • Self-Test 3 4.03: Limitations of Automated Web Accessibility Checkers Automated accessibility checkers are a must in your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit, though it is important to understand their limitations. Think of an automated accessibility checker like a spell checker in a word processor. Though a good start for identifying misspelled words, a person must still read through the text to ensure words have been used correctly (e.g., where “there” is used in place of “their”). For now, human judgement must also be involved for any potential barriers that involve assessing meaning. For example, automated checkers can identify ambiguous phrases like “click here” or “this link” used as link text, but a person needs to determine whether this text accurately describes the link’s destination or function. Similarly, a person must decide whether alt text or a long description for an image accurately describes the meaningful information in the image, something automated checkers cannot currently do. You may also want to make use of multiple accessibility checkers and compare results. See the Activity at the end of this unit for an exercise comparing automated accessibility checkers. Try This: Can you think of other instances where human judgement is required to assess the full extent of a barrier in web content? Another limitation worth noting is that automated checkers are unlikely to identify with certainty whether accessible equivalents are available for web content that has been flagged as a potential barrier. A human perspective is required to make the association between equivalent elements. However, the site provider may offer an accessible HTML version of the page as well. An automated checker would not recognize the connection between the barrier and its accessible alternative, but a person would.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/04%3A_Automated_Testing_Tools/4.01%3A_Automated_Testing_Tools.txt

Toolkit: Add the public version of AChecker Web Accessibility Checker to your Toolkit. In the public version, you can set up an account and do your automated accessibility testing. See below for details on downloading and installing your own version. Overview Fun Fact! AChecker was originally developed as an Enabling Change project, the same fund that supported the development of the materials here. First released in 2005, AChecker was created with the goal of providing an accessibility checking tool that was 100% transparent, interactive, customizable, and free. AChecker makes use of the Open Accessibility Checks (OAC), which is a collection of checks based on all web accessibility guidelines available globally. Currently, there are a total of 310 OAC checks employed by AChecker. AChecker Features AChecker has specific features for public users, registered users, administrators, and developers. To take advantage of these features, you should first create an account on the public AChecker site, if you are not planning to install a version of your own (see below). Follow the link you added to your Toolkit above, and click “Register” to create an account. Creating an account will allow you to save your accessibility reviews, and generate an AChecker seal for sites that pass its review. Figure: AChecker screenshot showing the main interface for conducting accessibility reviews For more about using AChecker, watch the following video: A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1311 © Greg Gay. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. Set Up Your Own AChecker Technical Download AChecker Installation Instructions • Unzip the master.zip file downloaded from GitHub into a php-enabled, web-accessible directory. • Open the installer in your browsers at http://[yourserver.com]/AChecker/install • Follow the instructions provided by the installer. Installing from GitHub or If You Plan to Contribute If you are familiar with using GitHub, you can clone the most current source code from there. This version often has new features not available yet in the public site, or in the downloadable version of the software, though it may be less stable than the publicly-distributed version. If you would like to participate in AChecker’s development, or you would like to add your own accessibility checks, or perhaps fix a bug you’ve found, working from GitHub is the way to have your work added to the public source code. 4.05: WAVE Accessibility Evaluation Tool Overview Another popular free accessibility checker is WAVE, developed by WebAIM at the Center for Persons with Disabilities at Utah State University. It is a web service, similar to AChecker, though without much of the interactivity and customizability. Those who prefer a visual presentation of the issues, as opposed to the list presentation of AChecker, may find WAVE easier to use. WAVE Features WAVE is similar to AChecker in the following respects: • WAVE can take a URL and assess the page it leads to • It evaluates one page at a time WAVE produces a report by reproducing the page that was reviewed, inserting a variety of icons into the content to identify errors (known problems) and alerts (potential problems), as well as the accessibility features that are present. Clicking on any of the icons will provide a brief description and a link to additional information. Toolkit: Add the WAVE Chrome Extension to your Toolkit. 4.06: Other Notable Accessibility Review Tools Explore the links listed here to get an idea of the range of accessibility checkers currently available, and the variation in these types of tools. Add them to your Web Accessibility Auditing Toolkit if you find them useful. Free Tools For basic accessibility testing, you may find these free tools useful. Proprietary (Fee for License) For larger sites, or for in-depth testing across a website, these enterprise level accessibility testing tools may be helpful. Even More Tools Collections of accessibility testing tools can be found through the following resources.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/04%3A_Automated_Testing_Tools/4.04%3A_AChecker_Web_Accessibility_Checker.txt

Colour Blindness Simulations Try This: To experience how colour blindness affects people’s ability to see colour, experiment with the Coblis – Color Blindness Simulator. Colour Contrast Testers A quick search of the Internet for “colour contrast test” should turn up a variety of tools you can use to test contrast. Here, we will mention the WebAIM Color Contrast Checker, but if you prefer another, you can add it to your Toolkit. Toolkit: Bookmark the WebAIM Color Contrast Checker and add it to your Toolkit. Why Colour Contrast Is Important You may recall from the unit Introduction to WCAG 2.0 that WCAG 2.0 Guidelines 1.4.3 and 1.4.6 address accessibility issues associated with colour contrast. These two guidelines are presented below. Note the contrast ratios at each level (4.5:1 & 3:1 at Level AA and 7:1 & 4.5:1 at Level AAA for smaller and larger text respectively). 1.4.3 Contrast (Minimum): The visual presentation of text and images of text has a contrast ratio of at least 4.5:1, except for the following (Level AA): • Large Text: Large-scale text and images of large-scale text have a contrast ratio of at least 3:1 • Incidental: Text or images of text that are part of an inactive user interface component, that are pure decoration, that are not visible to anyone, or that are part of a picture that contains significant other visual content, have no contrast requirement. • Logotypes: Text that is part of a logo or brand name has no minimum contrast requirement. 1.4.6 Contrast (Enhanced): The visual presentation of text and images of text has a contrast ratio of at least 7:1, except for the following (Level AAA): • Large Text: Large-scale text and images of large-scale text have a contrast ratio of at least 4.5:1. • Incidental: Text or images of text that are part of an inactive user interface component, that are pure decoration, that are not visible to anyone, or that are part of a picture that contains significant other visual content, have no contrast requirement. • Logotypes: Text that is part of a logo or brand name has no minimum contrast requirement. Some accessibility checkers will have colour contrast evaluation built into them (e.g., AChecker), but others will not. Technical: There are many colour contrast evaluators from which you may choose to support your contrast testing (see some suggestions below). Using any of these tools requires gathering the colour codes from the elements being evaluated. There are a variety of ways to find these codes, though the easiest is to use a browser’s “Inspect” feature. You can inspect the colours in the right frame, as shown in the figure below. Figure: Inspect panel showing the colour codes in the Style pane to the right Once you’ve tested a few colour combinations you’ll quickly develop a “feel” for good contrast, and be able to quickly scan a page and identify where contrast may not be sufficient. You can test the specific colours associated with those elements you’ve identified in a scan. There are tools, however, that will evaluate all the colours on a page (e.g., AChecker) – this may be preferable if you are reviewing a site that seems to have multiple contrast issues. For a walk through the WebAIM colour contrast checker, watch the following video: Video: Checking Colour Contrast A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1317 The Anatomy of a Colour Contrast Results Screen In the figure below you can see the foreground colour (#007ac6) and background colour (#ffffff) codes entered into the respective fields. Below that you will see the compliance status for Normal and Large text, at Level AA and Level AAA. In this case the colours contrast well enough to pass at Level AA (4.57:1), but for smaller text the contrast ratio fails at Level AAA. Sites should aim for Level AA contrast, but if feasible try for Level AAA compliance. Note the lighten and darken links next to the colour input field. You can click these (on the test site) to adjust the colours so they will pass, then take the resulting colour codes and replace the existing codes to adjust the colour on the site being evaluated so it complies. Figure: The WebAIM Colour Contrast Checker Other Contrast Testers Here are a few other colour contrast testers you may want to experiment with: 4.08: Readability Testing Why Is Readability Testing Important? Web content authors should use the simplest language possible for the following reasons: • Plain language will translate more easily for those who may wish to read the site in a different language. • Plain language will be more accessible to those with lower levels of literacy. • For a general audience, most readers will appreciate simpler language over the unnecessary use of complex words. Though appropriate reading level is identified as a Level AAA requirement in WCAG 2.0, this is one Level AAA guideline that most public sites should aim to meet in order to reach the broadest possible audience. The WCAG 2.0 guideline that is relevant to readability is 3.1.5: 3.1.5 Reading Level: When text requires reading ability more advanced than the lower secondary education level after removal of proper names and titles, supplemental content, or a version that does not require reading ability more advanced than the lower secondary education level, is available. (Level AAA) Reading Level Test Tools Automated accessibility checkers like AChecker and WAVE do not test for readability. You can find a variety of readability test tools by searching the Web for “readability test.” These tools run a variety of algorithms that measure things like word length, number of syllables per word, and sentence length, to come up with a readability score. We have selected one example here for you to include in your Toolkit: The Readability Test Tool. Toolkit: Bookmark The Readability Test Tool to add it to your Toolkit. This tool, like most others, will allow you to enter a URL to a webpage, or paste text into a text area. The output from the test appears in the figure below. In this case the reading level is about grade 10, in the range acceptable to pass Guideline 3.1.5. The first area lists a series of readability indices, calculated using various combinations of the characteristics of the text on the page. If you visit the tool’s site, the measures for these indices are listed. Below the indices is a list of the characteristics of the text content. All of these elements are averaged to come up with an average grade level score. Figure: Readability Test Results from the Readability Test Tool

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/04%3A_Automated_Testing_Tools/4.07%3A_Colour_Contrast_Evaluation.txt

Many HTML editing tools will have markup validation built into them, so you can test the validity of the code while creating it, but since most sites are dynamically assembled parts, these built-in validators have limited usefulness. It is necessary to validate markup after the code has been generated into a webpage using tools like the W3C’s HTML Validator. This is a tool you should add to your Toolkit. Toolkit: Bookmark the W3C Markup Validation Service to add it to your Toolkit. Technical: The content that follows is intended for a technical audience. The WCAG 2.0 Guideline that deals with markup validation is Guideline 4.1.1. Note that Parsing is a Level A requirement, so despite the fact that some “careless” code may get by without affecting accessibility, markup validation needs to be done in order to comply with WCAG 2.0. The guideline is reproduced below for your reference. 4.1.1 Parsing: In content implemented using markup languages, elements have complete start and end tags, elements are nested according to their specifications, elements do not contain duplicate attributes, and any IDs are unique, except where the specifications allow these features. (Level A) Note: Start and end tags that are missing a critical character in their formation, such as a closing angle bracket or a mismatched attribute value quotation mark are not complete. Why Perform Markup Validation? Markup validation ensures that the HTML of web content is well formed, and used in a way that is compliant with the HTML specifications. It is important that HTML be clean and properly structured for the following reasons: • Assistive technologies, such as screen readers, generally rely on the HTML to properly interpret content. Technologies will attempt to correct markup errors themselves, but there are some markup errors that will trip up assistive technologies, such as table cells that are not closed, or duplicate IDs used on a page. • Clean markup is a sign of quality work, and validating HTML should be something developers do consistently. • Clean markup ensures that barriers are not introduced inadvertently because of broken code. When to Perform Markup Validation? Markup validation should be done as early as possible in the web accessibility auditing process. It can help rule out apparent barriers when testing content with assistive technologies, so it is helpful to validate the HTML before doing any screen reader testing. We’ll talk more about screen reader testing in the section Screen Reader Testing. Notable Constraints of Markup Validation In reality it can be difficult to achieve 100% validation, and sometimes it may be necessary to let markup errors go. Below are some examples of situations that might require a developer’s and/or auditor’s judgement. ARIA in an XHTML document: Developers may wish to use ARIA in an XHTML document, which will fail validation because ARIA is not a part of the XHTML specification (it’s part of HTML5). Using ARIA in XHTML can enhance accessibility, so as an auditor you may choose to ignore these validation errors. HTML5 Elements: If HTML5 elements such as `nav` are being used to create a navigation bar, validation will produce warnings if the ARIA `role="navigation"` is used in that element. The`nav` element is supposed to already have a role of navigation built in. In reality, though, there is still inconsistent support for the `nav` element, so developers will often add `role="navigation"` as a fallback for technologies that do not identify `nav` correctly. From an accessibility perspective, it does not hurt to have the redundant roles in HTML5 elements. External Services: Another common validation issue occurs when developers use external services within markup that injects third party HTML into the code of a site. Google ads from Adwords, for instance, tend to introduce validation errors, though these errors have no bearing on accessibility. In all of the above cases, judgement is needed to decide whether the invalid markup creates a potential barrier or not, and whether these errors should be reported in a web accessibility audit. Such errors can cause a site to fail at Level A, which can have legal implications in jurisdictions that require Level A compliance. They can also have implications for auditors who choose to ignore these errors and pass a site at Level A, despite the HTML not validating. Key Point: If a site is given Level A compliance with any of these validation errors present, an explanation must be provided in the audit report. How Validators Work Much like the automated accessibility checkers, it is possible to have the validator assess markup via URL, file upload, or by pasting in HTML. Note that the HTML must be a full HTML document, with all the necessary components including a DOCTYPE declaration, an opening HTML element, a HEAD element and Title, as well as opening and closing BODY elements and a closing HTML element at the end of the document. When running the validator there are a variety of settings that can be adjusted, though the default settings are usually sufficient. One option you may want to enable is “Show Source” which prints out the HTML of the page, making it easier to identify exactly where issues occur in the page. This option and others are shown in the screenshot of the W3C Validator that follows. The W3C Validator will also identify some accessibility issues, such as images missing alt text or use of duplicate IDs within the content. Figure: The W3C Markup Validation Service opening screen, with various options displayed ⇧ Back to Top

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/04%3A_Automated_Testing_Tools/4.09%3A_Markup_Validation.txt

If you have had an opportunity to begin experimenting with the AChecker and/or WAVE automated accessibility review tools, consider these questions for self-reflection: • What advantages/disadvantages have you found for each of these tools? • What features do you find most useful? • How do they compare in the reports they generate? Do you get the same result? If not, how do they differ? • If you have used other accessibility checkers not listed in the course, how do they compare to WAVE and AChecker? 4.11: Self-Test 3 Question 1 Please follow the directions below and then select all applicable options: • Open a new browser window. • Launch one of the one of the colour contrast testing tools presented in Unit 3. • Once you have opened the tool, enter each pair of colour identifiers (foreground, background) listed below in the appropriate fields pair, and identify which ones provide sufficient contrast to pass Guideline 1.4.3. Assume the foreground text is a 12 point font. • Select all pairs below that pass Guideline 1.4.3. 1. 0000ff, ffffff 2. 9a9aff, efefef 3. 9a9aff, 7a4fef 4. 000000, 8f6bf1 5. 5c5c5c, 63f1af 6. 4c4c4c, 11c973 7. 4d4d4d, c9a1c1 Question 2 Please follow the directions below and then select the correct option: • Open a new browser window. • Launch the readability test tool. • Once you have opened the tool, evaluate the following block of text (do not include the quotes surrounding the paragraph). • Determine the overall reading grade level required to effectively understand the paragraph. • Select the average grade level range from the list below. “Though reading level is a Level AAA requirement in WCAG, this is one Level AAA guideline that most public sites should aim for to reach the broadest possible audience. Generally speaking Web content authors should use the simplest language possible (within reason). Simple text will translate more easily for those who may wish to read the site in a different language. It will be more accessible to those with lower levels of education, or for those reading in a second language. And for a general audience, most readers will appreciate simpler language over unnecessary use of “big” words. Being able to explain things in simple language for most, is a more intelligent use of language than loading it with jargon, complex terminology, and unnecessarily complicated words and sentences.” 1. 6 to 7 2. 8 to 9 3. 10 to 11 4. 12 to 13 5. 14 to 15 6. 16 to 17 7. 18 to 19 Question 3 Please follow the directions below and then select the correct option: • Launch AChecker • Launch WAVE • In each checking tool, enter the following Web page: Web Accessibility Auditing Showcase: Images • Identify the number of “Known” problems flagged by each tool. • What is the difference between the number of known problems identified in AChecker and the number of errors identified by WAVE? • Select the correct answer from the options below. 1. none 2. one 3. two 4. three 5. four 6. five Question 4 Based on the evaluations that you did in the Question 3, which of the following issues did both checkers identify? Please select all that apply. 1. missing form label 2. headings used improperly 3. image missing alt text 4. colour contrast is insufficient 5. link text may not be meaningful 6. duplicate IDs were found 7. image may contain text that is not in the alt text Answers to Self-Test 3 A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/04%3A_Automated_Testing_Tools/4.10%3A_Activity-_Compare_AChecker_and_WAVE.txt

In addition to automated testing and testing with assistive technologies (AT), manual testing is an important part of web accessibility auditing. A number of simple manual tests will be introduced so you can quickly get a general sense of the accessibility of a website and identify key issues with just a cursory scan. For the developers taking this course, more complex manual testing will also be introduced, involving the examination of source code and dynamically tweaking code to test potential solutions. The manual testing strategies discussed in this module include: • Tab Key Navigation Test • “Select All” Test • Code Examination and Repair • Media Review 5.02: Objectives and Activities Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Use manual accessibility tests to quickly identify potential barriers. • Identify a variety of tools that can assist with web accessibility auditing. • Identify potential barriers in multimedia content. • Utilize basic code examination strategies to identify and confirm potential accessibility barriers. • Implement code changes in live webpages to test potential solutions to accessibility barriers. Activities • Install and explore browser add-on tools • Reflect on your preferences, pros and cons, and other possible tools for manual testing • Self-Test 4 5.03: Tab Key Navigation Test The Tab Key Navigation test is often used with the “Select All” test (discussed on the next page) to confirm whether items that were not selected are keyboard operable, but this test can also be used on its own. Place the cursor at the very start of the HTML content (sometimes tricky), or in the browser’s location field or address bar, then press the Tab key repeatedly and watch as the cursor moves through the content of the page. Make the following observations: 1. Are you able to see the cursor’s area of focus as you move through elements of the page? If not, this will violate Guideline 2.4.7 Focus Visible (Level AA). When reporting on the issue, recommend adding a focus indicator so it is possible to visually follow the cursor as it moves through the page. 2. As you navigate with the Tab key through elements on the page, do all functional elements such as links, buttons or forms receive focus? If not, those elements that do not receive focus are going to be inaccessible to some people, violating Guideline 2.1.1 Keyboard (Level A). Technical: These elements are often custom features built with non-standard HTML and JavaScript. In such cases you can recommend the use of standard HTML where possible or suggest the developer add keyboard focus for the element by adding `tabindex="0"` to the HTML, and add keyboard events, in addition to the existing mouse events, to the programming that controls the functionality of the feature. 1. When navigating with the Tab key through elements of the page, is the path followed through these elements the standard left to right, top to bottom sequence? If the cursor’s focus jumps around, moving to places on the page outside where you might logically expect the cursor to go by viewing the layout of elements on the page, it may violate Guideline 2.4.3 Focus Order (Level A). By default the focus order will be standard, so in cases where the order is irregular, it is because the developer has purposely changed the order. You may recommend removing the irregular tab sequence or adjusting it to follow a more meaningful path. 2. While navigating with the Tab key through menus, and other features that one can operate with a mouse, do these features also operate with a keyboard? If they do not, they will be inaccessible to those who use only a keyboard to move through web content. In the figure below, the submenus that drop down when one of the main navigation elements is clicked cannot be opened with a keypress. These types of menus may use the arrow keys to open and navigate through submenus, or they may operate using the Tab key. Arrow keys are preferred, though Tab key navigation will satisfy the success criteria associated with keyboard operability. For drop down menus like those described in #4 above, also watch for Tab key navigation moving through the items in the submenus, but the submenus not visibly opening. This will be confusing for low vision keyboard users who are following the focus indicator to keep track of where they are within the page. Figure: Scenario in which the menus only function with a mouse click (see Lulu’s Lollipops)

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/05%3A_Manual_Testing_Strategies/5.01%3A_Introduction_to_Manual_Testing_Strategies.txt

The “Select All” test can help identify elements in web content that are not keyboard accessible. The key command for “Select All” in Windows is Ctrl-A, and for Mac is Command-A. How to Perform a “Select All” Test After pressing the “select all” key command for the operating system you are using to select the content of a webpage, scan over the page looking for elements that are not selected. In the two screenshots below, the first has nothing yet selected, and the second is the result of pressing the “select all” key combination. Compare “Before Select All” above, with “After Select All” below and notice the elements that do not have the blue background colour in the latter version. Before Select All Figure: Screenshot prior to selecting to compare with the screenshot below After Select All Figure: Screenshot after selecting showing elements that do not appear to be selected In the second screenshot, the Feedback tab located on the right does not appear to be selected and is missing the blue background colour that appears when other elements are selected. That tab should be investigated further to see if it is keyboard operable. The appearance of not being selected does not necessarily mean such elements are not keyboard operable, but warrants further testing. This testing can be done by using the Tab Key Navigation test described on the previous page. Using Tab key navigation you can confirm that the Feedback tab on the right is indeed not keyboard operable. It may then be appropriate to identify the tab as a potential barrier when reporting on the site. Do search the screen for other ways to get to the Feedback form. There may be an accessible alternative elsewhere on the page, in which case it may be acceptable for the Feedback tab to be inaccessible, as long as the alternative is relatively easy to access. 5.05: Code Examination and Repair Technical: The content on this page is intended for a technical audience. Toolkit: If your preferred browser is Firefox, you may wish to install Firefox for Developers, with extended developer tools. You can also use the standard Inspect Element tool found in most browsers’ context menu by right clicking on an element and selecting it from the menu. Once you have discovered a potential barrier, you can identify where the problem is occurring in the HTML markup. In the screenshot below, the feedback tab (1) on the right of the screen is examined by right clicking and choosing “Inspect Element with Firebug”” (2). Note: Firebug is now deprecated, but you can do the same thing with selecting “Inspect Element” from the menu. You will notice the code associated with the feature is highlighted in the code window (3) to the lower left. Click on the Edit button (4) to edit that HTML to test possible solutions. Figure: Steps to examine and modify code to test potential accessibility solutions In the case above, the Tab Key Navigation test revealed that the Feedback tab would not receive focus, thus could not be operated with a keyboard. A simple fix for this is to add `tabindex="0"` to the main element containing the tab. Once added, without reloading the page, the Tab Key Navigation test is conducted again to see if the tab now takes keyboard focus. It does, though it is still not possible to operate the tab, which requires modifying the associated JavaScript. Figure: Result of adding `tabindex="0"` After clicking the Edit button, the selected code from above is opened for editing. In this case `tabindex="0"` has been added to test whether this adds keyboard focus to the Feedback tab (which it does). For a look at other tools for examining code, watch the following video on the Chrome accessibility audits. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1349 © Google Chrome Developers. Released under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution license.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/05%3A_Manual_Testing_Strategies/5.04%3A_Select_All_Test.txt

Another element of web content that is typically examined manually is multimedia. There are three potential accommodations that can be found with various media: captions, audio description, and transcripts (and combinations of these, depending on the media). Video All video with meaningful spoken dialogue must include captions that reproduce the verbal elements of the video. Depending on the jurisdiction you are in, video may also require audio description (referred to as described video for television) – an audio track added to the video that describes the action or context of the video that one would not be able to determine by listening. The third element is an optional transcript, made available as a separate file that can be downloaded or reviewed online on its own. Key Point: In Ontario, audio description is only required from government organizations as of 2020, despite being a Level A requirement in WCAG 2.0. For other organizations in Ontario it is not required. Audio description, however, can be an important accommodation for people who are blind, so smaller organizations should still attempt to provide audio description when needed. Adding captions to a video is a fairly straightforward process, with the right tools. Services like YouTube provide built-in tools that allow video producers to add captions directly through the YouTube video manager. Many video production programs also include tools for creating captions. The Amara caption editor, which will also caption YouTube videos, can be used to caption videos from other sources on the Web. It generates a caption file that can be imported into video editors or players, to quickly add captions. It is also relatively straightforward to convert the caption file into a transcript, by removing the time codes from the caption file. Toolkit: Add the Amara Caption Editor to your Toolkit, familiarize yourself with how it works, and provide the link to it in your audit reports where missing captions have been identified. One word of caution regarding services that provide automated captions: these captions do not satisfy the success criterion associated with Guideline 1.2.2 Captions (Prerecorded) Level A. They may be a helpful strategy to consider in cases when a video must be posted in a hurry; however, in many cases these automated captions have a very high error rate, and provide little accommodation for those who require them. Only human-generated captions are acceptable to meet the requirements of this guideline. One of the most useful aspects of automated captions is that they are a good starting point for human-generated captions. They can be exported from YouTube into Amara where they can be refined, then exported back to YouTube. However, the more errors automated captions have in them, the less useful they become as a starting point for human-generated captions. With an error rate of about 35% or worse, you are better off captioning from scratch. Key Point: Automated captioning output is not considered an acceptable text alternative for audio. Captions must be created by a human being. For more on how to use the YouTube and Amara caption editors, view the videos below. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1351 © Noah’s World!!!. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1351 © Amara Subtitles. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. Audio Examining the accessibility of audio content is straightforward. When audio with meaningful spoken information is presented, a transcript must be provided. It is also possible in some cases to caption an audio track if it is being presented in a player that supports captioned audio. Provide captioned audio where possible, but also be sure to include a transcript. Figure: Example of captioned audio 5.07: Other Tools for Manual Testing You may also find the following tools useful when auditing web accessibility. Though we won’t go into any detail here, you may optionally install these add-ons and extensions and explore their capabilities. 5.08: Activity- Chrome Tools For this activity you will need the Chrome web browser. Be sure to install it now if you have not already. You will need it in the next unit as well. Visit the Chrome Web Store using the Chrome web browser, and install the ColorPick Eyedropper and the WAVE Chrome Extension. Explore the features of these tools and think about how they might be used during web accessibility auditing activities. 5.09: Self-Test 4 Question 1 The “Tab Key Navigation test” is useful for identifying a variety of potential barriers. From those uses listed below, select all that the Tab Key Navigation test would identify. 1. Focus visibility 2. Keyboard operability 3. Missing alt text 4. Focus order 5. Descriptive feedback Question 2 Which of the following potential barriers would the “Select All test” be useful in identifying? Select all that apply. 1. Focus visibility 2. Keyboard operability 3. Missing alt text 4. Focus order 5. Descriptive feedback Question 3 To examine the HTML markup associated with a potential barrier that has been identified using the Tab Key Navigation or Select All tests, a recommended approach would be to use: 1. The browser’s “View Source” function 2. The Browser’s “Inspect Element” function 3. Install and use the “Examine Markup” browser plugin 4. The W3C Markup Validator 5. Use the WebAIM toolbar’s view source feature Question 4 When reviewing video content for accessibility, which of the following alternatives does WCAG 2.0 suggest should be provided? Select all that apply. 1. An alternative slideshow for those who do not have a video player 2. Captioning 3. A downloadable PDF version 4. A downloadable slideshow version 5. A transcript 6. Audio description Answers to Self-Test 4 A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/05%3A_Manual_Testing_Strategies/5.06%3A_Media_Review.txt

In this unit we will look more closely at assistive technology testing, and particularly testing with a screen reader, and in the next unit we will look at strategies for including people with disabilities as part of a web accessibility audit. Specifically, we will examine: • Screen readers as an accessibility testing tool • ChromeVox screen reader and learning to use it • Screening user testers • Developing user testing protocols Many of Lulu’s potential clients might use assistive technology to access her site, so to help ensure the success of Lulu’s “barrier-breaking” efforts, it is important to assess how the site and these devices interact. There is a wide range of assistive technologies (AT) that people use to access the Web, from browser-based tools for magnifying text, to screen readers that read back text content, to various types of hardware such as braille displays, or switches and scanners that can be used by those with limited physical mobility to control keyboard and mouse actions. Figure: Examples of assistive technology Source: Intro2AT Why Learn About Assistive Technologies? While web accessibility guidelines are written to be technology neutral, and intended to remove the need for testing with specific AT, there are times when manual testing with AT may be necessary. Screen readers are most commonly used for manual AT testing. You were introduced to the ChromeVox screen reader in the section ChromeVox Screen Reader. We will introduce you to some other common screen readers and discuss their strengths and limitations. We will also examine their compatibility across web browsers, operating systems, devices, and with various web accessibility technologies. 6.02: Objectives and Activities Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Use basic features of desktop screen readers such as JAWS and NVDA. • Use basic features of mobile screen readers such as VoiceOver and Talkback. • Identify assistive technologies other than screen readers that might be used in web accessibility testing. Activities • Practice using ChromeVox screen reader for day-to-day screen reader testing • Experience web navigation with a screen reader as your primary means of accessing content • Self-Test 5 6.03: Screen Reader Testing In this course, we focus specifically on the ChromeVox screen reader add-on for the Chrome web browser because of its simplicity, support for standards, and its availability across platforms and being free, open source software. We will also introduce you to a number of other screen readers and provide a summary of the main keyboard commands you might use during screen reader testing. For new or inexperienced users, learning to operate a screen reader can be difficult, particularly if you are not using one on a regular basis. Memorizing the basic commands provided in the upcoming pages is often enough for screen reader testing purposes, though there is much more functionality in screen readers that is not discussed here. You are encouraged to explore the full range of features screen readers have to offer as time allows. ChromeVox is ideal for developers and auditors, though it does have its limitations, and it is a good idea to do final screen reader testing with one of the more broadly used screen readers like JAWS, Window Eyes, NVDA, or VoiceOver, and across multiple browsers and devices. What may seem accessible with one combination of browser and screen reader, may not necessarily have the same accessibility across other combinations.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/06%3A_Assistive_Technology_Testing/6.01%3A_Assistive_Technology_Testing.txt

There are a variety of screen readers available for different operating systems, whether you are using Windows, Mac, Linux, iOS, or Android, and there are a few web-based screen readers. The more common screen readers are listed below for reference. Screen readers should not be confused with Text-to-Speech (TTS) applications. Though both read text content aloud, TTS only reads content text, such as the text on this page, and not the menus or interface of the browser or reader application displaying the page. Screen readers also read content text, but they also read aloud elements of the browser’s interface and elements of the operating system, as well as provide ways to navigate the content, with features for listing headings, links, or tables, for example. These features are not typically found in TTS applications. Browser-Based (Free Open Source) For a more thorough list of screen readers, see Wikipedia’s Screen Reader entry. Important to Note: Many of the listings at this Wikipedia link are not actually screen readers, but rather Text-to-Speech (TTS) programs. The two should not be confused. TTS programs generally only read text selected from content, while screen readers tend to read all elements of the operating system they run on, or all elements in web content. Screen Reader Usage Trends It is rarely possible to test with every screen reader available, so it is a good idea to choose the screen readers you use strategically. Understanding screen reader usage patterns can help you decide which one(s) to test with. WebAIM has been conducting screen reader user surveys since 2009, with the latest results from October 2019 (as of this writing). The 2019 WebAIM Screen Reader User Survey notes that 72.5% of respondents used more than one desktop/laptop screen reader on a regular basis, with NVDA (72.4%), JAWS (61.7%), and VoiceOver (47.1%) in the lead. This was the first year NVDA usage exceeded JAWS usage. With built-in screen readers like VoiceOver on Mac, and free open source screen readers like NVDA – both much improved in recent years – many users are opting for these less expensive options. JAWS, though highly functional, is expensive software and can be out of reach for some who need screen reader technology. Microsoft’s Narrator first made an appearance in the 2017 survey with 21.4% respondents reporting using it commonly on a desktop/laptop. In 2019, Microsoft Narrator usage increased to 30.3%. In 2015 its usage was so low that it wasn’t even mentioned by name, but because of significant improvements in Windows 10 it has been gaining users. The previous 2015 survey reflected a significant dip in JAWS and NVDA usage in favour of Window-Eyes and ZoomText that isn’t repeated in the 2017 or 2019 results. The 2017 survey attributes the difference to the respondents’ demographics: “What happened in 2015? Essentially, the survey was distributed to a much broader audience, with many ZoomText and Window-Eyes users recruited to respond. Window-Eyes was also offered freely with Microsoft Office before the 2015 survey, but has since been discontinued.” Figure: Usage patterns of commonly used screen readers Source: WebAIM Screen Reader User Survey #8 Mobile screen reader usage has increased exponentially over the years, from just 12% in 2009 to 88% in 2017 (statistic not available in 2019). VoiceOver is a clear market leader on mobile platforms (commonly used by 69% of respondents in 2017, up to 71.2% in 2019), followed by TalkBack for Android (29.5% in 2017, up to 33% in 2019). Keep this in mind when screen reader testing. Testing with mobile screen readers should be considered. The following table from WebAIM shows changes in screen readers commonly used for desktop and laptop computers between 2009 and 2019. Which of the following desktop/laptop screen readers do you commonly use? Screen Reader 2009 2015 2017 2019 JAWS 75.2% 43.7% 66.0% 61.7% NVDA 25.6% 41.4% 64.9% 72.4% VoiceOver 14.6% 30.9% 39.6% 47.1 Window-Eyes 23.5% 29.6% 4.7% 1.2% ZoomText 7.5% 27.5% 6.0% 5.5% System Access or System Access To Go 22.3% 6.9% 4.0% 3.5% ChromeVox n/a 2.8% 5.1% 4.7% Narrator n/a n/a 21.4% 30.3% Other 7.7% 6.5% 6.4% 6.0% Other Screen Readers to Consider Readings and References: Here is a list of Other Screen Readers to Consider [PDF] when screen reader testing.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/06%3A_Assistive_Technology_Testing/6.04%3A_Summary_of_Available_Screen_Readers.txt

While screen readers are the most common assistive technology used in web accessibility testing, there are others that merit consideration when performing web accessibility audits. Fortunately, when AT testing is required, the issues that are identified while testing with a screen reader are often similar to issues that may arise with other AT. Listed below are some of the more common assistive technologies that may be included in accessibility testing, perhaps as part of user testing, covered in the unit User Testing, to gather additional usability feedback across a range of diverse users. Magnification Screen magnification software is often used by people with low vision to make text and images larger and more visible. Some screen magnifiers, such as ZoomText, function much like a screen reader, with audio output in addition to magnifying the content. Issues that create barriers for those using screen readers often also arise with screen magnification. For a sampling of different brands and types of magnifiers, you may wish to review the videos below. Video: Introducing ZoomText 11 A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1381 © aisquared. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. Video: Windows 7 Magnifier A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1381 © Better Living Through Technology. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1381 © Todd Boniface. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. Technical: Operating systems such as Mac, Windows, as well as iOS and Android, have screen magnification programs built into them. While they don’t have all the capabilities of a full-fledged screen magnifier such as ZoomText, they are often sufficient to meet the needs of low vision users. In terms of potential accessibility issues, there are relatively few because these tools magnify the screen, as opposed to the content itself, so the content magnifies regardless of whether it was created in a way that would allow it to be resized. What may be problematic for magnifier users are low grade images, particularly those containing text, which tend to degrade when magnification is applied. Another type of magnification is built into web browsers. Until recently, browser magnification would increase the size of text only, leaving images and other elements of the content at their original size. Now however, most browser magnification works like the screen magnifiers mentioned above, magnifying the entire browser window as opposed to the content within the window. As a result text and images, and other content elements, magnify at the same rate. At least for the short term, until all older browsers are replaced by newer ones that magnify the window instead of just the text, some users will still have trouble with magnification. When testing content magnification with a browser, test with just the text magnified. In Firefox for instance, in the ViewZoom menu there is an option to Zoom the text only. If when testing in this mode the text does not increase in size, or the text size increases but other elements on the page do not, this may be an indication that elements have been sized with absolute measures using pixel (px) or point (pt) measures, rather than using relative measures such as percent (%) or “em” measures. The latter relative measures applied to content elements will resize these elements at the same rate as the text when using browser text magnification, while those sized with absolute measures typically will remain the same size. Voice Recognition Voice recognition is being built into a range of systems and is not only for those who require it as an assistive technology. Take Siri, for instance, on iOS devices. Windows has built-in speech recognition and even Google allows you to simply speak your search terms. So, creating content that will be accessible by voice means that all operable elements in web content should include text that is readable by AT. A range of users who are perhaps unable to use a mouse or keyboard can use voice recognition software instead to operate their computers. Within web content it is also possible to speak commands. To activate a link or a button, one would speak the text of these elements to bring focus to and activate the element. Barriers occur when these elements do not contain readable text, such as an image used as a button without alt text, or a navigation element created with images, again without alt text. One of the more popular voice recognition applications is Dragon NaturallySpeaking. It can be used to navigate through web content or to control a computer’s operating system. The following NaturallySpeaking Demo will give you a brief look at how voice recognition works. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1381 © Ilana Benish. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. Alternative Input By alternative input we mean devices or software other than a mouse and keyboard, which allow users to control their computer and navigate the Web. You have already been introduced to voice recognition, which takes one’s voice as input. There are many devices that can take the place of a mouse and a keyboard; voice recognition, onscreen keyboards, a head mouse, and various types of switches. The following video will give you an idea of how these technologies are used. The person in the video has no use of his arms and legs and uses his computer to perform complex tasks with the help of an onscreen keyboard, a sip and puff switch, and a head mouse. Video: Head-Designed A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1381 © AssistiveWare. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. In terms of identifying accessibility issues that affect those using alternative input, there are relatively few when compared to barriers that might be faced by screen reader users. A few to watch for include: • Small target areas that might be difficult to position a mouse pointer over. Targeting a radio button for instance, can be made easier if a proper label is used, making the label itself clickable to activate the button. • Well designed error feedback can also improve usability by reducing the effort needed to recover when an error occurs. For example, if an email address is entered incorrectly, identify this error before the form submits, and send the cursor to the email field so it can be corrected after the error message is acknowledged. 6.06: Activity- Using ChromeVox to Find Accessibility Features NOTE: If you are a regular day-to-day screen reader user (i.e., you are blind or have significant vision loss) use your own screen reader for this activity instead of ChromeVox. Ideally, accessibility features will be invisible to typical users so they do not interfere with their user experience. In addition to using a screen reader to identify accessibility problems, it is an important tool for identifying features that add to the accessibility of a website, so when reporting you are not identifying potential barriers that may have hidden alternatives. In this activity practice using ChromeVox to identify hidden accessibility features in a website. Refer back to ChromeVox Screen Reader in the section ChromeVox Screen Reader , and have the keyboard commands list beside you when completing this activity. 1. Open the Showcase Demo Site in Chrome, and turn on ChromeVox. 2. Leave your monitor turned on so you can see what you are doing. 3. Put your mouse away, and use only your keyboard to navigate through the site. 4. Create a list of all the hidden accessibility features on the site. You may also list the visible accessibility features if there are any. 5. In addition to listing the accessibility features, if relevant, describe what the screen reader announces when it encounters the accessibility features in your list. Hint: Some of the features to listen for are WAI-ARIA enabled elements. You may need to examine the HTML source to determine what they are, or use the Chrome Inspect tool to see how WAI-ARIA is being used. Suggested answers to Activity 6.07: Self-Test 5 Question 1 According to the data from the WebAIM Screen Reader Survey, when it comes to screen readers commonly used, which of the following screen readers experiences the least usage? 1. JAWS 2. NVDA 3. ChromeVox 4. VoiceOver 5. Window-Eyes 6. Talkback Question 2 Based on your Chapter 5 readings, which screen reader makes use of a rotor for accessing different features of Web content, such as headings, lists, tables and links? 1. JAWS 2. NVDA 3. ChromeVox 4. VoiceOver 5. Window-Eyes 6. Talkback Question 3 Which of the screen readers introduced in this Unit are open source software? Choose all that apply. 1. JAWS 2. NVDA 3. ChromeVox 4. VoiceOver 5. Window-Eyes 6. Talkback Answers to Self-Test 5 A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/06%3A_Assistive_Technology_Testing/6.05%3A_Other_Assistive_Technologies.txt

While user testing is not a necessary element of a web accessibility audit, it can still be of value. This is because user testing can provide useful information about the usability of web content that an expert accessibility auditor may not discover through a technical audit. Going back to the “Curb Cut” discussion introduced in the section Why Learn about Web Accessibility Auditing?, user testing with people with disabilities is a good way to identify usability issues in general, that affect all users. Issues are typically “amplified” for people with disabilities, making them easier to identify than might be the case with other users who may work around usability issues. There are a variety of ways to approach user testing, ranging from having colleagues with disabilities provide feedback on web content to highly controlled scientific studies that recruit randomly sampled control and experimental groups, exposing them to content that is and is not accessible to study the difference in their behaviour. While we will not address testing at the level of scientific studies, this unit will look at the benefits and challenges associated with user testing, and provide some guidelines to help you design user testing scenarios that provide useful feedback on accessible designs without incurring extensive additional costs. 7.02: Objectives and Activities Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Identify instances where user testing is needed. • Recruit and screen user testers. • Develop a test protocol, including observation and recording. Activities • Identify possible agencies in your area that might assist with user testing • Develop a possible test protocol for users of Lulu’s Lollipops website • Self-Test 6 7.03: Involving User Testers User testing in web accessibility auditing projects is a good idea, though who to include and when needs some thoughtful consideration. You should not attempt to generalize results when only a small number of users are involved. Testing with users will help identify issues for a particular user, or groups of users with similar disabilities, but may not be relevant to people with other types of disabilities, those with the same disabilities who use different assistive technologies (AT), or those with different levels of expertise with the Web and their AT. Nonetheless, involving just a few experienced AT users can provide valuable input for your audit. When to Involve Users If you plan to involve user testers in the auditing process, they should be included after the auditing against all relevant standards has been done, and the resulting recommendations have been implemented. At that point the accessibility of the site should be relatively good, so the focus can be aimed at improving usability. In some cases, if web accessibility auditing involves incremental testing during the development of a new website or a web application, it is useful to include user testers from the start of the development process. This can help avoid costly issues later on in the development by identifying accessibility and usability problems early on in the design phase of a development project. How to Select the Types of Users to Recruit In most cases user testers should have average to expert web and AT knowledge to produce the best feedback. This helps reduce issues that arise due to not knowing how to use AT effectively. Later in this unit we’ll look at screening user testers. There are cases however, when you may want to include novice AT users, if for instance you are working with a site that caters to specific disability groups. Sites such as these are often visited by novice users, thus should be functional with just basic web and AT experience. When choosing user testers, it is helpful to select a group based on the assistive technology they are using. Choose screen reader users, magnifier users, alternative input users, text to speech users, voice recognition users, and so on, rather than choosing based on disability. You might also choose people who do not use assistive technologies. For example, some people may use browser-based adaptations to access web content, and older users can provide useful information about common age-related visual, auditory, physical, and cognitive changes that affect their ability to access the Web. A Note on Working with People with Disabilities It is not uncommon for people who have not previously worked with people with disabilities to feel a little unsure of themselves, sometimes uncertain how to interact, or worried about saying the wrong thing. The best approach, not surprisingly, is simply to interact as you would with anyone: • Introduce yourself • Speak normally • Ask before attempting to help • Ask before touching a guide animal • Don’t be afraid of using non-disabled words (e.g. “…as you’ll see” to a blind person) • Talk to the person, not their companion or helper • Use people first language (e.g., person who is blind, rather than a blind person) • Avoid offensive language (use “person who is blind” or “…with a visual impairment”) • Be aware of personal space For more about interacting with people with disabilities see the following resources: Readings and References: Interacting with People with Disabilities A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1402 © dcgovernment. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1402 © BBC Three. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. 7.04: Recruiting User Testers It’s relatively easy to find user testers through social media groups, disability and accessibility mailing lists, university accessibility services, or organizations that serve people with disabilities. People with disabilities tend to be receptive to testing when you are improving accessibility, and are often willing to refer you to other potential testers. After all the work that she and her team have done, Lulu realizes that one potential source of referrals for user testers may in fact be the organization who approached Lulu’s Lollipops to inquire about their accessibility in the first place! Initial Screening It is important that user testers be screened for particular characteristics, including good understanding of web technologies, as well as proficiency using their respective AT. This is necessary, in most cases, to ensure that issues that testers’ experience during testing are attributable to problems with the web content or application being tested, and not the result of inexperience with the Web or limited expertise with the AT being used. There are a number of questions that you can ask that will help gauge a user tester’s level of knowledge. The two main categories of questions to cover in screening user testers are: • Web Knowledge • Assistive Technology Expertise Toolkit: Download the User Tester Screening Questions [docx] and add it to your Toolkit. Note that the template includes instructional commentary that you should remove if you distribute the questions to potential users. Though these questions can be a good indicator of a tester’s level of understanding, keep in mind that users may exaggerate their experience or not be aware of their level of understanding. Additional questions or observation may be needed once the user is in front of a computer using their assistive technology. For another approach to screening users for accessibility testing, visit the following resource: Recruiting Screener.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/07%3A_User_Testing/7.01%3A_User_Testing.txt

Thanks to some helpful referrals from her client, Lulu has reached out and contacted a number of people to assist with user testing. Now she is ready to plan her testing. To conduct your user testing, in most cases you will want to develop a “test protocol” that details the activities and the steps taken to test a particular set of features. Most testing sessions with users should not exceed one hour, so a test protocol should provide a number of relatively short scenarios that can be completed in 5-10 minutes, allowing time between each scenario for a few questions to probe the user’s experience. Talk Aloud Protocol One of the best ways to gather information about a user’s experience using your web content is to have them talk aloud as they complete tasks. Record verbal responses as well as any emotional responses or facial expression in a log. You can also ask simple questions like “what were you thinking when…?” to determine their thoughts. It may be preferable to video or audio record sessions and analyze them afterwards so you as the observer can focus your attention on guiding and probing the tester’s thoughts. Note: If you plan to video or audio record testing sessions, always be sure to inform user testers of this fact. Test Protocol Example – The Lake Devo Website As an example of a potential user testing protocol, we will look at the plans put together to user test Lake Devo, a web-based role playing game used by students at Ryerson University to design and play out various scenarios related to their subject of study. The Lake Devo website has recently undergone extensive improvements for accessibility. The User Testers A couple of screen reader users who had not used Lake Devo previously were recruited to complete a series of tasks that would test the accessibility and usability of key features in the software. Both were skilled JAWS users and knowledgeable about web technology. They were both also students in online courses at the university. The testers were told they would receive compensation in the form of a \$100 CAD prepaid credit card. Regardless of whether the testers completed all the scenarios, they received their compensation. Pre-Test Tasks Before starting the testing session, the Observer (in this case the web developer) provided a description of Lake Devo, its purpose, its main features, and an overview of how it might be used to develop a role playing movie. Each user tester was informed at the start of the session that if at anytime they needed a break, felt uncomfortable or wished to discontinue testing, they were free to do so. Then the Observer introduced the scenarios the tester would be asked to complete and how the session would unfold. For each of the scenarios, the Observer essentially “trained” the user testers by doing the following: • Reading out the scenario in full • Walking through the scenario him/herself describing aloud the steps taken to complete the task • Modelling the talk aloud protocol Lake Devo Test Scenarios Scenario 1: Watch the web accessibility movie and answer a skill-testing question [no login required] low effort 1. Find the Gallery link in the Lake Devo main navigation and open the Gallery. 2. On the Gallery screen enter the words “Lake Devo Accessibility” into the search field and submit the search. 3. In the search results choose the “Lake Devo Accessibility” movie and click or keypress to open the movie. 4. On the movie player screen that opens, find the play button and explore the other options available in the player toolbar. 5. Return to the play button and click or keypress the button to start the movie. 6. Listen to the movie as it plays, and pay attention so you can answer the question about the movie that will follow. 7. Answer the question the Observer asks you. Scenario 2: Create a new character [login required] medium effort 1. Log in to Lake Devo with the account created for you, using the login link at the top right of the screen, then fill in the login form, and press the Login button. 2. In the MyStudio screen that opens, find the Access Team community and click or keypress to open the list of movies created by community members (of which you are one). 3. In that list of movies, find the Learning About Accessibility movie, and click or keypress that movie to open it in the script editor. 4. Find the Movie Settings button in the Script Editor, and press it to open the Movie Setting tabpanel, consisting of Movie Info, Character, and Scenes tabs. 5. Click or keypress the Characters tab to open the list of current characters in the movie. 6. In the Create New Character area, open the character editor. 7. Observer describes the character editor: The character editor consists of two main panels, with the preview of the character on the left, and a series of tab panels on the right from which to choose characteristics for the character. These include: info, face, nose, hair, shirt, outerwear, and accessories. 8. To begin creating your character, fill in the name, description, choose male or female, adult or child, and if desired check the checkbox “This character requires a wheelchair.” These are all elements of the form that opens under the info tab. 9. After entering the character info, return to the tabs, navigate to the faces tab and choose a face shape and a face colour. 10. Next open the Nose tab and choose a nose. 11. Optionally, choose hair and a hair colour, a shirt and shirt colour, outerwear, and accessories from the other tabs. 12. After choosing characteristics for your character, press the Save button to save the character. 13. Your character is now created and you will be returned to the list of characters. Find the character you created and click or keypress the Edit link to reopen the character editor. 14. Navigate back to the preview panel of the character editor and listen to the description provided to confirm the characteristics of your character. You will note that each of the scenarios carefully step the user testers through a specific process on the Lake Devo website. In cases like this one, existing documentation such as the “Help” area of the website often provides a good starting point for writing up the steps involved in a given test scenario.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/07%3A_User_Testing/7.05%3A_Developing_a_Test_Protocol.txt

There are a range of ways you can record your own observations when watching user testers complete activities. You might use an informal strategy, like taking anecdotal notes, then expand on those notes after the session. As mentioned previously, you may wish to videotape the sessions, then after the sessions are complete, watch the videos and create notes. Or, you could create a blended observation strategy, recording specific behaviours in a spreadsheet based on the scenarios, with codes to indicate particular behaviours or observations, with space to add anecdotal notes, and perhaps in addition record the sessions so it is possible to go back through the session later to provide clarifications on recorded observations. The following is an example of a record sheet, based on the Lake Devo Testing – Scenario 1 introduced on the previous page. Notice a short description of the task in the first column, a coded level of effort in the second column ranging from 1 (no difficulty) to 5 (unable to complete task). In the third column record the tester’s comments as they think aloud, and in the final column record the observer’s comments. Toolkit: Download the Observation Notes Template [docx] and add it to your Toolkit. 7.07: Activity- Finding User Testers Spend a few moments with your favorite search engine and find agencies or resources in your area that might help you find people with disabilities to assist with user testing. Document three potential sources in your area, including the name of the organization, and why you think it would be a good source. Some sources might include: • Associations for the blind • University accessibility services • Services for veterans • Services for those with cognitive or developmental disabilities • Associations for those with severe physical disabilities • First Nations disability association 7.08: Self-Test 6 Question 1 When selecting user testers, which of the following prerequisite skills or knowledge should recruits have? Choose all that apply. 1. Ability to read HTML 2. Knowledge of WCAG 3. Good understanding of web technologies 4. Ability to use multiple assistive technologies 5. Moderate to expert skill using their own assistive technology 6. Fluent English speaker 7. Touch typing skill Question 2 When developing a test protocol, which of the following features should it have? Choose all that apply. 1. Can be completed in one hour 2. Multiple short tasks to complete 3. Coverage of the whole website or application being tested 4. Time between tasks to ask questions 5. Printed out on paper for tester to read 6. Provided in electronic form so it can be read by assistive technologies Question 3 When recording observations during a user testing session, which of the following strategies might be used. Choose all that apply. 1. Anecdotal notes 2. Video taping 3. Audio taping 4. Recording in a spreadsheet Question 4 During a user testing session which of the following should an observer not do? Choose all that apply. 1. Ask questions about what a tester is thinking 2. Provide hints to make a task easier 3. Help a tester complete a task if they get stuck 4. Remain quiet 5. Answer a phone call 6. Describe to a tester how a task is done 7. Pay the tester for their time and expenses Answers to Self-Test 6 A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/07%3A_User_Testing/7.06%3A_Recording_Observations.txt

Having greatly improved their awareness of how to identify and test for barriers in their web content, Lulu and her team quickly realized that proper documentation of this work would be necessary in order to make the most of their accessibility improvement efforts. As such, they next turned their attention to tracking and reporting. The first six units introduced you to web accessibility auditing, went through the WCAG 2.0 guidelines, and covered the tools and methods for conducting accessibility reviews. Building on this foundation, this unit will explore what to do with the results of the accessibility testing tools. Specifically, we will look at: • Reporting strategies – different types of auditing reports, when to use each, and the elements of such reports • Web accessibility around the world and the relationship between international regulations and WCAG 2.0 • Other accessibility guidelines and standards that complement WCAG 2.0, that you may need to consider while performing audits After identifying accessibility issues, the next step is to inform the website’s owner or developer so that they may begin to remove barriers. This is accomplished by producing an audit report. This unit will introduce reporting strategies that can be used to: • Document potential barriers • Provide the reasoning to help consumers understand the importance of “barrier free” web content • Prioritize issues • Recommend strategies to correct potential barriers 8.02: Objectives and Activities Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to. • Identify factors to be considered when choosing a type of audit. • Perform a quick informal review. • Produce a Template Audit. • Produce a General Audit. • Produce a Detailed Audit. • Create graphical enhancements for audit reports. • Write an effective executive summary for an audit report. • Assemble appendices for audit reports. Activities • Examine a completed audit report • Conduct an informal review of the Lulu’s Lollipops website • Walk through the steps of a Template Audit • Self-Test 7 8.03: Choosing an Audit Different situations will require different types of web accessibility audits or reviews. More detailed information on each type of review is provided in the pages that follow. However, here are some questions that may assist you when deciding what type of audit to conduct: • Is this an internal or external review? Depending on your audience, a review may be more or less formal. If you are providing feedback to a developer in your organization, it may be sufficient to provide point form notes in an email. If you are reporting to senior management, or perhaps to an external organization, a more formal review is likely more appropriate. • What is the budget for the review? If you are working with a small company, or even a larger company with limited resources committed to web accessibility, a quick informal review may be appropriate. A template review may also be desirable in such cases. These tend to be completed quickly and produce the biggest effect on accessibility for the effort and cost expended. If you are working with a larger budget, then a combination of formal reviews and user testing might be conducted. • What is the client’s motivation for the audit? For jurisdictions that have legislated web accessibility requirements, more detailed reviews may be desirable to ensure that organizations are in compliance. On the other hand, organizations may be in jurisdictions where there is no obligation to make their web content accessible and may not be willing to invest in an audit. A quick, informal review may open their eyes to the benefits of an inclusive website, acting as a loss leader for a formal review. And, there will be other organizations that just want to be good corporate citizens, who will be more open to a thorough review of their web content. Balancing context, motivation, and budget will often guide the approach you’ll take as an auditor, giving clients what will serve them best. Depending on the answers to the questions above, it may happen that a series of reviews are offered to a client, beginning informally and building to more detailed reviews. Lulu is interested in making improvements to the accessibility of her web content for both compliance-related and business reasons. If Lulu was your client, what types of audits and related reports might you offer her in order to optimize the accessibility outcomes for her website?

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/08%3A_Web_Accessibility_Reporting/8.01%3A_Web_Accessibility_Reporting.txt

An informal review is a quick scan of a website to identify obvious accessibility issues. While these reviews do not represent exhaustive audits, they are useful for a variety of purposes. Purpose of Review An informal review is often attached to a quote for a formal accessibility audit, providing some introductory information to a client to give them a better idea of the types of issues on their website before they commit to the formal review. An informal review can be helpful in justifying a formal review. Process of Review Informal reviews often occur as part of a conversation, perhaps with a member of an organization who is responsible for managing an organization’s image, or with a developer who is planning or reviewing design activities. These reviews will often involve a couple of quick tests, like the Tab Key Navigation test, or passing a page through an automated accessibility checker, or quickly examining the code where suspected issues may be present, or running a page through a screen reader. These quick reviews often turn up a number of potential barriers that help get a discussion started on next steps toward making web content accessible. Reporting Results from the Review The following is an example of the types of issues that might be documented in an informal review. Characteristics of an informal review could include (in this example): 1. Type of site: a registration system with integrated eCommerce 2. Timing of review: prior to going live 3. Duration of review: about 30 minutes 4. Audience: the developer of the User Interface (UI) created over a third party eCommerce system 5. Style of Report: 1. Provided by email to the developer and the developer’s management team 2. Brief and succinct 3. Written in a way that the developer would understand, already being familiar with the UI, and already being familiar with the technical language being used 4. A few non-accessibility related issues identified as a courtesy 5. Not too detailed if the review is intended to elicit a formal review Sample Informal Review by Email Hi John, Here’s a quick summary of the potential issues found on your registration site. If you like, we can arrange a time to talk about these issues, and the possibility of conducting a formal review that will address these and other potential issues in more detail to ensure that as many people as possible are able to access your site and to register. I’ve identified some issues and offered suggestions for possible fixes where applicable: • Associate labels with form fields by matching the for attribute in the label with the id attribute in the input element. • Add `aria-required="true"` to the required input fields. • Use `aria-describedby="[id]"` to associate the description in the hidden spans with the respective input field. • The Yes/No inputs look like checkboxes, but function like radio buttons. Maybe not an issue, but inconsistent with what most people might expect. • For the footnote numbers next to Price and Group, aria-describedby could be used to associate the footnote with the number, or the numbers could be linked to an anchor next to the associated footnote. • Because there are two levels of table header cells in the tickets table, they should use headers/id to associate both levels of header, though in this case this is a trivial issue given the small size of the table. • The checkbox looking button beside the credit cards accepted line is a bit confusing. It shows a hand cursor which suggests it should be clickable, but it’s not. • When an error message is displayed, include `role="alert"` in the div containing the message. • When an error occurs, send focus to the first field that has an error. • It was possible to submit the form for payment without the ticket holder email being valid. • Clicking “return to form” in the credit card popup hangs, apparently trying to access Google Analytics. • In the credit card popup, focus should be trapped in the dialog in a loop until either Pay Now, Back to Form, or the Escape key is pressed. • In the credit card popup, the initial checkbox and other form fields should be associated with the respective labels using the Label element (with matching for/id). • For the error message that appears in the credit card popup, add `role="alert"` to the span containing the message. • The close X should have title text added such as `title="close credit card details"`. • After submitting the credit card form, the screen hangs, again trying to access Google analytics. • Unable to see the output after making a credit card submission, to determine if there are any issues at the final step. • Unable to see how the tickets are issued, perhaps via email. Not sure if there are any issues there.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/08%3A_Web_Accessibility_Reporting/8.04%3A_Informal_Reviews.txt

A Template Audit is perhaps the most impactful of the different types of audits that will be discussed here. Purpose of Audit These audits focus on the common elements throughout a website, such as the navigation, header, footer, menus, and the layout in general. They are often quick to complete, taking only a few hours, and often involve looking at only a single page. There are occasions when multiple templates might be reviewed, such as the home page, which often differs from other pages, as well as one or two unique layouts from other pages on a website. Process of Audit In the screenshot below you can see the areas of a page outlined. For a Template Audit, the Main Navigation, the Header (i.e,. Banner), the Side Menu, and the Footer area are reviewed. The Main Content Area would be ignored for now, to be reviewed as part of a General Audit. Figure: Typical template elements include the header, the side menu, banner, main content area, complementary content, and the footer Key Point: Before reading further, download the WCAG2 Review Template [doc], if you have not already, and open it in Microsoft Word, or another word processor that supports .doc files. Audit Procedure Using the sample site template displayed in the figure above, examine all the features except the main content area. The following series of tests can be followed to audit the common elements of the template. This same series of tests would be used for General and Detailed Audits as well, but rather than focusing on elements of a single page in the case of a Template Audit, these steps would be followed for each page that is being reviewed as part of an audit. Visit the Web Accessibility Showcase to follow along while we walk through a page audit. Open the audit template so you can add notes to it as you are following along. Each of the following test strategies include a multimedia alternative to the text of the walk through. Note regarding the following videos: The videos that appear in the section below are considered to be “media alternatives for text” and as such they do not require captions. The text itself provides the text equivalents for the videos (See Guideline 1.2.2). Nonetheless, we have captioned them here. If you encounter videos used in this way, without captions, they need not be identified in an audit report as a potential barrier, as long as they are listed as media alternatives. Tab Key Navigation Test A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1438 1. Place the cursor in the top left corner of the page. Begin by pressing the Tab key repeatedly and following the cursor’s path through the template elements. Look for bypass links at the top of the page, and if they are not visible, look at the browser’s status bar at the bottom of the browser window to see if hidden bypass links are present. The URL displayed there should have “#content” on the end of it, or something similar prefixed with the number sign, or hash (#) as it is often referred to. Follow the bypass link(s) by pressing the enter key when they receive focus, to ensure they lead to the main content area, or in some cases to the side menu. If these bypass links are not present, look for other means to navigate through the content such as landmarks, as described in the screen reader test below or by examining the HTML markup to find them, or look for good use of headings. (Guideline 2.4.1, Level A) 2. Ensure that the path the cursor takes is visible. (Guideline 2.4.7, Level AA) 3. Look for access to an accessibility statement somewhere near the top of the template, and that it appears early in the Tab sequence. (Guideline 3.3.5, Level AAA) 4. Ensure the menus down the left of the page open and elements in the submenus can be accessed by keyboard. This may require using the arrow keys, or they may open using the Tab key or space bar. (Guideline 2.1.1, Level A) 5. Ensure there is a way to skip past the menus, particularly if they contain many items in the sub-menus. Typically the Tab key brings focus to the menu, the arrow keys are used to navigate through it, and the Tab key is pressed to exit the menu, and in this case move on to the banner area to the right. (Guideline 2.4.1, Level A) 6. After the banner area, the cursor should move into the main content area. Again ensure the focus is visible through elements in the main content. Notice the tabpanels in the main content area. Ensure that it is possible to move between the tabs in the tabpanel, typically using the arrow keys, and to move directly from a tab to its associated panel, typically using the Tab key. Keyboard functionality for tabpanels may vary somewhat from site to site. (Guidelines 2.4.7, Level AA, Guideline 2.1.1, Level A, Guideline 2.4.1, Level A) 7. After reaching the end of the side menu, the cursor should move into the main content area. We’ll ignore testing the elements within the main content area for now, and come back to these when we discuss General Audits. (Guideline 1.3.2, Level A) 8. After tabbing through the main content area, the cursor should move to the right side complimentary content. Again ensure the focus is visible while navigating through its elements, and that the toggles used to open and close the accordion menu operate with a keypress, and that they do so without reloading the page, or without losing focus on the toggles when their state changes (e.g., open to closed). Ensure that elements in the opened submenus are keyboard operable. (Guideline 1.3.2, Level A, Guideline 2.4.7, Level AA, Guideline 3.2.2, Level A, Guideline 2.1.1, Level A) 9. After passing through the complimentary content area with the Tab key, the cursor should move into the footer area. Again ensure that the focus is visible, and that functional elements, in this case links, all receive keyboard focus and operate with a keypress. (Guideline 1.3.2, Level A, Guideline 2.4.7, Level AA, Guideline 2.1.1, Level A) 10. Having reached the end of the page, note whether the path the cursor took through the page was a logical path, crossing from left to right, moving from top to bottom. (Guideline 1.3.2, Level A) 11. Also note whether all of the elements the focus passed through are meaningful on their own, and/or within the context of other functional elements on the page. (Guideline 2.4.9, Level AAA, Guideline 2.4.4, Level A Using an Automated Accessibility Checker A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1438 1. We will use AChecker here for demonstration purposes, though you might choose to use another automated accessibility testing tool. 2. Either test the page through its URL, or if the site is not publicly available, view the source of the page, typically found in the browser’s View menu, select all the markup displayed in the view source window (e.g., press Ctrl-A), copy the markup (e.g., press Ctrl-C) to the system’s clipboard, then paste the markup from the clipboard (Ctrl-V) into the Paste HTML Markup area of the accessibility checker. 3. Open the Options Menu in AChecker, and select Show Source, WCAG 2.0 (Level AA), and View by Guideline. Or, adjust these options as needed. You might choose WCAG 2.0 (Level AAA), though issues identified at this level are typically optional. 4. After selecting options, press the “Check It” button to run the checker, and wait for a few moments while the report is generated. 5. Note the number of Known, Likely, and Potential problems the checker identifies, focusing on the Known Problems to start. Examine the Known Problems to ensure they are not false positives. You may need to follow the Line number link next to a problem to examine the surrounding markup. If the issues are actual, note them with the appropriate guideline in your developing audit report. You can also examine other information about issues by following the link next to each check that is listed in the checker’s report. 6. After documenting the Known Issues in your developing audit report, switch to the Likely Problems tab in the checker, if there are any, and scan through these issues to confirm whether issues are actual or not. These issues may be actual, though often they are not, when accessible alternatives are provided. Scan through the content of the page to ensure items marked as likely have an accessible alternative. If these turn out to be actual issues, note them with the appropriate guideline in your developing audit report. 7. Finally scan through the issues presented under the Potential Problems tab. These quite often are not problems at all, but because the checker is unable to identify these issues with certainty, a human has to make a decision. If these turn out to be actual problems, identify them in your developing audit report. Markup Validation Video: HTML Validation A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1438 1. As with AChecker, submit the URL or paste a copy of the HTML source of the page into the W3C HTML Validator to assess the validity of the HTML to ensure that markup errors are not causing potential barriers. Like AChecker you can also select Options, though the default settings are typically sufficient. 2. Pay attention to the errors identified in the report the validator generates, and don’t be concerned with the warnings. Pay particular attention to duplicate IDs, elements that are not closed, and elements that are incorrectly nested. These issues run the risk of confusing screen readers. 3. If the page does not validate (most won’t) provide a general statement along with Guideline 4.1.1 (Level A) in your audit report that validation should be conducted to remove potential barriers that may arise when assistive technologies encounter broken markup, and provide a link to the validator. There is no need to document all the markup errors, apart from those mentioned above. Screen Reader Scan A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1438 1. For screen reader testing we will use ChromeVox, turn it on then continue. 2. Repeat the Tab Key Navigation test with the screen reader running, and listen carefully to what the screen reader announces. Is what you hear meaningful? Document in your audit report where additional description could be provided. Are all functional elements able to receive focus, and operate with a keypress. (Guideline 3.3.2, Level A, Guideline 2.1.1, Level A) 3. List the headings on the page using the screen reader list headings command (Cvox-L-H) and use the down arrow key to cycle through the list. Are headings present, and structured in a meaningful way? Is there text that appears to be a heading but it not recognized by the screen reader (e.g., large bold fonts instead of proper headings)? Document these issues in your report if they are relevant (Guideline 1.3.1, Level A, Guideline 2.4.6, Level AA, Guideline 2.4.10, Level AAA ). If bypass links are not present, headings are provided to allow navigation through content (Guideline 2.4.1, Level A) 4. List the landmarks on the page using the screen reader’s list landmarks command (Cvox-L-;) and use the down arrow key to cycle through the landmarked regions. Are all areas of the page contained within a landmarked region? Are landmarks present if bypass links or headings are not? Document these issues in your report if relevant. Suggest including them regardless of other ways to navigate through the page being present. (Guideline 2.4.1, Level A) 5. List the links on the page using the screen reader’s list link command (Cvox-L-L). Are all the links meaningful in context, or not in context? (Guideline 2.4.4, Level A, Guideline 2.4.9, Level AAA) Other Tests Video: Check Colour Contrast A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1438 Scan the page for potential colour contrast issues. Though the page should not have any, the grey text on the grey background in the footer area appears suspicious. Determine the colour codes, using your browser’s Inspect Element feature, and run those colours through a colour contrast tester to confirm they provide sufficient contrast. (Guideline 1.4.3, Level AA, Guideline 1.4.6, Level AAA)

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/08%3A_Web_Accessibility_Reporting/8.05%3A_Template_Audit_and_Audit_Walk-Through.txt

Purpose of Audit A General Audit is a review of a sample of content from the main content areas of a website, the results of which are generalized to the whole site. It is usually too time-consuming and expensive to review all pages on a website; many pages would be similar which would result in a very long repetitive report. Generalizing results to the whole site should be emphasized in the audit report. Process of Audit: Selecting a Review Sample Reviewing a representative sample of pages is the most efficient approach for a General Audit. When choosing pages for the sample, be sure to include pages that are key to the operation of the website, such as: • the home page • a registration page • a product purchase page, etc. Also choose pages with different types of content such as: • a page with multimedia • a page presenting data laid out in a table • a form-based page • pages with embedded objects such as Java or Flash • a page with a structured article, etc. The sample should provide a complete cross-section of the different types of content on the site. Depending on the size of the site, and the different types of content it contains, a sample might include 10 pages for a smaller site, and up to 20–25 pages for a larger site with a broad variety of content. For more information about choosing a representative sample, refer to the Website Accessibility Conformance Evaluation Methodology produced by the W3C. When choosing pages for the sample, a thorough scan of the site should be done by methodically clicking from page to page, viewing the content quickly, and copying the URL and title for each of the pages that will be included in the sample. It is often helpful to choose the sample pages in cooperation with the developers of the website, who will have a better idea of the types of content found on the site, and where they might be located within a complex site structure. Alternatively, you can scan through the site yourself, gather the sample, and send that list to the owner of the site for their confirmation of whether the sample is representative of the content on the site. Additional Scope Considerations If a Template Audit has not been conducted, elements of the template will need to be included as part of the General Audit. A Template Audit should be recommended to a client to avoid complicating a General Audit. Time Required for the Audit You should estimate how much of your time will be required for the audit before beginning. Your general sense of the complexity of the content on the sample pages, the number of issues identified while assembling the sample, whether a Template Audit will accompany the General Audit, as well as the effort required to gather the sample will all help you to establish a rough time-per-page estimate. A simple site with basic content may take 10–15 minutes per page, while larger, more complex sites may take an hour or more per page. Performing a review and writing a report on 15 website pages might take a total of 10 to 15 hours. With your first few audits, time estimates will likely be higher. As you begin accumulating reports, there will be elements that can be reused to save time. For example, the executive summary will tend to follow the same format, introducing the report, providing a description of the report and how to use it, with just the summary of key issues changing from report to report. You will also find that similar issues will arise from website to website, and the descriptions for those issues can also be reused in many cases. Likewise, when describing solutions to issues within reports, the time you initially invest to develop solutions is time you will save later on. Audit Procedure Assuming a Template Audit is being conducted along with the General Audit, the audit procedure will be much like that of a Template Audit, but in this case will focus on the main content area of each of the sampled pages (see figure on the previous “Template Audits” page). The high level procedures are reiterated here; refer back to the procedure outlined with the Template Audit for details. • Tab Key Navigation test • Use an automated accessibility checker • Markup validation • Screen reader scan • Other test (colour, readability) In most cases testing the main content is much simpler than testing the templates. The main content tends to be less complex so it is likely that a quick scan will yield no issues. For example, an article presented on a website may simply be a collection of headings and paragraph text; checking the headings to be sure they are HTML headings and nested properly takes only a few moments. On the other hand, if the site has more complex elements and there are issues with those elements, it may take just a few moments to discover the issues, but significantly more time to describe them. For a more detailed look at web accessibility auditing methods, see the following resource. Readings and References: W3C Website Accessibility Conformance Evaluation Methodology

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/08%3A_Web_Accessibility_Reporting/8.06%3A_General_Audits.txt

A third type of web accessibility audit is a Detailed Audit. This type of audit is conducted on a particular feature of a website or on a particular process. All aspects of the accessibility of the feature or process are examined. Purpose of Audit Detailed Audits may be part of a series of audits that include a Template and General Audit or they may be conducted on their own. A Detailed Audit may be conducted on a standalone web application as a whole, where a vendor or developer wishes to certify the accessibility of their product. Alternatively, a Detailed Audit may be conducted on a particular collection of pages that serve a particular purpose within a site. Process of Audit The procedure for conducting a Detailed Audit is much like that of a Template or General Audit, with the added review of the process or transition elements of the process associated with a feature or application. A Detailed Audit begins by identifying all pages or screens associated with the feature(s) to be reviewed. Think of this collection of pages as representing a path through the site a visitor might take to reach an ultimate destination. For example, consider a shopping cart application used within a larger community website. The community site may include a registration screen, a login screen, a user home page, and the cart itself may include a product selection page, an invoice page, a checkout page, and a credit card submission page, among others. All of these pages together represent a process that must be accessible as a whole before the cart application can be judged conformant. Each page of the process of making a purchase with the cart application is reviewed independently and as part of the whole process. Individual pages are evaluated much like a content page would be assessed in a General Audit. For example, can a screen reader user easily navigate through a collection of products and make a selection from the product page? It is also important to evaluate the transitions between screens in the process of making a purchase. For example, if a user wants to find out more details about a product and opens a details window, once the user has finished with the details window and closes it, are they able to easily find their way back to their position in the products page from which the details were opened? Or, after making a selection from the product screen and being directed to the checkout screen, is there sufficient feedback provided to indicate the product selection was successful, without having to spend too much time searching through the content of the checkout screen to make that determination? These types of accessibility issues are part of the process, rather than part of the content. Both content and process need to be considered as a whole in a Detailed Audit. Time Required for Audit The scope of a Detailed Audit can vary quite significantly from audit to audit. Assessing the accessibility of a whole web application, for instance, can take weeks or more to complete. When estimating the time required to complete a Detailed Audit, a strategy similar to the sampling process in a General Audit is helpful. Create a list of each of the pages or screens to be reviewed, do some initial informal review to get a sense of the level of accessibility and the complexity of the elements to be reviewed. Come up with a base time-per-page and multiply that by the number of pages to be assessed to estimate the effort required for the audit. Conformance Considerations When conducting Detailed Audits of web applications, it is important to note a software version number in the report. A Detailed Audit will only apply to a specific version of the software or to a specific feature on a website on a particular date. Because software and websites change over time, it is only appropriate to assign conformance on a particular “date identified” snapshot of the features or functionality being reviewed. Key Point: A conformance claim following a Detailed Audit applies only to a particular version of software, or to a particular feature of a website at a specific point in time. 8.08: Follow-Up Audits Purpose of Audit The final type of audit to be introduced here is a Follow-Up Audit, which occurs some time after the initial Template, General, or Detailed Audits have been issued. After the site’s developers have gone through the audit to understand the issues and the steps needed to address accessibility problems, you will likely want to arrange a time to answer any questions that arise. Once their questions are answered, developers will go ahead and fix the issues in your report and will likely want a Follow-Up Audit to confirm that the fixes have successfully removed the barriers identified and that no new barriers have been introduced. Often just a single Follow-Up Audit is required, though there may be a need for multiple audits. When estimating time required for questions and the follow-up review(s), an hour or two is usually enough for questions and a follow-up or two adds about 20% to the cost of the project. Process of Audit As the reviewer, start a new audit with a fresh copy of the audit template and go through the issues identified in the initial audit report, confirming that each has been addressed. While confirming, watch out for any new issues that may have been introduced. Document any remaining or new issues in the Follow-Up Audit report. Conformance Confirmation Assuming the outcome of the Follow-Up Audit confirms that all of the issues identified in the initial audit report have been addressed, you may choose to issue a conformance claim; this might include a conformance seal, either those issued by the W3C or perhaps your own company seal. Refer to the “WCAG 2.0 Conformance Levels” in unit 2 for additional details on issuing conformance claims. Publicly posting conformance claims is optional and not posting a claim does not in any way affect conformance. Many organizations choose not to make public claims. They should still, however, provide documentation on the accessibility features found on the site and describe their goal to reach and maintain Level AA conformance.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/08%3A_Web_Accessibility_Reporting/8.07%3A_Detailed_Audits.txt

In the unit Introduction to WCAG 2.0, you were introduced to the “Web Auditing Review Template” and the elements it contains. Here we will look more closely at the “WCAG 2.0 Review” elements of the report: the Executive Summary and the Appendices. Download a copy of the Canvas LMS General Review [PDF] and follow along. The General Comments or Executive Summary The General Comments in the Canvas LMS audit can also be thought of as the Executive Summary, and provides an overview of the report. General Comments or an Executive Summary will commonly include: • The scope of the audit • A description of key issues • Terms used to evaluate issues In this case the scope of the audit is the student facing components of the LMS, presented below: Scope: “This evaluation looks at the accessibility and usability of the student facing components of the Canvas LMS. It is not an exhaustive review of all features, but rather more general coverage of the accessibility and usability of the student features as a whole.” Following the scope comes a description of the key issues that have been identified in the report. These are typically the more significant Level A issues that would result in barriers to access for a given group of users, or issues that are recurring throughout the site or application being reviewed. Depending on the scope of the review, this can be anywhere from a few paragraphs to a few pages. Finally, the General Comments describe the Evaluation terms, before leading into the full WCAG 2.0 Review. Evaluation Terms: “In places throughout the review, “Fail?” or “Pass?” have been used where a fail or pass is questionable. “Pass?” is used in places where a single instance of a barrier has been identified, perhaps an oversight, or where it could be argued that an item might fail or pass, typically a minor issue, leaning toward a Pass. “Fail?” is used in cases where an item could be argued as a fail or pass, leaning toward a fail. In all cases, developers should consider the recommendations made to remove any potential argument.” The WCAG 2.0 Review The WCAG 2.0 Review area of an audit report is a table formatted into 4 columns and 62 rows. Each row represents one of the WCAG 2.0 guidelines. The four columns present the following key elements of the review: • Success Criterion: The guideline numbers and a brief description of the guideline. • Level: The conformance level for the associated guideline, i.e., A, AA, or AAA. Note that the AAA requirements are greyed out, indicating that these are optional requirements. You may also notice that Guidelines 1.2.4 and 1.2.5 are also greyed out; these are optional requirements for Ontario organizations, though may be required in other jurisdictions. • Evaluation: This is the outcome of the evaluation of a particular guideline, and there are 4 options. • “Pass” is specified if the success criteria for a guideline are met. • “Pass?” indicates that you have dismissed an issue as trivial, though it should still be considered when making accessibility updates to the site. For example, if just one image on a website is missing alt text, while all others include it, a questionable pass would be specified. • “Fail” is specified when the success criteria for a guideline are clearly not met. • “Fail?” is used when it could be argued that a strategy arguably meets the success criteria, but there are perhaps better approaches. In either case, questionable pass or fail, a subjective judgement is being made. This should be clearly stated in the General Comments. • “N/A” marks those guidelines that are not applicable in the current context. • Comments: This is the “meat” of a web accessibility audit. Here, potential barriers are described with enough detail so that readers familiar with the site being reviewed are able to reproduce or find the barriers themselves. Reading through the Comments section of the Canvas LMS review, you can gather a sense of the detail provided. The Comments Area – Use of Graphics Continuing to look at the Comments section in more detail, you will see that some graphics have been added to explain issues more clearly, particularly where the written explanations may be too complicated or technical for some people to understand, or in places where a key issue needs to be highlighted. And, there are times when just pointing to an issue in a graphic is more effective than trying to describe it in words. Graphics to Enhance Explanations and Summarize Main Issues Take Success Criterion 1.4.3 in the Canvas LMS review for instance. In the explanation of the first issue, it can be difficult to pinpoint exactly which colours are problematic. An added graphic explanation, like the figure below, makes it clear which colours are being referred to almost instantly upon viewing the image. In fact, one may be able to understand the issue based on the graphic without needing to read the text explanation. Figure: Example of a graphic used to enhance the explanation of an issue The collection of graphics in the report as a whole can act as a summary of the main issues. If you scan through just the graphics in the report, you will notice they address most of the main issues. Reading and References: If you would like more information on tools that can be used to create graphics, see Tools for Creating Graphic Enhancements [PDF]. The Comments Area – Issue Descriptions When describing an issue, always include: • a brief description of the issue itself • the reason why it is an issue • one or more potential solutions to correct the issue For each type of issue, reasoning need only be provided once. Examine the following description of an issue and note these elements in the description. Issue described Reason why it’s an issue Potential solution(s) In the main calendar view, the days of the week that appear in the top row should be marked up with table headers (th). Currently when navigating the data cells for each day, Assistive Technology users hear only the number, with no indication of the day of the week. The `scope="col"` attribute could be added in each header cell to help ensure day of the week is announced with each number. Appendices For a General Review, the Appendices should include a list of the pages sampled for the review, including the page title and URL. For a Detailed Review, the Appendices should include a list of page titles and their associated URLS for the process or feature being reviewed. This might include a description of a user scenario that was tested, such as the process of making a purchase (described earlier). The Appendices may also contain information not directly related to the accessibility review, such as pointing out potential bugs, providing recommendations on processes for addressing issues outlined in the report, or outlining strategies to address accessibility of web content as part of everyday business practice. 8.10: Activity- Lulu's Lollipops Informal Review Based on what you learned in this unit, conduct an informal review of the Lulu’s Lollipops website, and write a brief report (maximum two pages). Re-read the Sample Informal Review from earlier in this unit to understand what, and how much information to include in your Informal Review. The goal should be to encourage a formal review. Suggested Answer to Activity 8.11: Self-Test 7 Question 1 Which of the following is not a type of audit that was covered in this Chapter? Please select all that apply. 1. Informal 2. Template 3. Navigation 4. Content 5. General 6. Detailed 7. Follow-Up Question 2 What is the time limit on the validity of a Web accessibility conformance review for a website? 1. Two years 2. A year 3. Six months 4. A month 5. A week 6. None of the above Question 3 Which of the following elements would be reviewed in a Template Audit? Please select all that apply. 1. Main Navigation 2. Header 3. Side Menu 4. Main Content Area 5. Footer 6. None of the above Question 4 Which of the following elements would be reviewed in a General Audit, assuming a Template Audit had already been conducted? Please select all that apply. 1. Main Navigation 2. Header 3. Side Menu 4. Main Content Area 5. Footer 6. None of the above Answers to Self-Test 7 A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/08%3A_Web_Accessibility_Reporting/8.09%3A_Tour_of_an_Audit_Report.txt

At a recent planning meeting with her management team, Lulu was reminded of one additional consideration with respect to her website. Lulu hopes to expand her business more widely to international markets. She wonders if her website is in compliance with accessibility requirements in other jurisdictions. Because the learning and work that Lulu and her team have been doing is anchored in the WCAG 2.0 guidelines, she will meet the compliance requirements of most regions across North America and the rest of the world. However, it would be beneficial for those at Lulu’s Lollipops and for you to become familiar with a few additional guidelines that may be relevant in specific contexts and situations. So far WCAG 2.0 has been the main guideline we have used for auditing web accessibility. In most cases it will be the guideline of choice, though there are others to be aware of that might also be referenced as part of web accessibility auditing projects. In this unit we will look at: • The W3C Authoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines (ATAG) • User Agent Accessibility Guidelines (UAAG) • WAI’s Accessible Rich Internet Applications Guidelines (WAI-ARIA) • The ISO 24751 Access for All standards We will also look at how rules and legislation around the world have adopted WCAG 2.0 as the basis for various international laws that dictate web accessibility requirements in many countries. As a result of this adoption, it is possible through courses like this one to train developers and auditors with one set of instructions. Ultimately, the good news is that what you learn in this course will be applicable for a broad range of country-specific accessibility requirements. 9.02: Objectives and Activities Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Identify a range of accessibility guidelines and standards and relate them to relevant business contexts and jurisdictions. Activities • Identify any relevant accessibility guidelines that may be in place in your jurisdiction • Compare WAI-ARIA implementation strategies using the ChromeVox screen reader • Self-Test 8 9.03: WCAG Relation to International Web Accessibility Guidelines The W3C Web Content Accessibility Guideline (WCAG 2.0) has become broadly accepted as the definitive source for web accessibility rules around the world, with many jurisdictions adopting it verbatim, or with minor adjustments, as the basis for accessibility laws that remove discrimination against people with disabilities on the web. The following is a listing of some of the countries that have adopted WCAG 2.0. Canada Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act (AODA) This course has been created in the context of the AODA, which came into effect in 2005 with the goal of making Ontario the most inclusive jurisdiction in the world by 2025. Part of this 20 year rollout involved educating businesses in Ontario, many of which are now obligated by the Act to make their websites accessible, first at Level A between 2012 and 2014, and at Level AA between 2016 and 2021. The AODA adopts WCAG 2.0 for its web accessibility requirements, with the exception of two guidelines: 1. Ontario businesses and organizations are not required to provide captioning for live web-based broadcasts (WCAG 2.0 Guideline 1.2.4, Level A) 2. Ontario businesses and organizations are not required to provide audio description for pre-recorded web-based video (WCAG 2.0 Guideline 1.2.5, Level AA) Otherwise, AODA adopts WCAG 2.0 verbatim. Readings and References: For key information on the adoption of WCAG 2.0 in the context of the AODA, refer to The Integrated Accessibility Standards (of the AODA). Canadian Government Standard on Web Accessibility In 2011, the Government of Canada (GOC) introduced its most recent set of web accessibility standards, made up of four sub-standards that replace the previous Common Look and Feel 2.0 standards. The Standard on Web Accessibility adopts WCAG 2.0 as its web accessibility requirements, with the exception of Guideline 1.4.5 Images of Text (Level AA) in cases where “essential images of text” are used, in cases where “demonstrably justified” exclusions are required, and for any archived web content. The standard applies only to Government of Canada websites. Readings and References: For full details of the Government of Canada accessibility requirements, read the Standard on Web Accessibility. Accessibility 2024 In 2014 the British Columbia government released Accessibility 2024, a 10-year action plan designed around 12 building blocks intended to make the province the most progressive in Canada for people with disabilities. Accessible Internet is one of those building blocks. The aim is to have all B.C. government websites meet WCAG 2.0 AA requirements by the end of 2016. Readings and References: For additional details visit the Accessibility 2024 website. United States Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) The ADA does not have any specific technical requirements upon which it requires websites to be accessible; however, there have been a number of cases where organizations that are considered to be “places of public accommodation” have been sued due to the inaccessibility of their websites (e.g., Southwest Airlines, AOL), where the defendant organization was required to conform with WCAG 2.0 Level A and Level AA guidelines. There is a proposed revision to Title III of the ADA (Federal Register Volume 75, Issue 142, July 26, 2010) that would, if passed, require WCAG 2.0 Level A and AA conformance to make web content accessible under ADA. Section 508 (of The Rehabilitation Act, U.S.) Section 508 is part of the U.S. Rehabilitation Act and its purpose is to eliminate barriers in information technology, applying to all Federal Agencies that develop, procure, maintain, or use electronic and information technology. Any company that sells to the U.S. Government must also provide products and services that comply with the accessibility guidelines Section 508 describes in the Act. These guidelines were originally based on a subset of the WCAG 1.0 guidelines, which was recently updated to adopt WCAG 2.0 Level A and AA guidelines as new requirements for those obligated through Section 508. Readings and References: United Kingdom Equality Act 2010 The Equality Act in the UK does not specifically address how web accessibility should be implemented, but does, through Section 29(1), require that those who sell or provide services to the public must not discriminate against any person requiring the service. Effectively, preventing a person with a disability from accessing a service on the web constitutes discrimination. Sections 20 and 29(7) of the Act make it an ongoing duty of service providers to make “reasonable adjustments” to accommodate people with disabilities. To this end the British Standard Institution (BSI) provides a code of practice (BS 8878) on web accessibility, based on WCAG 1.0. Readings and References: For more about BSI efforts, watch the following video: A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1486 © BSI Group. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. Europe Throughout Europe a number of countries have their own accessibility laws, each based on WCAG 2.0. In 2010 the European Union itself introduced web accessibility guidelines based on WCAG 2.0 Level AA requirements. The EU Parliament passed a law in 2014 that requires all public sector websites, and private sector websites that provide key public services, to conform with WCAG 2.0 Level AA requirements, with new content conforming within one year, existing content conforming within three years, and multimedia content conforming within five years. This does not mean, however, that all countries in the EU must now conform. The law now goes before the EU Council, where heads of state will debate it, which promises to draw out adoption for many years into the future, if it gets adopted at all. Readings and References: Italy In Italy the Stanca Act 2004 (Disposizioni per favorire l’accesso dei soggetti disabili agli strumenti informatici) governs web accessibility requirements for all levels of government, private firms that are licensees of public services, public assistance and rehabilitation agencies, transport and telecommunications companies, as well as ICT service contractors. The Stanca Act has 22 technical accessibility requirements originally based on WCAG 1.0 Level A guidelines, updated in 2013 to reflect changes in WCAG 2.0. Readings and References: Stanca 2013 Requirements (Italian) Germany In Germany, BITV 2.0 (Barrierefreie Informationstechnik-Verordnung), which adopts WCAG 2.0 with a few modifications, requires accessibility for all government websites at Level AA (i.e., BITV Priority 1). Readings and References: BITV (Appendix 1) France Accessibility requirements in France are specified in Law No 2005-102, Article 47, and its associated technical requirements are defined in RGAA 3 (based on WCAG 2.0). It is mandatory for all public online communication services, public institutions, and the State, to conform with RGAA (WCAG 2.0). Readings and References: • Law No 2005-102, Article 47 (French) • Référentiel Général d’Accessibilité pour les Administrations (RGAA) (French) Spain The web accessibility laws in Spain are Law 34/2002 and Law 51/2003, which require all government websites to conform with WCAG 1.0 Priority 2 guidelines. More recently UNE 139803:2012 adopts WCAG 2.0 requirements, and mandates government and government funded organizations, as well as organizations larger than 100 employees, or with a trading column greater than 6 million Euros, or those providing financial, utility, travel/passenger, or retail services online to comply with WCAG Level AA requirements. (see: Legislation in Spain ) Australia Though not specifically referencing the Web, the Disability Discrimination Act of 1992 section 24 makes it unlawful for a person who provides goods, facilities or services to discriminate on the grounds of disability. This law was tested in 2000, when a blind man successfully sued the Sydney Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (SOCOG) when its website prevented him from purchasing event tickets. The Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) shortly after released World Wide Web Access: Disability Discrimination Act Advisory Notes. These were last updated in 2014 and though they do not have direct legal force, they do provide web accessibility guidance for Australians on how to avoid discriminatory practices when developing web content, based on WCAG 2.0. Readings and References: World Wide Web Access: Disability Discrimination Act Advisory Notes For more about international web accessibility laws, see the following resources:

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/09%3A_Other_Accessibility_Standards/9.01%3A_Other_Accessibility_Standards.txt

Authoring tools come in many forms. Some familiar web-based examples of authoring tools include blogs (e.g., WordPress), wikis (e.g., Mediawiki), content management systems (e.g., Drupal), learning management systems (e.g., Canvas), document authoring tools (e.g., Google Docs), and video production environments (e.g., YouTube). Some other tools that are not web-based include HTML editors (e.g., Adobe Dreamweaver), video authoring tools (e.g., Camtasia Studio), and document authoring tools (e.g., Microsoft Word) that are all capable of creating content for the Web. In addition to providing guidance on developing web content that is accessible through WCAG 2.0, the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) has introduced the AuthoringToolAccessibility Guidelines (ATAG 2.0) which provide guidance for web authoring tool developers to ensure that: 1. Tools are accessible to be used by people with disabilities 2. Tools make it possible to create WCAG 2.0 conformant Web content Conformance ATAG 2.0 guidelines are sorted by levels of importance, much like WCAG 2.0. Because ATAG 2.0 covers tools that are not web-based, it does not specifically refer to “accessibility supported” requirements like those of WCAG 2.0 because those refer to web-based strategies that are supported by assistive technology. ATAG 2.0 conformance for authoring tools is more complex than WCAG 2.0 conformance for web content, as it subsumes WCAG 2.0 and adds a range of requirements specific to authoring tools. Partial ATAG 2.0 process component conformance is also possible in cases where additional add-on components would be needed to claim full conformance. For example, if the tool does not provide accessibility checking capability (a requirement for ATAG 2.0 conformance), it can claim partial conformance if it is possible to add a plugin that provides accessibility checking. Partial conformance can also be claimed when the platform limits compliance. For example, if a tool runs on multiple operating systems, and conformance is possible on one platform (e.g., Windows) that has an add-on accessibility checking service available, but a similar service is not available for the system run on on a different platform (e.g., Linux), a platform limitation conformance claim can be made. More details about conformance claims can be found in the ATAG 2.0 specifications itself: Readings and References: ATAG 2.0 Conformance Claims ATAG 2.0 Part A Part A of ATAG 2.0 provides guidance on making the authoring tool user interface accessible. Generally speaking, these guidelines reflect WCAG 2.0 with the addition of accessibility requirements for tools that are not web-based. The four top level guidelines in Part A are as follows: • Principle A.1: Authoring tool user interfaces follow applicable accessibility guidelines • Principle A.2: Editing-views are perceivable • Principle A.3: Editing-views are operable • Principle A.4: Editing-views are understandable ATAG 2.0 Part B Part B of ATAG 2.0 focuses on guidelines for creating tools that are able to generate WCAG 2.0 conformant web content. It too has four top level guidelines, and a series of sub-guidelines for each. For a full listing of these guidelines, refer to the the full ATAG specification. • Principle B.1: Fully automatic processes produce accessible content • This set of guidelines refers to functions within the authoring tool that automatically generate web content. Technical: For example, if a tool automatically generates a basic HTML template when authoring a new page, that template must include a DOCTYPE declaration, a proper `<head>` area and `<title>` element, as well as a `<body>` area, and it must validate based on a given HTML specification. • When existing content is being edited in the authoring tool, it must provide a means to preserve any accessibility information contained within the original content. • Principle B.2: Authors are supported in producing accessible content • If, for example, the tool provides a means to add images, it must also provide a means to add a text alternative, and that means must be prominent. • If, for example, an image is added but no alt text has been provided, the tool prompts the author to include it, and explains why it is necessary. • If existing accessibility information is available in previously existing content, a means is provided to edit that information. • The tool does not attempt to automatically repair existing accessibility information, unless specific issues are identified, such as default alt text like “image”. • Accessible templates provided by the system are identified as such. • Principle B.3: Authors are supported in improving the accessibility of existing content • Tools are provided to check the accessibility of the authored content against WCAG 2.0 or other accessibility specifications. • Guidance is provided where manual checking is required. • If issues are found, the tool provides suggestions to repair the issues. • Principle B.4: Authoring tools promote and integrate their accessibility features • Accessibility features in the tool are enabled by default. • Tool does not have an option to turn off accessible authoring features. • If accessibility features can be turned off, a warning is provided explaining the potential dangers of doing so. • Documentation is provided on authoring accessible content.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/09%3A_Other_Accessibility_Standards/9.04%3A_ATAG-_Authoring_Tool_Accessibility_Guidelines.txt

In cases where you may be auditing a browser application like Chrome or Firefox, a plugin, a web-based mobile app, or perhaps a video or audio player like Quicktime or Windows Media Player, UAAG 2.0 (currently in draft form) should be referenced. These guidelines are aimed primarily at the developers of web browsers, browser extensions, and media players, but also at assistive technology developers so they understand the types of accessibility information to expect from UAAG 2.0 compliant user agents. The UAAG 2.0 specifications are structured much like WCAG 2.0 and ATAG 2.0 are, and include principles, guidelines, and success criteria. Conformance levels are also much the same, with Levels A (minimum), AA (recommended) and AAA (advanced). WCAG 2.0, ATAG 2.0, and UAAG 2.0 are a collection of guidelines, together guiding the development of accessible web content, tools for creating accessible web content, and tools for viewing web content in accessible ways. Though UAAG 2.0 is currently a W3C draft specification, it should be used instead of UAAG 1.0, as it reflects the advances in web technologies since UAAG 1.0 was released in 2002. Changes may still occur in the specification, though these are not anticipated to be significant. UAAG 2.0 Principles UAAG 2.0 has 5 principles: • Principle 1 ensures that the user agent is perceivable, so users can access user agent output. • Principle 2 ensures that the user agent is operable, so users can communicate with the user agent. • Principle 3 ensures that the user agent is understandable, so users know how to use the user agent. • Principle 4 ensures that assistive technologies can access user agent controls. • Principle 5 ensures that user agents comply with other accessibility specifications (e.g., WCAG 2.0, ATAG 2.0) and platform conventions (e.g., Windows, iOS, Linux, Blackberry). UAAG 2.0 Guidelines In the primary guidelines listed below, you will see that many directly reflect WCAG 2.0 recommendations. For example, WCAG 2.0 requires that visual elements in web content have text alternatives (WCAG 2.0 – G1.1.1) and UAAG 2.0 requires that user agents (browsers, etc.) provide access to those alternatives (UAAG 2.0 – G1.1). • Principle 1: Perceivable • Guideline 1.1: Provide access to alternative content • Guideline 1.2: Repair missing content • Guideline 1.3: Provide highlighting for selection, keyboard focus, enabled elements, visited links • Guideline 1.4: Provide text configuration • Guideline 1.5: Provide volume configuration • Guideline 1.6: Provide synthesized speech configuration • Guideline 1.7: Enable configuration of user stylesheets • Guideline 1.8: Help users to orient within, and control, windows and viewports • Guideline 1.9: Provide Alternative views • Guideline 1.10: Provide element Information • Principle 2: Operable • Guideline 2.1: Ensure full keyboard access • Guideline 2.2: Provide sequential navigation • Guideline 2.3: Provide direct navigation and activation • Guideline 2.4: Provide text search • Guideline 2.5: Provide structural navigation • Guideline 2.6: Configure and store preference settings • Guideline 2.7: Customize display of graphical controls • Guideline 2.8: Allow time-independent interaction • Guideline 2.9: Help users avoid flashing that could cause seizures • Guideline 2.10: Provide control of time-based media • Guideline 2.11: Support other input devices • Principle 3: Understandable • Guideline 3.1: Help users avoid and correct mistakes • Guideline 3.2: Document the user agent user interface including accessibility features • Guideline 3.3: Make the user agent behave in predictable ways • Principle 4: Programmatic access • Guideline 4.1: Facilitate programmatic access to assistive technology • Principle 5: Specifications and conventions • Guideline 5.1: Comply with applicable specifications and conventions For a look at the full set of UAAG 2.0 recommendations, visit the draft specification and resources at the following links:

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/09%3A_Other_Accessibility_Standards/9.05%3A_UAAG-_User_Agent_Accessibility_Guidelines.txt

This page was auto-generated because a user created a sub-page to this page. 9.06: ISO Individualized Adaptability and Accessibility in E-Learning, Education and Training In 2008, the ISO/IEC (International Standards Organization/International Electrotechnical Commission) released the initial version of the AccessForAll (AFA) standards. AFA is based on the AccessForAll 2.0 work undertaken at the IMS Global Learning Consortium, along with the Inclusive Design Research Centre at OCAD University in Toronto. For those familiar with Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles, AFA is similar in its approach. It sets out guidelines for developing adaptable learning content that matches how different learners learn, often creating the same learning experience in multiple forms. The goal of AFA is to match learning content to the specific needs of each learner and this concept is not new. Where learning content is involved, web accessibility audits might include recommendations to provide multiple versions of the same content, so a wider range of people can access the content depending on their individual needs. Here are some examples: • If instructions are presented as a list of ordered steps, providing a multimedia version demonstrating those same steps would make the content more usable by more people. • Providing alt text for an image is a text adaptation for visual content. • Adding captions to a video in the UDL context does not imply that the learner has a hearing-related disability in the traditional sense, but rather that the learner, for whatever reason, is unable to hear. For example, one might be learning in a noisy environment and unable to hear the audio clearly, or may be working on a system that does not have speakers, or may be working in a place where quiet is required. In terms of evaluating web accessibility based on AccessForAll, it may be too early to start making AFA recommendations, given very few systems have yet implemented the standards. AFA is a rather complex set of standards, given the range of potential needs and preferences and the variety of ways content can be presented. The following is an overview of the three standards that make up AccessForAll. • Part 1: Framework and Reference Model • This part of AFA provides common language for describing users’ personal needs and preferences on the one hand, and describing characteristics of digital resources on the other. This part of the standard provides the framework for additional parts, described below. • Part 2: “Access for all” Personal Needs and Preferences (PNP) for Digital Delivery • Personal Needs and Preferences describe the needs of the learner. For example, a learner may require text alternatives for visual elements, or require audio alternatives to textual elements, or require sign language alternative to spoken audio, and so on. PNP does not specifically define needs based on disability, but rather learning needs within particular contexts. A person may define multiple PNPs that are applied in different situations. • Part 3: “Access for all” Digital Resource Description (DRD) • A Digital Resource Description describes the characteristics of learning content. A DRD can include a range of information on a particular piece of content, including the form of the original content as well as the adaptations of the content that are available. This information is used to match content adaptations with learners’ specific needs as defined in their PNP profile. If, for instance, a learner specifies they require text alternatives with visual elements, the AFA compliant system would identify visual elements in the content, and if text alternatives are available and described in the DRD for that piece of content, it would append or replace the visual content with equivalent text. Watch the following video for a demonstration of AccessForAll in ATutor and AContent. AFA enhanced content is easily created in either system, and easily moved between the systems. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1510 © atutorspaces. Released under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution license. The AccessForAll Standards can be downloaded from the ISO website, for those who wish to investigate further: Try This: If you would like to experience AccessForAll firsthand, download the Optional AccessForAll Activity, for a look at how the ATutor learning management system has implemented Personal Needs and Preferences, and Digital Resource Descriptions.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/09%3A_Other_Accessibility_Standards/9.06%3A_ISO/9.6.01%3A_ISO_IEC-24751_%28AccessForAll%29.txt

WAI-ARIA is perhaps the most significant web accessibility technology to come along since the introduction of WCAG 1.0. It allows developers of web applications or custom web interactivity to define specific roles, states, and properties for custom made interactions that assistive technologies are able to understand. Though WAI-ARIA is aimed primarily at developers, others should at least understand where and when it gets used. WAI-ARIA is a W3C specification that defines a collection of attributes that can be used within HTML elements to add semantic information. For example, a developer may want to create a navigation menu, often using HTML list markup to structure the menu items and JavaScript to control which elements of the menu to display at any given time. Without using WAI-ARIA, such a menu may be accessible in the sense that an AT user could navigate through its elements and open menu items, but they will be announced by the AT as a collection of nested lists. By adding ARIA menu roles to these list elements, AT will announce them as parts of a menu, whether they are opened or closed, and whether they have submenus, and so on. When auditing custom web interactivity, a screen reader like ChromeVox should be used to navigate through a tool or widget to determine whether WAI-ARIA has been used to add roles, states and properties to the feature. You can also examine the code using the Inspect tool in various browsers, to see what ARIA is being used to operate the tool and watch the ARIA update dynamically, as states and properties change. In audit reports, recommendations can be made to use ARIA to make elements more meaningful, thus more usable by AT users. Refer to Guideline 4.1.2 (Level A). The full WAI-ARIA specification and WAI-ARIA authoring practices can be found on the W3C website. At least scan through these documents to familiarize yourself with their contents so you can refer back to them in your audits when making ARIA related recommendations. Toolkit: Bookmark these two documents to add them to your tool kit. WAI-ARIA in Action The following is an HTML excerpt from a large main navigation menu that has been marked up with WAI-ARIA. The markup contains the basic ARIA attributes used to create an AT usable main menu. Read through the comments in the box below, and examine the markup it describes to develop your understanding of how WIA-ARIA is used. Technical: An example of a main menu created with HTML unordered list markup. The first line of markup below creates a container around the menu, gives it a role of navigation, is describe with the text in the menu_keys span element below referenced using aria-describedby, and is made keyboard focusable with `tabindex="0"`. When accessed with a screen reader, it announces itself as navigation and describes to the user how to navigate through the menu. ```<div role="navigation" aria-describedby="menu_keys" tabindex="0"> <span id="menu_keys" style="font-size:0;"> Main Menu: Use arrow keys to move left and right and up and down through menus </span>``` The menu itself is a basic nested unordered list. JavaScript injects the ARIA dynamically. The ULs are given a role of menubar, list items are given a role of menuitem. Where a nested list occurs ( which is a submenu) aria-haspopout is set to true to indicate to the screen reader that a submenu is present. The aria-activedescendant is set to the ID of the parent element of the submenu that currently has focus. ```<ul id="nav" role="menubar" aria-describedby="menukeys"> <li role="menuitem">Home </li> <li id="activeItem" role="menuitem" aria-haspopout="true"> Courses and Programs <ul role="menubar" aria-activedescendant="activeItem"> <li role="menuitem" aria-haspopout="true">Areas of Interest <ul> <li role="menuitem">Information Technology</li> <li role="menuitem">Communication and Media</li> <li role="menuitem">Business Systems and Strategies</li> … </ul> </li> … </ul> </li> … </ul> </div>``` To see the menu in action, view the following video. Listen closely to how the menu is announced by ChromeVox. Video: WIA-ARIA Main Navigation A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/pwaa/?p=1512 The menu in the video above uses the MooTools accessible dropdown menu scripts to inject the appropriate ARIA attributes when they are needed. Fortunately many of the common interactions, like menus, accordions, and tabpanels for instance, have open source scripts available to quickly add in the appropriate ARIA. Toolkit: Bookmark the open source WAI-ARIA Examples used in ARIA workshops for developers at Ryerson University. These examples can be referred to when making recommendations where ARIA is needed in web accessibility audits. When to Use ARIA Though ARIA is a necessity for developers who create custom interactivity for the Web, there are times when it should and should not be used. Do use ARIA: • When HTML is being used in a non-standard way (e.g., making a checkbox out of a div) • When within page navigation is needed (use ARIA landmarks) • When creating web widgets like sliders, datepickers, tooltips, tabpanels, accordions, etc. Do not use ARIA: • When there is a way to create the same interactivity with standard HTML • When HTML is being used in a standard way (e.g., an HTML form does not need role=“form” added because it has that role by default) Key ARIA Attributes Technical: Here are some WAI-ARIA attributes that are used often and are relatively easy to understand. aria-describedby This attribute is very useful for adding instructions or descriptions of web elements for AT users. In the menu example above, aria-describedby is used to provide instructions on using the menu, in that case referencing a hidden span element containing a description of keyboard navigation. It could also be used to provide extra information about a particular feature, such as describing the format for a password form field. If the password must include numbers, letters, and special characters, that text might be positioned after the password field in a span element and through its ID attribute, referenced using aria-describedby in the input element for the password field. With the example markup below, a screen reader would announce the label for the password field, followed by format for the password. Without referencing the format span element, this information may go unnoticed by AT users. ```<label for="pass">Password</label> <input type="password" id="pass" aria-describedby="format"> <span id="format"> must contain numbers, letters, and special characters </span>``` aria-live vs. alert role The aria-live attribute, often referred to as a live region, must be used in places where information is dynamically updating on a page, without the page itself reloading. Otherwise AT users are unlikely to notice that changes are occurring. The aria-live attribute can be set to “polite,” as seen in the code snippet below, in which case a screen reader will wait until a break in the screen reader’s output to read the content. Or, aria-live can be set to “assertive” in which case a screen reader will interrupt whatever is being read to read the changes within the live region. Live regions are useful for things like news feeds (e.g., Twitter or news sites), live chat applications, social media streams, rotating banners or other kinds of auto-updating information. ```<div id="news_feed" aria-live="polite"> //updating content goes here </div>``` On the other hand, the `role="alert"` attribute, often called an ARIA alert, is a special type of assertive live region, that should be used in places where feedback is being presented. If, for example, a required field in a form is left empty, and an error message is injected immediately below the field to indicate the error (like that in the code snippet below), these types of feedback messages are good candidates for ARIA alerts. Otherwise such messages may go unnoticed by AT users. Or, after successfully submitting a form to register, for instance, the message that appears on the page after submitting the form indicating the registration was successful, would also be a good candidate for an ARIA alert. ```<div id="username_feedback" role="alert"> <p style="color:red;">Username field cannot be empty.</p> </div>``` roles and landmarks ARIA provides a whole range of roles that can be used to assign a functional application to particular HTML elements. You have already been introduced to the the “alert” role, and the roles associated with a navigation menu. There is a particular set of roles that are referred to as landmarks. These should be used carefully throughout a user interface to define regions throughout that UI. Screen readers are able to list these landmarks and users can jump to any one of them to navigate directly to a relevant area of a page. Where landmarks are used, all areas of a page should be contained within a landmarked region. These regions, introduced back in Unit 2 (2.4.1 Provide Ways to Navigate), are presented again here: Full list of landmark roles: • banner: Associated with the header area of a page. There should only be one banner landmark per page. • complementary: A section of content that complements the main content but also retains its meaning when separated from the main content. Often used with a region containing advertising or promo items aligned down the right side of the page. There can be multiple areas defined as complementary. • contentinfo: Contains the content usually found in the footer of a page, like copyright and privacy statements. There should only be one contentinfo landmark per page. • form: Contains form input elements that can be edited and submitted by the user. Multiple elements can have the form role. • main: The main content of the page. There should only be one main landmark per page. • navigation: A collection of navigation links used to navigate the site or page. There can be multiple elements with the role navigation. • search: A search tool. • application: Represents a unique functional unit, and keyboard commands are handled by the application rather than the browser or the assistive technology itself. An embedded movie player, a calendar widget, or other customized software embedded in web content are examples where the application role might be used. This role should be used sparingly as it can create some confusion for screen reader users when key commands begin working differently. tabindex Though the HTML `tabindex` attribute has been around since HTML4, for use with specific HTML elements, with HTML5 it can be used with any element to add keyboard focus to elements that do not normally receive focus, using `tabindex="0"`. In the code for the menu above, you will notice tabindex in the opening div element. Normally divs do not receive keyboard focus. In the case of the menu, adding focus to the container div is needed for the description referred to by aria-describedby to be read. When the div receives focus, the screen reader will announce “Main Menu: Use arrow keys to move left and right and up and down through menus.” aria-expanded The `aria-expanded` state is used for menus that have toggles to open and close submenus, and also to inform AT users whether a menu item has a submenu, and whether that submenu is open or not. The following markup is from a side menu, with toggles to open and close sections of the menu. You will notice that aria-expanded is set to true, indicating to AT that a submenu is open following this element. If the submenu were closed, aria-expanded would be set to false, updated dynamically by the JavaScript that controls interactivity of the side menu. ```<span id="acc_tab_2170" class="navtoggler active" tabindex="0" aria-expanded="true" role="tab" aria-selected="false"> Archived Calendars </span>``` aria-label When forms are formatted in a way that prevents the use of the HTML label element to explicitly associate a label with a form field, only then should aria-label be used to label the form element. If label can be used, it should be used instead of the ARIA version. A good example of a case where aria-label might be used is on a search form. These forms usually do not include a label element. ```<form> <input type="text" id="search" aria-label="Enter search terms" /> </form>``` aria-labeledby This attribute can be used with non-standard forms to associate a label or multiple labels with a form field. For example, you may have a data entry form laid out in a table, like that in the figure below, in which the content of the table header cells provides labels for multiple input fields. Consider the following table, in which the content of the header cells provides labels for each form input field in the column below. In the markup that follows the figure, you can see how aria-labelledby has been used to assign the values in the header cells as labels for each form element. Name Email Login John Smith jsmith Figure: A table used to layout a data entry form. ```<table> <tr> <th id="name_label">Name</th> <th id="email_label">Email</th> <th id="login_label">Login</th> </tr> <tr> <td><input type="text" id="name" aria-labelledby="name_label"/></td> <td><input type="text" id="email" aria-labelledby="email_label"/></td> <td><input type="text" id="loginl" aria-labelledby="login_label"/></td> </tr> … </table>``` If there is the option to use the label element over using aria-labelledby, then label should be used. If both label and aria-labelledby are used on the same input element, aria-labelledby will override the label. 9.08: Activity- Web Accessibility in Your Part of the World Spend a few moments researching relevant (if any) web accessibility compliance requirements in the jurisdiction where you live. 9.09: Self-Test 8 Question 1 Match the following accessibility rules and regulations with their respective jurisdictions: 1. Ontario 2. USA 3. United Kingdom 4. Italy 5. France 6. Australia 1. Section 508 2. Disability Discrimination Act 1992 3. AODA 4. Stanca Act 5. Disability Discrimination Act 1995 6. RGAA Question 2 Which of the following are elements of the ISO/IEC 24751 AccessForAll Standards? Please select all that apply. 1. Personal Needs and Preferences 2. Accessible Rich Internet Applications 3. Hypertext Markup Language 4. Digital Resource Descriptions 5. Extensible Markup Language 6. Accessibility Evaluation and Repair Question 3 Which of the following are W3C specifications? Please select all that apply. 1. WAI-ARIA 2. ATAG 3. ISO/IEC 24751 4. UAAG 5. WCAG 6. RGAA Answers to Self-Test 8 A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Professional_Web_Accessibility_Auditing_Made_Easy/09%3A_Other_Accessibility_Standards/9.07%3A_WAI-ARIA-_Web_Accessibility_Initiative_-_Accessible_Rich_Internet_Applications.txt

In order to understand why web accessibility is necessary, it is helpful to have a basic understanding of the range of disabilities and their related barriers with respect to the consumption of web content. Key Point: Those who have taken our other courses will have encountered this content already. Read again or skim for a refresher. Not all people with disabilities encounter barriers on the Web, and those with different types of disabilities encounter different types of barriers. For instance, if a person is in a wheelchair they may encounter no barriers at all in web content. A person who is blind will experience different barriers than a person with limited vision. Different types of disabilities and some of their commonly associated barriers are described here. Watch the following video to see how students with disabilities experience the Internet. Video: Experiences of Students with Disabilities (1:59) A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=813 © Jared Smith. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. In this video, David Berman talks about types of disabilities and their associated barriers. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=813 © davidbermancom. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. People Who Are Blind People who are blind tend to face many barriers in web content, given the visual nature of the Web. They will often use a screen reader to access their computer or device and may use a refreshable Braille display to convert text to Braille. Common barriers for this group include: • Visual content that has no text alternative • Functional elements that cannot be controlled with a keyboard • Overly complex or excessive amounts of content • Inability to navigate within a page of content • Content that is not structured • Inconsistent navigation • Time limits (insufficient time to complete tasks) • Unexpected actions (e.g., redirect when an element receives focus) • Multimedia without audio description For a quick look at how a person who is blind might use a screen reader like JAWS to navigate the Web, watch the following video. Video: Accessing the web using screen reading software (3:07) A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=813 © rscnescotland. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. People with Low Vision People with low vision are often able to see web content if it is magnified. They may use a screen magnification program to increase the size and contrast of the content to make it more visible. They are less likely to use a screen reader than a person who is blind, though in some cases they will. People with low vision may rely on the magnification or text customization features in their web browser, or they may install other magnification or text reading software. Common barriers for this group include: • Content sized with absolute measures, so it is not resizable • Inconsistent navigation • Images of text that degrade or pixelate when magnified • Low contrast (inability to distinguish text from background) • Time limits (insufficient time to complete tasks) • Unexpected actions (e.g., redirect when an element receives focus) See the following video for a description of some of the common barriers for people with low vision. Video: Creating an accessible web (AD) (4:39) A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=813 © Centre for Inclusive Design. Released under the terms of a Standard YouTube License. All rights reserved. People Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing For most people who are deaf the greatest barrier on the Web is audio content that is presented without text-based alternatives. They encounter relatively few barriers on the Web otherwise. Those who are deaf and blind will face many more barriers, including those described for people who are blind. For those who communicate with American Sign Language (ASL) or other sign languages, such as langue des signes québécoise (LSQ), the written language of a website may produce barriers similar to those faced when reading in a second language. Common barriers for this group include: • Audio without a transcript • Multimedia without captions or a transcript • Lack of ASL interpretation (for ASL/Deaf community) People with Mobility-Related Disabilities Mobility-related disabilities are quite varied. As mentioned earlier, one could be limited to a wheelchair for getting around and face no significant barriers in web content. Those who have limited use of their hands or who have fine motor impairments that limit their ability to target web content elements with a mouse pointer may not use a mouse at all. Instead, they might rely on a keyboard or perhaps their voice to control movement through web content along with switches to control mouse clicks. Common barriers for this group include: • Clickable areas that are too small • Functional elements that cannot be controlled with a keyboard • Time limits (insufficient time to complete tasks) People with Some Types of Learning or Cognitive Disabilities Learning and cognitive-related disabilities can be as varied as mobility-related disabilities, perhaps more so. These disabilities can range from a mild reading-related disability to very severe cognitive impairments that may result in a limited use of language and difficulty processing complex information. For most of the disabilities in this range, there are some common barriers and others that only affect those with more severe cognitive disabilities. Common barriers for this group include: • Use of overly complex/advanced language • Inconsistent navigation • Overly complex or excessive amounts of content • Time limits (insufficient time to complete tasks) • Unstructured content (no visible headings, sections, topics, etc.) • Unexpected actions (e.g., redirect when an element receives focus) More specific disability-related issues include: • Reading: Text justification (inconsistent spacing between words) • Reading: Images of text (not readable with a text reader) • Visual: Visual content with no text description • Math: Images of math equations (not readable with a math reader) Everyone While we generally think of barriers in terms of access for people with disabilities, there are some barriers that impact all types of users, though these are often thought of in terms of usability. Usability and accessibility go hand-in-hand. Adding accessibility features improves usability for others. Many people, including those who do not consider themselves to have a specific disability (such as those over the age of 50), may find themselves experiencing typical age-related loss of sight, hearing, or cognitive ability. Those with varying levels of colour blindness may also fall into this group. Some of these usability issues include: • Link text that does not describe the destination or function of the link • Overly complex content • Inconsistent navigation • Low contrast • Unstructured content To learn more about disabilities and associated barriers, read the following: Suggested Reading: How People with Disabilities Use the Web

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/01%3A_Background/1.01%3A_Types_of_Disabilities_and_Barriers.txt

Key Point: Those who have taken our other courses, or read our other books, will have read through this content already. Read again or skim for a refresher. Curb Cuts Curb cuts are a great example of universal design. Originally, curb cuts were added to sidewalks to accommodate those in wheelchairs, so they could access the road from the sidewalk and vice versa. However, curb cuts are helpful for many people — not just those in wheelchairs — including a person pushing a baby stroller, a cyclist, or an elderly person using a walker. The addition of a smooth gradient ramp allows anyone, who may have difficulty stepping or who may be pushing something, to smoothly enter the sidewalk via a ramp, rather than having to climb a curb. Although curb cuts were initially designed to help those in wheelchairs, they have come to benefit many more people. From a web accessibility perspective, most of the accessibility features you might add to a website will have that so-called “curb cut effect.” For example, the text description one might include with an image to make the image’s meaning accessible to a person who is blind also makes it possible for search engines to index the image and make it searchable. It allows a person on a slow Internet connection to turn images off and still get the same information. Or, it allows a person using a text-based browser (on a cell phone, for instance) to access the same information as those using a typical visual browser. Virtually every such feature that might be put in place in web content to accommodate people with disabilities will improve access and usability for everyone else. Key Point: Think of accommodations to improve web accessibility for people with disabilities as “curb cuts.” These accommodations will very likely improve usability for everyone. The Business Case for Web Accessibility Video: The Business Case for Accessibility (3:29) A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=818 Karl Groves wrote an interesting series of articles in 2011 and 2012 that looked at the reality of business arguments for web accessibility. He points out that any argument needs to answer affirmatively at least one of the following questions: 1. Will it make us money? 2. Will it save us money? 3. Will it reduce risk? He outlines a range of potential arguments for accessibility: • Improved search engine optimization: Customers will be able to find your site more easily because search engines can index it more effectively. • Improved usability: Customers will have a more satisfying experience, and thus spend more on or return more often to your site. • Reduced website costs: Developing to standard reduces bugs and interoperability issues, reducing development costs and problems integrating with other systems. • People with disabilities have buying power: They won’t spend if they have difficulty accessing your site; they will go to the competition that does place importance on accessibility. • Reduced resource utilization: Building to standard reduces the use of resources. • Support for low bandwidth: If your site takes too long to load, people will go elsewhere. • Social responsibility: Customers will come if they see you doing good for the world and you are thinking of people with disabilities as full citizens. • Support for aging populations: Aging populations also have money to spend and will come to your site over the less accessible, less usable competition. • Reduced legal risk: You may be sued if you prevent equal access for citizens/customers or discriminate against people with disabilities. What accessibility really boils down to is “quality of work,” as Groves states. When approaching web accessibility, you may be better off not thinking so much in terms of reducing the risk of being sued or losing customers because your site takes too long to load. Rather, if the work that you do is quality work, then the website you present to your potential customers is a quality website. If you’d like to learn more about business cases, here are a few references: Suggested Reading:

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/01%3A_Background/1.02%3A_Why_Learn_About_Accessible_Web_Development.txt

Video: AODA Background (3:05) A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=820 For those in Ontario, Canada, we’ll provide occasional references to the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act (AODA). If you’re from outside Ontario, you might compare the AODA’s web accessibility requirements with those in your local area. They will be similar in many cases and likely based on the W3C WCAG 2.0 Guidelines. The goal in Ontario is for all obligated organizations to meet the Level AA accessibility requirements of WCAG 2.0 by 2021, which, ultimately, is the goal of most international jurisdictions. The AODA provided the motivation to create this resource. All businesses and organizations in Ontario with more than 50 employees (and all public sector organizations) are now required by law to make their websites accessible to people with disabilities (currently at WCAG 2.0 Level A). Many businesses still don’t know what needs to be done in order to comply with the new rules. This resource hopes to fill some of that need. The AODA has its roots in the Ontario Human Rights Code, introduced in 1990. It essentially made it illegal to discriminate based on disability (among other forms of discrimination). The development of the AODA began in earnest in 1994 with the emergence of the Ontarians with Disabilities Act (ODA). Its aim was to legislate the removal and prevention of barriers that inhibit people with disabilities from participating as full members of society, improving access to employment, goods and services, and facilities. The act was secured as law in 2001. With the election of a new government in 2003, the movement that brought us the ODA sought to strengthen the legislation. The Accessibility Standards Advisory Council was established and the AODA was passed as law in 2005, and in July 2011, the Integrated Accessibility Standards Regulation (IASR) brought together the five standards of the AODA, covering Information and Communication, Employment, Transportation, and Design of Public Spaces, in addition to the original Customer Service standard. The AODA sets out to make Ontario fully accessible by 2025, with an incremental roll-out of accessibility requirements over a period of 20 years. These requirements span a whole range of accessibility considerations — from physical spaces to customer service, the Web, and much more. Our focus here is on access to the Web. The timeline set out in the AODA requires government and large organizations to remove all barriers in web content between 2012 and 2021. The timeline for these requirements is outlined in the table below. Any new or significantly updated information posted to the Web must comply with the given level of accessibility by the given date. This includes both Internet and intranet sites. Any content developed prior to January 1, 2012 is exempt. Level A Level AA Government • January 1, 2012 (except live captions and audio description) • January 1, 2016 (except live captions and audio description) • January 1, 2020 (including live captions and audio description) Designated Organizations* • Beginning January 1, 2014, new websites and significantly refreshed websites must meet Level A (except live captions and audio description) • January 1, 2021 (except live captions and audio description) *Designated organizations means every municipality and every person or organization as outlined in the Public Service of Ontario Act 2006 Reg. 146/10, or private companies or organizations with 50 or more employees, in Ontario. For more about the AODA you can review the following references:

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/01%3A_Background/1.03%3A_AODA_Background.txt

Before we get into details, some background information on the relevant W3C specifications will help provide some context for why developers should learn to use WAI-ARIA when they are developing custom interactivity for the Web. WCAG The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (i.e., WCAG 2.0 and the recent WCAG 2.1, pronounced wuh-kag) is the primary specification adopted around the world and describes how web content should be created so it will be accessible to people with disabilities. WAI-ARIA can help developers create content that conforms with recommendations in WCAG. WCAG is covered in more detail in Introduction to Web Accessibility, so we will just provide a basic introduction here. For those who are not already familiar with WCAG, follow the link to the W3C WCAG Specification for details. WCAG revolves around four principles that help group guidelines with common characteristics. The acronym POUR can be used to remember the principles, described below. Content must be: 1. Perceivable: It must be possible to perceive web content through multiple senses so that those who have lost a sense are able to perceive the content through another sense. Some good examples of making content perceivable are alternative text with images, so people who are blind can perceive images, and captions with audio or video, so people who are deaf are able to perceive sounds and speech. 2. Operable: Content needs to operate with both a mouse and a keyboard. There are many people who are unable to use a mouse effectively or not at all. When content is not keyboard operable, most people who are blind (among others) will experience barriers. Some good examples include using onKeyPress alongside onClick for JavaScript, and using both :hover and :focus in CSS so effects are possible with both mouse and keyboard. 3. Understandable: Content needs to be understood by a range of people, which includes people with cognitive disabilities, sensory disabilities, people reading in a second language, and even typically able users. Some good examples include making link text meaningful (“click here” tells one nothing about the link’s destination) and consistent navigation elements (so users only have to learn the navigation structure of a website once). 4. Robust: Content needs to work across multiple platforms, and it needs to continue to work into the future as technology evolves. This generally means developing content based on standards. And, when non-standard uses of HTML, etc. are provided, a standard version is available as a backup. Some uses of WAI-ARIA fall into this category of guidelines. WCAG also introduces conformance levels. Conformance levels can be thought of in terms of their importance toward removing barriers, with Level A being the most important. It is helpful to think of levels as things you must do, should do, and could do. • Level A: These issues must be resolved or some group will not be able to access the content. The issues at this level represent significant barriers that may not be overcome with workarounds. An example of a Level A barrier is missing alternative text to describe an image. There is little a person who is blind can do on their own to understand the content of an image without a text description. • Level AA: These issues should be resolved or some group will find it difficult to access or use the content. These issues can often be circumvented with some effort but will make using or understanding web content more effortful. An example of a Level AA barrier is not being able to follow the focus of the cursor when navigating through content with a keyboard. For a person with low vision navigating with a keyboard, or a fully able keyboard user for that matter, navigating through content can be very difficult if he or she cannot see where the cursor is located and is unable to tell when to press the Enter key to activate a link or button. • Level AAA: These issues could be resolved to improve usability for all groups. Web content may be technically accessible, but usability can be improved by resolving these issues. An example of a Level AAA barrier would be presenting acronyms or abbreviations without providing their full wording. For a person who is blind, an acronym pronounced by a screen reader may sound like gibberish. For a fully able user who is not familiar with a short form, an acronym or abbreviation may have no useful meaning, at least not without having to search out the meaning elsewhere. Level AA is the generally accepted level of conformance most websites should aim for, with perhaps a few Level AAA items addressed. Very few websites will comply at Level AAA, apart from the most basic of sites. Level AAA compliance is generally unattainable, and in some cases undesirable. The following suggested readings provide links to additional WCAG–related resources. Suggested Reading: WAI-ARIA The instruction here focuses on the WAI-ARIA specification and how it is used to ensure interactive web content is accessible to people with disabilities. The acronyms stand for Web Accessibility Initiative, the W3C subgroup that developed the specification, and Accessible Rich Internet Applications, the specification itself. It is typically referred to as WAI-ARIA, rather than ARIA, to distinguish it from other uses of the acronym. WAI-ARIA can be used to help developers create widgets, applications, and web interactivity in general that meet WCAG recommendations. The WAI-ARIA specification was initially released as a recommendation in March 2014 (WAI-ARIA 1.0). WAI-ARIA 1.1 was released in December 2017 and is the current stable version, with WAI-ARIA 1.2 in the works, available as an editor’s draft. WAI-ARIA itself is not a solution on its own for making interactive web content accessible. It is generally used with JavaScript, which dynamically injects WAI-ARIA attributes into HTML to provide semantics that are recognized by assistive technologies and understandable by end users. For example, if a series of nested lists are assembled as a menu, WAI-ARIA menu attributes can be added to replace the list semantics with menu semantics. For now introduce yourself to WAI-ARIA, if you are not already familiar, by scanning over the specification to develop a general understanding of why it is needed, how it is used, and when to use it. We will go into much more detail as we proceed through the activities. Suggested Reading:

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/01%3A_Background/1.04%3A_About_WCAG_and_WAI-ARIA.txt

Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Save a local copy of the activity files • Get set up to submit assignments (if you are reading here as part of a course) on GitHub, raw.githack.com, or your own web server (optional) Activities • Set up a site for future activity assignments and submit a URL to it (optional) 2.02: Submitting Coding Assignments and Using GitHub Note: If you are here as part of a course, please read on. Otherwise, submitting coding assignments is not required. Most assignments that follow are various inaccessible web page widgets that we will ask you to make accessible by rewriting their code (HTML, CSS, or JavaScript). If you are participating here as part of a course, you will need the link to a live web page with your solution. Before the code is reviewed, the page will be checked for accessibility (using ChromeVox and other tools). It is your decision where you want to host the pages that you will submit for review. If you have your own domain and server space, you can upload completed assignments there and submit the URL. Another option is to submit the URL of a file on GitHub to GitHack (https://raw.githack.com), then submit the URL to the output it generates as your assignment submission. Feel free to download the activity files from our repository now, or if you are going to use GitHub, keep reading for instructions on how to fork it to your own account. If you don’t have a website, we recommend using GitHub as your platform for submitting assignments. Below we describe GitHub and GitHub Pages. If you are familiar with using GitHub or you have your own web server, you can skip the rest of this page or just scan it. Set Up a GitHub Account If you do not already have one, you should create a GitHub account. For any developer, it is an invaluable tool for sharing and collaborating on code development. A GitHub account is free. Though you can download the activity files from GitHub, then unzip them and work from a local directory on your hard drive, we recommend creating a fork of the activity files to your own account and cloning your fork into a local directory. Follow the link below to set up an account, then read on. Toolkit: Join GitHub Set Up a Local Git Environment Depending on the operating system you are using, there are specific versions of Git for each platform. You may choose to use a Git client, or you may choose to use Git from the command line. Here we will present command line options. If you choose to use a client, see the documentation associated with the client for details on cloning, committing, pulling, and pushing. For Windows and Mac users, if you are going to use a client instead of working from a command line, we suggest installing SourceTree. GitHub Desktop is a good alternative if you prefer to use an open source client. Feel free to choose another Git client if you like. Toolkit: Download SourceTree or GitHub Desktop if you need a desktop Git client application. For Linux users you can use your system’s package manager to install Git for command line use. On Ubuntu, for instance, at the command prompt you can run `apt-get` as the root user to install Git: #> sudo apt-get install git Suggested Reading: For more about Git setup on Ubuntu see the tutorial on DigitalOcean. If you are using another Linux distribution, use Google to find details on installing Git on your version of Linux. Suggested Reading: For details on installing Git, see the Git Book. Assignment Submissions via GitHub Most of the assignments that follow require submitting a URL to a publicly accessible version of the widgets that are the focus of the activities. If you need a place to post your activity assignments, GitHub Pages can be a good option. Or, you may just prefer to use GitHub Pages to organize your files so they are not cluttering your web server. You will create a fork of the activity files (learnaria.github.io), rename the repository to create your own version, and either upload it to a site of your choosing or use GitHub Pages. The GitHub Pages option is outlined here. Suggested Reading: Using GitHub Pages. If you choose to use GitHub Pages, follow these steps to create a copy of the files under your own GitHub account. 1. Logged into GitHub, find your way to the activity files, and fork that repository. The fork button is at the top right of the GitHub screen while viewing a repository. This creates a copy of the repository under your own GitHub account where you will work from. 2. After you have forked the activity files, go into the settings for that repository and change the name from learnaria.github.io to [username].github.io, where username is your GitHub account username. This will automatically create your GitHub Pages website at https://[username].github.io. 3. Now you will want to create a clone of your forked activity files repository on your computer, through which you will do your work. From the command line issue the following command to create a clone of the forked version of the activity files you created, where [username] is your GitHub account username. You can also copy the https link from a field that opens when you click on the “Clone or download” button in your repo. #>git clone 4. If you are using SourceTree, click on “+ New Repository” and choose “Clone from URL” and enter the above URL into the “Source URL” field. Set the “Destination Path” to your preferred work directory. Suggested Reading: Cloning a repository. You should now have a copy of the activity files available locally that you can edit and commit back as your assignment updates, which become part of your GitHub Pages website. Note that it can take a few seconds or a minute for changes committed to your GitHub Pages repository to actually show up on the website. If You Already Have a GitHub Pages Site To add the files to an existing GitHub Pages site, open the settings for the forked repository you created. In the GitHub Pages section shown in the screenshot below, choose the Source (typically, the master branch) and click Save. This will create a subdirectory under your existing GitHub Pages site with the name of the forked repository (i.e., learnaria.github.io). You may want to rename the repository to something shorter (e.g., learnaria) before enabling it in GitHub Pages. This would produce a URL to the activity files, something like: https://[username].github.io/learnaria/ Basic Git Commands You do not need to be an expert Git user, but you should know a few basic commands if you are working from a command prompt. The commands you’ll likely use are the following: git status (displays a list of changed and untracked files) git add [filename] (prepares a files for committing) git commit -m “[message]” (describe the nature of the commit) git push [origin master] (sends the committed change to your GitHub repository master branch) git diff [filename] (shows the changes in a file) Of course there are many other potential commands, but these are the most common. If you are using a Git client, such as SourceTree, these commands will be clickable in the UI buttons and menus. For more about using Git from the command line, see the Git Book. Suggested Reading: The Git Book. What the Activity Files Look Like Here is what to expect once you have successfully set up the activity files. You’ll note that the widgets are inaccessible. Your job throughout the activities will be to fix the accessibility of each widget. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/02%3A_Introduction/2.01%3A_Objectives_and_Activities.txt

How to Submit Assignments If you are submitting assignments, the first task is to get setup to submit them. This can be done through GitHub Pages (recommended), another public location on the Web, or on GitHack. Refer back to Using GitHub for details on setting up GitHub Pages. Alternatives to GitHub Pages • If you choose not to use GitHub Pages for your assignments, submit the URL to the index.html file of your copy of the activity files at an alternate location where you have set up your files. • Or, submit the URL to the index.html file of your GitHub repository generated through raw.githack.com. Requirements If you are taking a moderated course, your instructor will provide information on how and where to submit the URLs to your various assignment submissions. Grading Rubric Criteria Points URL to Course Files: URL submitted to your copy of all the course files either in GitHub Pages or on a web server of your choosing. 10.0 pts Total Points: 10.0 2.04: Introduction to the jQuery Plugin Though we have chosen to focus around jQuery, much of what you’ll learn here will be applicable to JavaScript in general and to other JavaScript frameworks you may be using in your work. Much of the effort here will be on creating device independent code (works with keyboard and mouse) and using script to inject WAI-ARIA into HTML as needed to dynamically manage roles, states, and properties of various interactive widgets and applications you’ll be introduced to. Throughout the activities you will be building a jQuery-ARIA plugin. We will first provide some background in the first few units, then introduce static WAI-ARIA, then move into building the plugin in Unit 4 and onward. As you go through the activities you will be building pieces of the library one widget at a time. At the end of the activities, when you have submitted all of the assignments, we will provide you with a link to the full library that you can continue to use and build upon. Disclaimer When creating the activities and building the jQuery plugin, we have optimized plugin widgets to work with ChromeVox, the screen reader you’ll be introduced to shortly. You may find some inconsistencies in functionality and presentation when using NVDA or JAWS (i.e., other screen readers). Compatibility or limitations across screen readers will be discussed as they come up. 2.05: Other WAI-ARIA Libraries Though we’ll focus on using the open source WAI-ARIA jQuery library we have created for the activities here, there are a couple other resources you can review that provide similar capabilities. Toolkit:jQuery UI Accessibility Enhancements. Developed by Hans Hillen at the Paciello Group. Toolkit:Accessible MooTools Widgets. Developed by Fraunhofer as part of an AEGIS project (no longer available through the creator). The above libraries have been pulled apart and set up as individual demos. These demos can be found through The Chang School’s Distance Education website, as part of a set of resources for a local workshop run at the university. Toolkit: WAI-ARIA Workshop Resources Another great resource for WAI-ARIA code and examples is the W3C’s WAI-ARIA Authoring Practices site. Within the documentation are many demonstrations of how WAI-ARIA can be used. We will typically follow the best practices recommended by W3C, though, we may vary from those on occasion when more practical solutions are possible. These variations will be documented in the code comments.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/02%3A_Introduction/2.03%3A_Activity_1-_How_to_Submit_Assignments.txt

We introduce you to ChromeVox early on, so you’ll have an opportunity to practice using the screen reader we will be using throughout the activities. It will be a key tool in your toolkit that you’ll use to test your work, and it will be the tool the instructors use when marking assignments. Though there are other more popular screen readers, like JAWS and NVDA to name a couple, for day-to-day screen reader testing, ChromeVox (particularly the ChromeVox Plugin for the Chrome web browser) is our screen reader of choice because it is simple to install and configure, easy to use, free and open source, and works across computer platforms. Another reason ChromeVox works well for accessibility testing is its good support for WAI-ARIA. WAI-ARIA is still a relatively new technology, and, as of mid-2018, it is still being supported inconsistently across available browsers and screen readers. When developing for the Web, do use WAI-ARIA as it is intended to be used as documented in the WAI-ARIA specification and test it with ChromeVox. You will still want to test with JAWS or perhaps NVDA for production testing, as these are more likely to be used by blind users. For the activities here, however, we will only be using ChromeVox. While a relatively small number of screen reader users currently use ChromeVox, it is a highly effective tool for developers when testing web content. Also, ChromeVox is tailored to work with features of Google Drive, so even for users of other screen readers, ChromeVox may be preferable when working with Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides, etc. Toolkit: Visit the Chrome store while using the Chrome web browser to install the ChromeVox screen reader. It will be a key element of your Toolkit. How to Set Up the ChromeVox Screen Reader 1. Open the Chrome web browser (install Chrome, if needed). 2. Type “Chromevox” into Chrome’s address bar, or into Google search. 3. Follow the ChromeVox link to the Chrome Web Store (the first link in the search results). 4. Click the “Add to Chrome” button. 5. In the dialog box that opens, click “Add extension.” 6. Now installed, find the ChromeVox icon near the top right of Chrome to review its options. 7. In the Options, set the ChromeVox modifier key to Alt or Ctrl or both (referred to here as CVox). 8. In the Options, choose your preferred voice from the Voices menu. 9. Done, turn ChromeVox on or off by pressing and holding the modifier key then pressing the letter “A” twice (i.e., CVox + A + A). If you would rather see ChromeVox installed, the video below describes how to install and begin using ChromeVox. Video: Installing ChromeVox A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=190 ChromeVox Testing and Associated Key Commands Toolkit: Download the ChromeVox_Key_Commands file (Word), outlined in the table below, print it or keep it nearby when completing the first few activities. Key Point: Be sure you have the modifier key set in ChromeVox Options, or you are going to have difficulty with the activities. *The ChromeVox modifier key (i.e., Cvox) is set in Chrome’s Settings > Extensions > ChromeVox > Options, typically set to Alt or Ctrl. Key Point: When you are navigating with ChromeVox, it will add its own highlighting around elements when they receive focus. Test for focus visibility (WCAG 2 Guideline 2.4.7) when ChromeVox is not running. For a complete list of key commands see the ChromeVox Options, accessible through the ChromeVox button that gets added to Chrome in the top right corner of the browser during installation. Default commands are listed and can be changed if needed. Task Task Description Keyboard Command Toggle ChromeVox On/Off To turn ChromeVox on or off without having to go into the ChromeVox Settings Cvox+A+A Stop Reading Stop ChromeVox from reading Ctrl Default Reading When a web page loads, ChromeVox will read the element that takes focus on the page. Use the Cvox+Arrow keys to read through content. Listen to the spoken output and note any inconsistencies from what one might expect to hear based on what is visible on the screen. Cvox+Up and Down Arrows Tab Navigation When a page has loaded, press the Tab key to navigate through operable elements of the page like links and forms. Listen to the output when these elements are in focus, and note any elements that are clickable but not focusable with the keyboard. Also listen for hidden elements such as bypass links or other elements that are not visible but are read aloud by ChromeVox. Tab, Shift + Tab Navigate through Headings Step through all the headings on a page. Note whether all headings are announced as expected. Note the heading level announced. Are they sequenced to create semantic structure (i.e., nested in the proper order)? Cvox+L+H then Up/Down Arrows Navigate through Landmarks Step through the landmarks, key navigation points on a page. Are all areas of the page contained in a landmarked region? Note any missing landmarks. Cvox+L+; (semi-colon) then Up/Down Arrows List Links List the links and navigate through them using the Arrow keys, listen for meaningfulness, or listen for context when links are otherwise meaningless. Cvox+L+L then Up/Down Arrows Navigate through Forms Navigate to forms on a page, then press the Tab or F keys to listen to each of the fields. Are fields announced effectively, including required fields? Cvox+L+F then Up/Down Arrows Navigate through Tables Navigate to Tables on a page, press Enter to go to a table, press Up/Down Arrow keys to move through cells in sequence (left to right, top to bottom), press Ctrl+Alt+Arrow to move to adjacent cells, press Ctrl+Alt and 5 on the number pad to list column and row headers where applicable. Note whether header cells are read or not. Are Fieldset labels announced, where applicable? Cvox+L+T then Up/Down Arrows then Enter to select Table Cvox+Arrow to move within table Cvox+TH to announce headers

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/02%3A_Introduction/2.06%3A_ChromeVox_Screen_Reader_Install_and_Setup.txt

Set Up and Use ChromeVox Key Point: • If you are blind and use a screen reader other than ChromeVox, complete the activity using your preferred screen reader. Be sure to state the name of the screen reader you are using. • If you are not blind, regardless of whether you use another screen reader to test accessibility for instance, please use ChromeVox. What’s important is how ChromeVox interacts with the activity files you will be updating in the activities. In this activity, you will navigate through a website using only a keyboard. Describe how the screen reader behaves. For a challenge, navigate with your monitor turned off (or darkened so you can’t see what you are doing). The aim of this exercise is to discover how WAI-ARIA is making elements on the page understandable by listening alone, and to introduce screen reader review into your website testing regimen. Refer back to ChromeVox Screen Reader Install and Setup and set up ChromeVox, if you have not already. Requirements Open the Web Accessibility Auditing Showcase website. Navigate the homepage only with your monitor darkened and without using your mouse. Describe what the screen reader announces as you pass through the following elements: • Left side menu • Carousel at the top of the content area of the page • Accordion on the right • Tab panel in the centre of the page • Landmarks present on the page (list them) Also, answer the following questions: • Are you able to navigate effectively? • What difficulties did you experience, if any? • What could be improved, if anything, to make navigation more effective? Grading Rubric Criteria Points Good descriptions provided for each element listed 5.0 pts Three questions answered effectively 5.0 pts Total Points: 10.0 2.08: WAI-ARIA and HTML 5 WAI-ARIA was released as a complement to HTML5. Its main purpose is to give developers more freedom to build custom web content, web applications, and interface controls created with HTML, JavaScript, and Ajax. WAI-ARIA provides a framework for adding semantics that make it possible for assistive technology users to understand and operate these custom elements. Most HTML has built-in semantics and does not generally need WAI-ARIA. However, when HTML is being used in a non-standard way, like making a button out of a `<div>`, then WAI-ARIA can be added to that `<div>` to make it appear as a button to a screen reader by adding the following: Add the role of “button” (i.e., `role="button"`), add a null tabindex value (i.e., `tabindex="0"`), which makes it focusable, then define its state using the `aria-pressed` attribute, which is updated with JavaScript when the button is pressed. In the case of an actual `<button>` element, these properties are all already defined, so there is no need to use WAI-ARIA. ```<div role="button" aria-pressed="false" tabindex="0">Press Me</div> ``` Though WAI-ARIA is typically used with HTML5, it can also be used with XHTML and HTML4. You may find, however, that HTML validators see WAI-ARIA as broken markup in older versions of HTML, but don’t worry about that. Any WAI-ARIA related errors that a validator might identify in older HTML can generally be ignored (assuming it has been used correctly). By now though, you should be using HTML5. If you are retrofitting older code, then go ahead and add WAI-ARIA to it. If you are developing something new, then go with HTML5. 2.09: Self-Test 1 Complete the following questions to test your understanding of some key lessons in the Introduction and Unit 1. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/02%3A_Introduction/2.07%3A_Activity_2-_Set_Up_and_Use_ChromeVox.txt

Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Explain how WAI-ARIA works • Distinguish between static vs. dynamic WAI-ARIA • Identify WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties • Recognize browser and screen reader support for WAI-ARIA • Compare and contrast graceful degradation vs progressive enhancement • Outline the WAI-ARIA taxonomy Activities • WAI-ARIA Scavenger Hunt (Showcase) 3.02: What is WAI-ARIA W3C definition of WAI-ARIA “WAI-ARIA provides a framework for adding attributes to identify features for user interaction, how they relate to each other, and their current state.” Source: W3C WAI-ARIA provides web authors with the following: • Roles to describe the type of widget presented, such as “menu”, “treeitem”, “slider”, and “progressmeter” • Roles to describe the structure of the web page, such as headings, regions, and tables (grids) • Properties to describe the state widgets are in, such as “checked” for a check box, or “haspopup” for a menu. • Properties to define live regions of a page that are likely to get updates (such as stock quotes), as well as an interruption policy for those updates — for example, critical updates may be presented in an alert dialog box and incidental updates occur within the page • Properties for drag-and-drop that describe drag sources and drop targets • A way to provide keyboard navigation for the web objects and events, such as those mentioned above Source: W3C Some elements of the framework can be used on their own to add accessibility to web content (e.g., landmarks). More often, they are combined with scripting that is used to dynamically add or remove WAI-ARIA attributes depending on the context. WAI-ARIA provides semantics for custom widgets and web applications that can be understood by assistive technologies (ATs) and conveyed to users in a “human understandable” form. For example, HTML list markup might be used to create a navigation bar with menus and submenus. Without WAI-ARIA a screen reader would simply recognize the navigation bar as a collection of nested lists. Adding WAI-ARIA menu attributes (e.g., menubar, menu, menuitem, aria-haspopup, aria-expanded) can give the nested list a whole new meaning, more easily understood as a means of navigation than the list would be understood. W3C definition of semantics “The meaning of something as understood by a human, defined in a way that computers can process a representation of an object, such as elements and attributes, and reliably represent the object in a way that various humans will achieve a mutually consistent understanding of the object.” Source: W3C This definition of semantics in programming is much like the common definition of the word: “the meaning, or an interpretation of the meaning” (dictionary.com). Semantics in the context of web accessibility refers to the defining of meaning as it applies to functional elements of web content, and how that functionality is conveyed to assistive technology users, especially, screen reader users. When and When Not to Use WAI-ARIA WAI-ARIA is supposed to be used when semantics are required to make a web application or widget understandable. For example, if you are using a `<div>` to create a checkbox, along with some scripting you can assign the WAI-ARIA role “checkbox” to that `<div>` to make it appear as a checkbox. That said though, when there is a native HTML element available, like a checkbox, it is almost always better to use the native version than creating your own. The native version will already have all the associated semantics by default. Since the native versions are standardized, they are more likely to be supported across browsers and assistive technologies. For native HTML elements, it is not necessary to use WAI-ARIA. For an HTML `<form>` element for instance, there is no need to include `role="form"` with the element. There are a few exceptions to this rule, however. For some of the newer HTML5 elements, like `<nav>` and `<main>` for instance, it does not hurt to include the WAI-ARIA equivalent `role="navigation"` and `role="main"` in these elements for the time being, to accommodate some of the inconsistent support for these elements across browsers and ATs. HTML validators will still give you warnings about the redundant roles, but you can safely ignore these. You should also be careful when using WAI-ARIA with HTML elements that already have semantics. For example, if you use `<h3 role="button">something</h3>`, the semantics associated with the heading will be overridden, thus, potentially breaking the structure of a document. In a case like this, a better approach would be to wrap the heading in a `<div>` then assign `role="button"` to the `<div>` to preserve the structural semantics of the heading, as seen in the examples below. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/03%3A_Introduction_to_WAI-ARIA/3.01%3A_Objectives_and_Activities.txt

The semantics described earlier are created by adding roles, states, and properties to HTML elements. Roles W3C definition of roles “Main indicator of type. This semantic association allows tools to present and support interaction with the object in a manner that is consistent with user expectations about other objects of that type.” Source: W3C Examples of roles include menu, alert, banner, tree, tabpanel, textbox, and so on. Once assigned to an element, roles must not change over time or with user input. If, for instance, you wanted to change from a “menubar” while viewing in full screen mode to a toggle “menu” when viewed on a mobile device, the entire block of markup would change, rather than switching menubar for menu. Roles are categorized into six groupings. Here are the groups with a few examples of each type: • Abstract role (not to be used by authors in content, the base for the WAI-ARIA ontology) • Widget roles (e.g., button, link, menuitem) • Document structure roles (e.g., article, feed, list, table) • Landmark roles (e.g., banner, navigation, main, complementary) • Live region roles (e.g., alert, log, timer) • Window roles (e.g., alertdialog, dialog) Roles are typically added to HTML elements using the role attribute as follows. In the example below, an unordered list is given a role of `menubar`. Typically, this is used when creating a horizontal navigation bar across the top of a user interface. Each list item is given a role of `menuitem`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Suggested Reading: Here is the full list of roles in WAI-ARIA 1.1. States W3C definition of states “A state is a dynamic property expressing characteristics of an object that may change in response to user action or automated processes. States do not affect the essential nature of the object, but represent data associated with the object or user interaction possibilities. See: clarification of states versus properties.” Source: W3C States are used along with roles, typically, to define its functional status. States are much like properties, though they typically change while an application or widget is being used (e.g., `aria-checked` changes between true and false). Properties typically do not change (e.g., `aria-labelledby` keeps the same value). States and properties are all “aria-” prefixed, unlike roles. Here are a few examples of states: • aria-busy • aria-checked • aria-expanded • aria-disabled • aria-hidden Properties W3C definition of properties Attributes that are essential to the nature of a given object, or that represent a data value associated with the object. A change of a property may significantly impact the meaning or presentation of an object. Certain properties (for example, aria-multiline) are less likely to change than states, but note that the frequency of change difference is not a rule. A few properties, such as aria-activedescendant, aria-valuenow, and aria-valuetext are expected to change often. See clarification of states versus properties.” Source: W3C Properties, as mentioned above, are much like states in how they are used along with roles. However, unlike states that change, properties tend to remain the same (though this is not a rule). Intuitively, you may notice the changing nature of states listed above, and the static nature of properties listed below. Here are a few examples of properties: • aria-describedby • aria-atomic • aria-autocomplete • aria-colcount • aria-colspan • aria-controls Suggested Reading: See the WAI-ARIA Specification for a full list of states and properties.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/03%3A_Introduction_to_WAI-ARIA/3.03%3A_Roles_States_and_Properties.txt

Even if you don’t use JavaScript, there is a good amount you can do with static WAI-ARIA to improve the accessibility of a website or web application. You may have already gathered from the discussion of states and properties that some WAI-ARIA can be written right into the HTML of a web page (e.g., properties and landmarks). Others need to be dynamically updated based on user input or context (e.g., states and some properties). Some of the static WAI-ARIA attributes you are likely to use are listed below, with their descriptions from W3C. Global Static Properties • aria-describedby: Identifies the element (or elements) that describes the object. • aria-labelledby: Identifies the element (or elements) that labels the current element. • aria-label: Defines a string value that labels the current element. • aria-controls: Identifies the element (or elements) whose contents or presence are controlled by the current element. • aria-owns: Identifies an element (or elements) in order to define a visual, functional, or contextual parent/child relationship between DOM elements where the DOM hierarchy cannot be used to represent the relationship. • aria-details: Identifies the element that provides a detailed, extended description for the object. Below is an example of some of these attributes in action. Though this example would need some scripting to handle the submenu opening and closing, and dynamically updating `aria-expanded` to false when the submenu is closed, and update the active element referenced in `aria-activedescendant`, you can get an idea of the semantics that are being applied to make the nested list announce itself as a menu. Watch or listen to the screen reader output in the video that follows the code box below to understand how the WAI-ARIA attributes are read. Examine the code in the code box to understand what WAI-ARIA is being used to produce that output. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. How Does the Above Markup Work? 1. Navigating with the Tab key, focus first goes to the `"menu_container"` div, which is made keyboard focusable with the `tabindex="0"` attribute. 2. There the screen reader reads the content of the “chooser” div, identified by `aria-details`, describing what the menu is used for. This div is hidden from view but available to screen readers. This div could be made visible to make it available for everyone. 3. Next, the “offerings” UL receives focus, also made focusable with `tabindex="0"`. 4. There, the screen reader reads the content of the “navhowto” div, identified by `aria-describedby`, explaining how to navigate the menu. This div is hidden from view for most users. 5. Next, using the Arrow keys as instructed by the “navhowto” div, the ‘Home’ `menuitem` takes focus, announcing “menubar expanded with submenu, Home, menu”. Probably a little more verbose in this case than it needs to be, but that’s how ChromeVox handles menu items. 6. Using the Down Arrow key, focus is moved to the “Courses” menu item, announcing “Courses, menu expanded with submenu.” The `aria-haspopup` attribute is what causes a screen reader to announce a submenu. `aria-expanded="true"` causes the screen reader to announce that the menu is expanded. 7. Using the Down Arrow, focus moves into the submenu, announcing “Menu with two items, Economics, menuitem 1 of two.” The submenu is announced as a menu of its own, identified by adding `role="menu"` to the UL containing the two submenu items. 8. Finally, using the Down Arrow, the screen reader announces “Computer Science, menuitem two of two.” Here’s a video that shows how ChromeVox would read out the menu described above: Video: Example Menu with WAI-ARIA (0:33) A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=272 Most of the WAI-ARIA elements described in the above series of steps can be used statically by typing the attributes right into the HTML. The `aria-activedescendant` would typically be dynamically updated with script as the menuitems are selected. The `aria-expanded` would also be updated dynamically switching between true and false when the submenu is toggled opened or closed. Here are some more static WAI-ARIA attributes, which we’ll look at in a little more detail later as you complete the activities. Widget Static Attributes • aria-haspopup: Indicates the availability and type of interactive popup element, such as menu or dialog, that can be triggered by an element. • aria-modal: Indicates whether an element is modal when displayed • aria-readonly: Indicates that the element is not editable but is otherwise operable. • aria-required: Indicates that user input is required on the element before a form may be submitted. Live Static Regions • aria-live: Indicates that an element will be updated and describes the types of updates the user agents, assistive technologies, and user can expect from the live region. • aria-atomic: Indicates whether assistive technologies will present all, or only parts of, the changed region based on the change notifications defined by the aria-relevant attribute. • aria-relevant: Indicates what notifications the user agent will trigger when the accessibility tree within a live region is modified. Toolkit: For a full list of roles, see section 1 in the The ARIA Role Matrices.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/03%3A_Introduction_to_WAI-ARIA/3.04%3A_Static_vs._Dynamic_WAI-ARIA.txt

Because WAI-ARIA is relatively new, its support across browsers and assistive technologies is still somewhat inconsistent. That should not, however, discourage you from using it. Be aware that workarounds may be needed in some cases, at least for the short term as browsers and assistive technologies progress to implement support for the full WAI-ARIA specification. For now, it is advisable to test WAI-ARIA implementations across multiple browsers and screen readers. Look over the following references and add them to your Toolkit. Toolkit: 3.06: Graceful Degradation vs. Progressive Enhancement Given the range of support for WAI-ARIA across current screen readers and browsers, strategies like graceful degradation and progressive enhancement are useful for accommodating varying implementations and ensuring that tools developed with WAI-ARIA are accessible regardless of support. Depending on your situation, one development method may be preferable over the other, though in general progressive enhancement is preferred over graceful degradation. That is, creating base functionality that works for everyone is preferred, rather than providing enhancements when they are supported by the browser and/or assistive technology. Graceful degradation, on the other hand, starts with the enhancement, then provides alternatives where the enhancements are not supported. While they may sound equivalent, the latter typically requires less effort, even though it is more of a Band-Aid solution to correct an incompatibility. The former takes a little more effort and is more about providing enhancements when they are supported while always providing a base functionality that works for everyone. Definitions In his article, “Graceful degradation versus progressive enhancement,” Christian Heilman provides some useful definitions that help distinguish between the two methods: Graceful degradation – Providing an alternative version of your functionality or making the user aware of shortcomings of a product as a safety measure to ensure that the product is usable.” Progressive enhancement – Starting with a baseline of usable functionality, then increasing the richness of the user experience step by step by testing for support for enhancements before applying them.” “Degrading gracefully means looking back whereas enhancing progressively means looking forward whilst keeping your feet on firm ground.” Suggested Reading: These definitions come from: [1]Graceful degradation versus progressive enhancement (Christian Heilman, CC-BY NC-SA). When to Use Which Method with WAI-ARIA Though progressive enhancement and graceful degradation are development methods that might be followed on any web project, here, we talk about them as they relate to the use of WAI-ARIA. Support for WAI-ARIA is improving constantly, but there are still many inconsistencies between browsers and assistive technologies. And there will still be those using older assistive technologies that were around before WAI-ARIA support was added. Because assistive technologies tend to be expensive, users tend to upgrade less often, thus it is important to support technologies that may be five years old or somewhat older. Browsers, on the other hand, are typically free, and readily available. However, that does not necessarily mean developers can rely on users having the latest or even a current browser. It is not uncommon, particularly in large organizations, to restrict employees’ ability to upgrade their own systems. A simple example of progressive enhancement (though it could also be seen as graceful degradation) is in within–web page navigation for screen reader and keyboard-only users. Before the advent of WAI-ARIA landmarks, the way to provide this within-page navigation was to provide bypass links, which would typically be located at the top left of the page. These bypass links lead to strategically placed anchors, often next to navigation elements and at the top of the main content area. These links are standard HTML and will work for everyone. WAI-ARIA landmarks are relatively new, though support for them in current browsers and assistive technologies is good. But, given some users will be using older technologies, at least for the short term, it is advisable to provide landmarks as an enhancement and continue using bypass links to ensure there is always a way to navigate effectively through web content. Similarly, when using the newer HTML elements that may not be supported by current assistive technologies, it is a good idea to use redundant roles, at least in the short term. For example, `<nav>` and `<main>` are new HTML elements, which are supposed to be equivalent to the navigation and main WAI-ARIA roles. However, not all ATs support the new tags at present. Thus, it’s advisable to use redundant roles with these elements, as seen in the markup below, even though HTML validators will flag them as a warning. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/03%3A_Introduction_to_WAI-ARIA/3.05%3A_Browser_and_Screen_Reader_Support_for_WAI-ARIA.txt

There are a number of tools that can be used to validate WAI-ARIA to ensure it is being used correctly. Watch the following video for a quick look at WAI-ARIA validation with Lighthouse and aXe. Install these tools in your browser, so you have them available for testing as you complete the activities in the coming units. Video: WAI-ARIA Validation A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=281 Toolkit: 3.08: WAI-ARIA Taxonomy In addition to the full list of WAI-ARIA attributes in the specification, the visual presentation of that list in the WAI-ARIA taxonomy can be helpful in understanding the relationships between elements. This image can also help those who are visual learners to see how WAI-ARIA is organized. Click on the thumbnail below to open the full visual taxonomy. Figure: WAI-ARIA taxonomy thumbnail. Click to open full-sized image. Also, see the SVG version of the WAI-ARIA taxonomy A UML-XMLversion and an RDF version are also available to import into systems that support those formats. Suggested Reading:A representation or the WAI-ARIA taxonomy as a cheat sheet. 3.09: Activity 3- WAI-ARIA Scavenger Hunt WAI-ARIA Scavenger Hunt The overall goal of the instruction here is to provide the tools and knowledge needed to make web interactivity accessible to screen reader users. In this activity, you will use ChromeVox and code review to identify WAI-ARIA used throughout the Web Accessibility Auditing Showcase home page. Requirements Although we have only touched on the details of WAI-ARIA, in this activity, you will be spending some time examining the homepage of the Web Accessibility Auditing Showcase website. Use a combination of the following to determine how the WAI-ARIA elements are being used: • Test with ChromeVox to hear what WAI-ARIA sounds like with a screen reader. • Review the source code. For full marks on this activity, list at least five static and five dynamic WAI-ARIA enabled elements in your answer. Include a brief description for each. Here’s a few made-up examples of what you might report in your findings: • `aria-describedby`: used in the outer div of the side menu, to announce instructions on how the side menu works with a keyboard • `tabindex="0"`: used to give keyboard access to the custom buttons in the User Survey • `role="menu"`: used to make the main navigation list appear as a menu to screen readers Finally, here is the Web Accessibility Auditing Showcase website. Review only the home page. Key Point: There is static and dynamic WAI-ARIA used in this page. You may View Source to find any static WAI-ARIA being used. Use your browser’s Inspect tool to find dynamic WAI-ARIA. Interact with the site to produce changes to the dynamic WAI-ARIA, and note those changes. Note: Not all ARIA-related markup starts with the “aria-” prefix. Scan through the WAI-ARIA documentation introduced in this unit for a listing of all potential WAI-ARIA markup you might come across. Also, not all accessibility enhancements are WAI-ARIA. For example, `alt` is an accessibility feature of the HTML `img` element. You can mention these other accessibility features; however, they will not count toward your mark on this activity. Grading Rubric Criteria Points At least five instances of static WAI-ARIA being used in the page are listed. 5.0 pts At least five instances of dynamic WAI-ARIA being used in the page are listed. 5.0 pts Total Points: 10.0 3.10: Self-Test 2 Answer the following questions to test your understanding of key lessons in this unit. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/03%3A_Introduction_to_WAI-ARIA/3.07%3A_Validating_WAI-ARIA.txt

Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Identify WAI-ARIA landmarks • Describe common static roles • Create accessible alerts and feedback • Use WAI-ARIA to add keyboard access • Identify when and where to use WAI-ARIA application and presentation roles • Use live regions for live updating information Activities • Update the landmarks activity file with appropriate landmarks • Provide live alerts for screen readers when feedback or error messages are presented 4.02: WAI-ARIA Landmarks WAI-ARIA landmarks are used to define regions on a web page. They provide a means for assistive technology users to effectively navigate the various areas of a page. WAI-ARIA landmarks should be used with other means of within-page navigation, such as bypass links and page headings. These two latter means of navigating have been around for much longer, and many will continue to use these elements as their primary method of moving around within a web page. There are eight landmark roles. Follow the links below to read about each type of landmark: In the following short video, you will see how ChromeVox interacts with landmarked regions for the next activity coming up in this unit. Use it as a model for implementing your own landmarks. Aim to have your activity submission operate the same as it does in the video. Video: WAI-ARIA Landmarks Demo (1:07) A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=303 To help visualize landmarked regions, the figure below presents well-defined areas on the page, each of which serves a different purpose. Banner areas, the element that contains the content of each banner region, would be assigned `role="banner"`. The menu on the left would have its container assigned `role="navigation"`, as would other navigation bars or menus if they were present. The main content area, assigned `role="main"`, is where the primary content of the page appears. There should only be one main region. The region on the right containing secondary information, assigned `role="complementary"`, is where you might find advertising or related resources. And, finally, the container around the footer area would be assigned `role="contentinfo"`. This is where details such as copyright, a privacy statement, contact information, etc., would be located. Websites may be laid out in a multitude of ways; this particular layout is just an example. The landmarks assigned to any given region should reflect the function of that particular region, regardless of where it might appear on the page. If advertising were spread across a region at the bottom of the page, for example, then that region would be assigned `role="complementary"`. Example of landmarked regions of a web page: Custom Regions While most of the landmarks are relatively self-explanatory in terms of what they should contain, `role="region"` needs some explanation. This landmark role can be used to contain specific information that is not effectively described by one of the other landmark roles and is important enough that a user might want to navigate directly to that area of the page. When it is used, it must be accompanied by `aria-label` or `aria-labelledby` if there is an existing element on the page that describes the region (such as a heading). For example, you may want to define a specific area on each page where contact information or a contact form is located. The following markup might be used to define a “contact region.” A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Other Considerations When Using Landmarks • The whole page defined in regions: When landmarks are used, it is considered best practice to contain all information presented on a page within a region, so no information is orphaned outside the defined regions. • Duplicate roles: For landmarks that may be used for multiple regions, such as `role="navigation"`, these regions should be distinguished from one another. For instance, use `aria-label` or `aria-labelledby `to describe a “main navigation” bar and a “content menu.” Both are considered navigation features, even though they serve different purposes. 4.03: Common Static WAI-ARIA Much of the WAI-ARIA introduced so far is static. That is, it can be written directly into HTML elements as attributes, their values typically do not change, and they do not require scripting to control their behaviour. Landmarks and roles, for example, are all static. Anyone who knows how to read and write HTML can make use of these attributes by simply adding them to HTML elements. WAI-ARIA properties are also typically static, though not always. As discussed earlier, static WAI-ARIA often consists of properties given to define specific characteristics of an HTML element that has a particular functional role. For example, a nested list may be defined as a menu using `role="menubar"` to define the top-level list and `role="menu"` to define sublists. List items in the top-level list that have a nested sublist would be given the attribute `aria-haspopup="true"` (or `aria-haspopup="menu"`). Thus, when encountered by assistive technology, a list item with this attribute will announce that a submenu is present (e.g., “menu with submenu” when using ChromeVox). Try This: Using ChromeVox, navigate through the menu bar widget example below, created by Hans Hillen at the Paciello Group, to hear how submenus are announced. Open this demo in a new window. Frequently Used WAI-ARIA Attributes You have already been introduced to a few static attributes. Those and a handful of others you are likely to use regularly are listed here. This is not a full list. Follow the links and read through their descriptions.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/04%3A_Basic_WAI-ARIA/4.01%3A_Objectives_and_Activities.txt

Providing feedback after a user completes an action is a critical accessibility feature. Feedback can be an error message when something has gone wrong. Additionally, it can be a confirmation or warning, after which a user has to make a decision before proceeding. Or, it could be completion feedback that is presented after a particular action has occurred to indicate it was successful. The latter is often overlooked by developers. However, for people using a screen reader, notification that an action was successful can be as important as providing error messages. When completion feedback is provided, screen reader users do not need to search through the content of the screen to be sure the action they just completed was successful — the process can be quite time-consuming. In each type of feedback, it is critical that messages be easy to access. The best strategy for making feedback accessible is to use the WAI-ARIA alert or alert-dialog roles. These are both types of live regions. When the content of the container element with `role="alert"` changes, the content that appears is automatically read aloud by screen readers. A WAI-ARIA alert has an implicit `aria-live="assertive"` and `aria-atomic="true"` (to be covered in more detail in the section on live regions). This means that, when the message appears, it will interrupt whatever the screen reader is in the middle of reading, and the entire content of the element will be read, as opposed to just the new content added (i.e., `aria-atomic="false"`). Try This: In the following example of a WAI-ARIA alert, start ChromeVox, then press the “Say Something” button to hear how ChromeVox handles the message that appears. Examine the script and HTML below to see how it was done. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. alert vs. alertdialog Error, warning, and completion feedback will typically be created with `role="alert"`, while confirmation feedback will often use `role="alertdialog"`. Use `role="alert"` when no user input is needed. Use `role="alertdialog"` when user input is expected, with focus sent to the dialog. At least one element in the dialog must be focusable when using `role="alertdialog"`. Watch and listen to the following video to understand how ChromeVox handles WAI-ARIA alerts. Video: WAI-ARIA Alerts (1:09) A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=308 Suggested Reading: Using ARIA role=”alert” or Live Regions to Identify Errors Modal Dialogs Modal dialogs interrupt users and require an action. They are appropriate when users’ attention needs to be directed toward important information. Modal dialogs are defined using `role="alertdialog"` and `aria-modal="true"`. Be aware what WAI-ARIA is used for modals, and be aware that when a modal dialog is displayed, focus must be sent to the dialog, and it must remain in the dialog until whatever interaction is complete (e.g., clicking the confirmation button) and the dialog closes. When the dialog closes, focus must be returned to the location from where the dialog was opened. Dialogs Dialogs are used like modal dialogs are, except it is still possible to interact with the other content of the page. These are defined using `role="dialog"`. 4.05: Using Tabindex As you may know, the HTML `tabindex` attribute is a way to order the path the cursor takes as users use the Tab key to navigate through a website or web application. In general, however, you want to avoid using tabindex in this way, particularly when it disrupts the default tab order, which may end up creating confusion when the cursor does not follow an expected path (i.e., left to right, top to bottom). That’s not to say don’t ever use them, but be careful. With HTML5 and the introduction of WAI-ARIA, `tabindex="0"` is added to make it possible for developers to add keyboard accessibility to an element that would not normally have keyboard functionality. For example, it might be used to make a `<div>` focusable. Likewise, `tabindex="-1"` is added to remove keyboard accessibility from an element. The two are likely to be used with scripting to dynamically add and remove keyboard access to elements when focus needs to be strategically placed within a widget or web application. When the `tabindex` attribute is used in this way, it is referred to as a roving `tabindex`. Try This: Take a look at the tab panels throughout the Showcase site to see how the tabs in the tabpanels toggle between values “-1” and “0” to control which tab has focus, using your browser’s Inspect feature. This demo works better on a wide screen, before responsiveness kicks in. Either reduce the zoom level, or drag your browser window wider until the menu appears at the side, instead of above the content. You can also use `tabindex="0"` in a static way when context is needed to describe how to use a menu, for instance. A `<div>` can be wrapped around the menu, given `tabindex="0"` to make it focusable, so, when a user navigates to the `<div>`, it announces instructions for using the keyboard to navigate within the menu. The following example demonstrates using `tabindex`, along with `aria-label`, to provide context information. If you navigate through the Showcase site above with ChromeVox, you’ll notice this strategy with the side menu, announcing how to operate the menu with a keyboard. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/04%3A_Basic_WAI-ARIA/4.04%3A_WAI-ARIA_Alert_and_Message_Dialogs.txt

Keyboard access is perhaps the most important accessibility feature that can go into a website, widget, or web application. However, it is often overlooked by developers, who are typically mouse users and may not have keyboard usability as a part of their testing regimen. People who are blind are typically unable to use a mouse, so any feature that relies on a mouse alone to function will likely be inaccessible to them. Fortunately, it is relatively easy to include keyboard access. It’s more a matter of remembering to add it when mouse access is added. The following is a simple example of including both mouse and keyboard events when defining interaction for a widget or web application. Examine the JavaScript to see how mouse and keyboard events are handled, then under the Result tab, try operating the button with a keyboard and mouse while using ChromeVox. How you go about implementing both mouse and keyboard doesn’t really matter, as long as it is possible to interact with both. You may notice some inconsistencies in ChromeVox support for the live region used to present the messages in the example, more specifically the `aria-atomic` attribute. Live regions will be covered more thoroughly later in this unit. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Predictability, Consistency, and Convention Here we will introduce the basics of keyboard interaction, and we’ll go into greater detail when we start looking more closely at particular widgets and design patterns as they are introduced in the units that follow. As the heading for this section suggests, keyboard interaction needs to be predictable, consistent, and should follow convention. That is, users should have a good idea of the path that the focus will follow (predictable). When navigating with the Tab key, that path should be the same throughout an application or website (consistent). Finally, it should be like it is in other applications, websites, or operating systems (convention). Suggested Reading: Developing a Keyboard Interface Take for example a combo box (aka, a select menu). Regardless of the operating system being used, combo boxes work the same way. If you are developing a widget out of divs that function like a combo box, it should operate like a standard HTML combo box. Conventional keyboard interaction for a combo box: • Tab to navigate into the combo box • While in focus, tab to navigate beyond the combo box • While in focus, Shift + Tab to navigate before the combo box • While in focus, Down Arrow to show next option • While in focus, Up Arrow to show previous option • While in focus, Alt + Down Arrow to display options list • While options list is open, Alt + Up Arrow to close the options list • While options list is open, Esc to close the options list and return to default state • While an option is in focus, Enter to select that option When developing a custom combobox — typically, a text box and list of options — a grid, a tree, or a dialog are combined into a functional unit that should operate like a standard HTML select menu. Functionality in addition to that described above may be added to the custom combobox, e.g., to add autocompletion. As the user types letters into the text box, options beginning with the string type are displayed below as a list or the first option with those letters is displayed inline in the text box. Try This: Using your keyboard, try the keyboard interactions described above to confirm whether or not the combobox functions in a conventional way. Try it with a few different browsers and notice any variations in how different browsers handle combobox interaction. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Suggested Reading: For detailed discussion of combobox design patterns, see: WAI-ARIA Authoring Practices 1.1 (Combo Boxes) Toolkit: For a list of design patterns, and keyboard interaction conventions, review the following widget development best practices. Scan for now. They will be covered more thoroughly in later units.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/04%3A_Basic_WAI-ARIA/4.06%3A_Keyboard_Interaction.txt

The application and presentation roles in WAI-ARIA change the way assistive technologies interact with web content. Both have “use with caution” warnings. Their use and where and when to use them are described here. Application Role The application role is used when there is not a corresponding widget interaction pattern available to provide semantics for a custom widget. Imagine, for instance, a file manager application embedded in a web page, which does not have widget roles specifically defined. It may have many of the functions a typical file manager might have on a Windows, Mac, or Linux system. It might have the typical File, Edit, and View menus that most applications have, including browsers. Those menus in the file manager should function like these same menus in other applications. When the application role is used in a container containing the embedded file manager, keystrokes are intercepted and repurposed to operate the file manager, instead of the browser and the assistive technology. When in the file manager application, this behaviour may be desirable. But, defined with the application role, all of the standard screen reader shortcut keys are also disabled, so the user is no longer able to navigate the pages by headings, or landmarks, for instance, while inside the application. This may be fine in such a case because the screen reader user will likely temporarily want shortcut keys to file manager functions, and not those of the browser or screen reader. If, however, the application role is used to contain a carousel widget, for example, then browser and assistive technology functionality may be unnecessarily disabled, potentially creating barriers. A carousel widget typically has limited functionality. For example, carousels may contain scripted Arrow keys to move back and forth between slides, between headings within each slide for added structure, or link to another section of the site presented in a slide. In such cases, screen reader users would be unable to navigate through the slides by listing headings or links, using their screen reader’s default heading and link list functionality. By removing the application role, the scripted next/previous link, as well as the heading and the links could be used to navigate the carousel. The bottom line is to use the application role carefully. Be sure it is not creating more barriers than it is intended to prevent. Presentation Role Much like the application role disables default keyboard functionality, the presentation role (and its synonym `role="none"`), theoretically, removes the default semantics from children of the element it applies to. So, for instance, if you have a list with `role="presentation"`, it should not announce as a list, and its list items should not announce as list items. However, nested lists within those suppressed list items will announce as usual. There are a couple of intended exceptions where the presentation role will not remove default semantics: • When `role="presentation"` is not applied to elements that have tab focus, such as links, form elements, and elements that have tabindex defined, or • Where an element has been modified with any of the 21 global states or properties Where `role="presentation"` is applied to a parent element, all of its child elements should inherit that role, but not all of its grandchildren. For example, if `<ul role="presentation">` is used then the semantics for each of its `<li>` elements will be ignored. But, if an `<li>` contains a sublist, that list would be announced as usual. It should be noted that current support for the presentation role is spotty across browsers and assistive technologies, and you are likely to find it not all that useful if you’re trying to develop with cross browser compatibility. Typically, tables, images, and headings are affected by the presentation role, while other elements like lists, forms, and links are not, or only partially affected. If you are trying to hide elements completely from screen readers, you might consider using either `aria-hidden` or CSS `display:none`. Three common uses for `role="presentation"` include: 1. Hiding a decorative image. It is equivalent to giving the image null alt text. 2. Suppressing table semantics for tables used for layout in circumstances where the table semantics do not convey meaningful relationships. 3. Eliminating semantics of intervening orphan elements in the structure of a composite widget, such as a tablist, menu, or tree as demonstrated in the example above. There are also a number of WAI-ARIA roles that act like the presentation role, and these suppress the default semantics for the elements to which they are applied. For instance, if a `tablist` is created from a `<ul>`, and `role="tab"` is applied to each of the list items within that `<ul>`, their default `listitem` role will be replaced with the `tab` role, without the need to set them as presentational. The following JSFiddle examples have been created for cross browser testing of the presentation role. Navigate through each example with ChromeVox + Chrome. If you have them available, also navigate them with JAWS + IE and NVDA + FF to understand the varied support for the presentation role. Below, the fiddle is a listing of support for current versions of these screen readers. Skip JSFiddle A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Screen Reader Output from the Above Demo NVDA (2018.1.1) + Edge (41.16299.248.0) By keyboard, only the link is announced. Mouseover, though, and all elements are announced. • Link: not announced • List: not announced or keyboard focusable • Headings: not announced or keyboard focusable • Table: not announced or keyboard focusable • Image: not announced or keyboard focusable • Form: “Combo box opt three collapsed” NVDA (2018.1.1) + FireFox (59.0.2) • Link: announces as usual • List: values announced but not bullets or the list itself • Headings: announce as usual • Table: not announced. • Image: not announced • Form: announces opts but not the combobox JAWS (18) + Edge (41.16299.248.0) • Link: focusable, but not announced • List: not focusable, not announced • Headings: does not announce first heading, but does announce second heading • Table: not announced • Image: not announced • Form: not focusable, not announced ChromeVox (53.0.2784.5) • Link: focusable, but not read (using Tab key) Announces as usual when using CVOX + Arrows • List: Skips over list (using Arrow key) except when link receives focus first, then Arrow key announces the numbers in the list. Announces numbers but not as a list when using CVOX + Arrows • Headings: Does not announce the first heading, but does announce the second (Arrows and CVOX+Arrows) • Table: not announced. • Image: reads alt text “Ryerson Chang School” both Arrow and CVOX + Arrow • Form: focusable, not announced (using Tab key), Arrow keys announces “Combobox. Opt 3, 3 of 3.” Suggested Reading:

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/04%3A_Basic_WAI-ARIA/4.07%3A_Application_and_Presentation_Roles.txt

Live regions are used to present changes in web content that occur after a web page has loaded. Typical uses include presenting news feeds, feedback and error messages, or live chat output to screen readers, which would otherwise not know about this content changing or being added to a web page already rendered. Live regions can also be used to announce feedback and error messages when a page loads, so screen reader users do not need to search through a web page to find feedback. It reads automatically when a page finishes loading. Types of Live Regions A typical live region can be created by adding `aria-live="polite"` to any element in which content is updated after a web page has loaded. The “polite” value indicates the priority of the content being updated. In this case, a screen reader will wait for a break in its audio output before announcing the change that occurred. You may also use `aria-live="assertive"` to interrupt whatever the screen reader is reading, and instead read the changed content before continuing. Typically, “assertive” should be avoided. Only use it in cases where critical information is being updated, such as an error message or critical feedback. Normally, `aria-live` would not be used to present feedback or error messages, though it is possible. Instead `role="alert"`, introduced earlier, would be used. Using `role="alert"` creates an assertive live region that interrupts a screen reader to present its content. They can be used within rendered content to present messages without reloading the page, or they can be used after a page loads, to present the message before any of the other content on the page is read. In addition to the commonly used `role="alert"`, there are other less commonly used roles that also act as live regions. These are: • role=”log” • role=”marquee” • role=”timer” • role=”status” Here is the full list of live region attributes: • aria-live: polite, assertive, off • aria-relevant: additions, removals, text, all • aria-atomic: true, false • aria-busy: true, false • role=”alert” • role=”log” • role=”marquee” • role=”timer” • role=”status” Suggested Reading: More details on these other Live Region Roles can be found in the WAI-ARIA 1.1 specification. Care When Using Live Regions There are a few cases where using a live region (`aria-live`) to read changing content can create a barrier. Take, for instance, a carousel that presents a series of panels that rotate at a particular frequency. It can be helpful to set up a carousel as a live region, so as each panel slides into view, a screen reader reads the content. However, this behaviour could present a barrier, interfering with the screen reader when it is focused elsewhere, reading other content on the page. If a live region is used with a carousel, it should only be active when the carousel has focus. While typically a live region is created as a static WAI-ARIA attribute, in this case, it should be dynamically added on focus and dynamically removed on blur. For carousels, it is also important to consider the rate at which panels rotate, ensuring that screen readers have enough time to read the content of the panel before rotating on to the next. This timing can be difficult to predict. It depends on the amount of content on each panel, which can vary significantly, and the rate at which users have their reading rate set on their screen reader. One solution to this issue may be to make the carousel manually rotate when it has focus so users can proceed to the next panel only when they are ready. Another case where live regions can be problematic is with timers. Timers counting by seconds can essentially render the rest of the content on a page unusable for a screen reader user. As the screen reader announces every second, it interrupts the reading of the other content on a page. Timers that increment each minute, for instance, would not have this problem. Other places where live regions may be problematic are with very active news or Twitter feeds. Though live regions can be useful for this type of updating content, if there is a constant stream of updates or updates occur frequently, screen reader users may have difficulty comprehending other page content with the frequent interruptions. Try This: To experience the aggravation of a constantly updating live region, open ChromeVox and give focus to the timer below. In this case, the timer is in an iframe, so you can simply set focus outside the iframe to stop it from reading. If the timer were embedded in the content of the page itself, you would not have this option, and the rest of the page would become unusable with a screen reader. The only option would be to leave the page. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Key Point: Be aware of potential barriers that can be created when live regions are used with high-frequency content updates.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/04%3A_Basic_WAI-ARIA/4.08%3A_Live_Regions.txt

WAI-ARIA Landmarks and Alerts Landmarks were added to the WAI-ARIA specification as a way of providing easy navigation within a web page for assistive technology users. Prior to landmarks, bypass links were often used (and still are) that would allow a screen reader user to jump from the top of a page, typically, to an anchor strategically placed further down the page. In the first part of this activity you will add a set of landmark roles to a website user interface (UI). Live regions were introduced in WAI-ARIA as a way to present changing content to assistive technology users. Feedback messages are good candidates for a live region, so the content of a feedback message is read to the user automatically when it appears without the need to search the page to determine whether an action completed successfully or, alternately, if an action produced an error message. The WAI-ARIA “alert” role is a type of live region ideal for presenting error or success feedback messages. In Part 2 of this activity, you’ll add `role="alert"` to the error messages when the form in the landmarks.html file is submitted with missing or invalid required fields, and when it is submitted successfully. In your copy of the activity files, open and edit the landmarks.html file. When you have completed both parts of the activity, commit the file back to your GitHub Pages repository, or upload it to the location you have chosen to post your activity files for marking or submit a GitHack URL. Requirements Part 1: Landmarks Add the appropriate landmark roles to elements within the page. Be sure all content within the page is contained within a landmarked region and, depending on the type of content on the page, apply the correct landmark for that type of content. When you have added all the appropriate landmarks, test the file with ChromeVox (keys: Cvox + L + semicolon) to be sure they are all functioning properly. Part 2: Live Error and Feedback Messages The form on the page has three required fields. If you submit the form without valid input for these fields, an error message is generated below each field that has invalid input. Add `role="alert"` to the first error message, so, when it appears, it is automatically read by ChromeVox along with sending focus to the first field in error so it can be corrected. Do the same for the feedback message that appears when the form is submitted without errors. HINT: look in join.lib.js in the activity files. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Content Contained: All content is contained within a landmarked region. 2.0 pts Correct Landmarks: Appropriate landmarks have been used for each region. 3.0 pts Messages Announced: The first Error/Feedback message is announced when the form is submitted with and without invalid input. When the first required field is corrected, the next Error/Feedback message is announced, and so on, so any field with invalid content is read aloud. 4.0 pts Landmarks Distinguishable: Landmark regions with the same role are distinguishable from each other. 1.0 pts Total Points: 10.0 4.10: Self-Test 3 Answer the following questions to test your understanding of key lessons in this unit. This quiz is not being marked. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/04%3A_Basic_WAI-ARIA/4.09%3A_Activity_4-_WAI-ARIA_Landmarks_and_Alerts.txt

Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Identify elements of an accessible suggestion box • Describe the function of accessible tooltips • Identify the elements of an accessible progress bar Activities • Create the following accessible elements: • Suggestion box • Tooltips • Progress bar 5.02: Toggle Buttons (Activity Example) The remainder of the instruction here is hands-on. You’ll be taking inaccessible widgets, like the example of toggle buttons described here, and making them accessible by adding appropriate WAI-ARIA and keyboard operability. The toggle buttons widget demonstrated here is provided as an example for the ten widgets you will be working on over the next three units, describing the Activity Elements you will find in each exercise. Activity Element: Following the short introduction to the widget above, a list of the WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties used with the widget are listed. Roles, states, and properties for toggle buttons ``` ``` ``` ``` • role=”button” • tabindex=”0″ • aria-label=”[button name]” • aria-pressed=”[true|false]” ``` ``` Activity Element: Where available, a Suggested Reading is included that provides additional information about accessibility features for the widget being discussed, often linking to the W3C WAI-ARIA 1.1 Authoring Practice documentation, or to a similar resource. These readings are optional but recommended. Suggested Reading: Read more about buttons in the WAI-ARIA 1.1 Authoring Practices. Activity Element: Each widget will have an inaccessible JSFiddle version provided, like the one below. You can examine the JavaScript and HTML to observe how the widget was created. Under the Result tab, view and try out the widget to see how it functions. CSS is also provided, though you will not be working with CSS as part of the activities. In the JSFiddle here, the accessibility elements are included but commented out so you can see how the code snippets below have been applied. In the activities that follow, the accessibility elements will not be present. Your task will be to apply the code snippets yourself to make the inaccessible version provided in the activity file accessible. At the top right, you may choose to “Edit in JSFiddle” and test the code snippets that will be provided below, to understand how they add accessibility to the widget. You can start by uncommenting the accessibility elements for the toggle buttons, and testing the resulting version with ChromeVox. The following JSFiddle presents a typical toggle button. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup. Test the buttons present under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added (if it functions at all). You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking “Edit in JSFiddle” and copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the toggle buttons, before completing the Activity on the page that follows (there is no activity that follows in this example case). Skip JSFiddle Key Point: The code that appears under the JavaScript tab is not exactly as it appears in the activity files. The \$(document.ready{}) function at the top is copied from the associated HTML file for the widget, and the contents of ik_util.js have been appended, so the widget will function in JSFiddle. You will not need to include these in the JavaScript file from the activity files that you will be editing for each widget. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Activity Element: Following the JSFiddle will be a collection of code snippets hosted in PasteBin. These code snippets can be applied to the code presented in the JSFiddle and applied to the code in the activity files, which you will be submitting for marking. Add a `tabindex` to each button to make them keyboard focusable, define the `role="button"`, and add a label with `aria-label="[button name]"` and set the default state to “not pressed” with `aria-pressed="false"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Add in equivalent keyboard access where mouse access is provided, referencing the `onActivate()` function, described below, with jQuery `.on('keydown')`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Set `aria-pressed="[true|false]"` for buttons when activated or deactivated to announce the button’s state to screen readers. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability Keyboard access for the buttons is fairly simple, with no special key press events needing to be defined. Activity Element: When the WAI-ARIA 1.1 Authoring Practices has a set of recommended keyboard interactions, they will be reproduced here. Widgets will typically follow the recommended practice, though in some cases keyboard interaction may vary. Keyboard Interaction for Toggle Buttons When the button has focus: • Space: Activates the button. • Enter: Activates the button. • Following button activation, focus is set depending on the type of action the button performs. For example: • If activating the button opens a dialog, the focus moves inside the dialog (see dialog pattern). • If activating the button closes a dialog, focus typically returns to the button that opened the dialog unless the function performed in the dialog context logically leads to a different element. For example, activating a cancel button in a dialog returns focus to the button that opened the dialog. However, if the dialog were confirming the action of deleting the page from which it was opened, the focus would logically move to a new context. • If activating the button does not dismiss the current context, then focus typically remains on the button after activation, e.g., an Apply or Recalculate button. • If the button action indicates a context change, such as move to next step in a wizard or add another search criteria, then it is often appropriate to move focus to the starting point for that action. • If the button is activated with a shortcut key, the focus usually remains in the context from which the shortcut key was activated. For example, if Alt + U were assigned to an “Up” button that moves the currently focused item in a list one position higher in the list, pressing Alt + U when the focus is in the list would not move the focus from the list. Activity Element: Though this widget requires no keyboard interaction beyond that provided in ik_utils.js to handle space bar and Enter keys, other widgets will have a custom function provided here that defines possible keyboard interactions for those widgets. In most cases, that code can be copied as is into the widget’s JavaScript file. No added keyboard interaction is required for the toggle buttons beyond the standard Space bar and Enter key defined in the ik_utils.js file. Reference to these key events is added to the `onActivate()` function. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Toggle Buttons in Action Activity Element: Each widget will have a short video of it interacting with ChromeVox. When completing the activities, aim to have your activity submission function as presented in the video. The buttons are accessed initially with the Tab key, and the Tab key is used to move between buttons. The Space bar or Enter keys are used to activate and deactivate buttons. Aim to have the widget you edit in the associated activity function like that presented in the video (there is no associated activity for this example). Video: Accessible Toggle Buttons A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=324

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/05%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Basic)/5.01%3A_Objectives_and_Activities.txt

A suggestion box (aka, combo box or autocomplete box) is a type of selection menu that helps users enter a correct choice. They are typically made up of a text entry field and a list of choices based on a number of characters entered into the text field. In the example provided here, entering a few characters brings up a list of countries that contain those characters. Because the text entry field is a standard form text input field, it will be accessible by default. No additional coding is required to make it accessible. What needs the most attention is the list of choices, which needs to announce itself when it appears and needs to be keyboard navigable. WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties used in a suggestion box • role=’region’ • aria-live=’polite’ • aria-describedby='[id of instructions div]’ Suggested Reading: For details on constructing accessible suggestion boxes, refer to: WAI-ARIA Best Practices: Combo Box. The following JSFiddle presents a typical suggestion box. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup, and test the suggestion box presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking “Edit in JSFiddle”, copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the suggestion box, before completing Activity 5, on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Define some instructions to make it clear there will be suggestions appearing when text is entered into the text input field. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. When the suggestion box receives focus, generate the instructions for it by adding the `notify()` function to the `onFocus()` function to produce a live region with the instruction text. This instruction text is then read automatically when a screen reader encounters the suggestion box text field. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function, create a `<div>` to use as a live region, adding `aria-live="polite"` to announce the list usage instructions defined above when the text field receives focus. Also, give it a `role="region"` so it can be found in the landmarks list. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Provide additional instructions when the suggestion box is populated, adding to the `getSuggestions()` function. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability WAI-ARIA best practices defines all recommended suggestion box keyboard functionality, listed below. In our example, only the required keyboard events are included. Suggestion Box Keyboard Interaction When focus is in the textbox: • Down Arrow: If the popup is available, moves focus into the popup: • If the autocomplete behaviour automatically selected a suggestion before Down Arrow was pressed, focus is placed on the suggestion following the automatically selected suggestion. • Otherwise, places focus on the first focusable element in the popup. • Up Arrow (Optional): If the popup is available, places focus on the last focusable element in the popup. • Esc: Dismisses the popup if it is visible. Optionally, clears the textbox. • Enter: If an autocomplete suggestion is automatically selected, accepts the suggestion either by placing the input cursor at the end of the accepted value in the textbox or by performing a default action on the value. For example, in a messaging application, the default action may be to add the accepted value to a list of message recipients and then clear the textbox so the user can add another recipient. • Printable Characters: Type characters in the textbox. Note that some implementations may regard certain characters as invalid and prevent their input. • Standard single line text editing keys appropriate for the device platform (see note below). • Alt+Down Arrow (Optional): If the popup is available but not displayed, displays the popup without moving focus. • Alt+Up Arrow (Optional): If the popup is displayed: • If the popup contains focus, returns focus to the textbox. • Closes the popup. Note: Standard single line text editing keys appropriate for the device platform: 1. include keys for input, cursor movement, selection, and text manipulation. 2. Standard key assignments for editing functions depend on the device operating system. 3. The most robust approach for providing text editing functions is to rely on browsers, which supply them for HTML inputs with type text and for elements with the `contenteditable` HTML attribute. 4. IMPORTANT: Be sure that JavaScript does not interfere with browser-provided text editing functions by capturing key events for the keys used to perform them. The most significant effort in making the suggestion box accessible is adding keyboard operability. In our case, we’ll add Up and Down Arrow operability to the list box. Create a switch that captures the keypress event. If it’s a Down Arrow, select the next item down in the list. If it’s an Up Arrow, select the previous item. If it’s any character key, enter the value in the text field. Add this to the `onKeyUp()` function, while integrating the existing functionality in the function into the default for the switch statement. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Suggestion Box in Action Watch the following video to see how ChromeVox interacts with a suggestion box. When the suggestion box receives focus, instructions are read. When the second letter is typed into the text field a list of suggestions appears below. Additional instructions are provided on how to make a selection from the list. Arrow keys are used to navigate through the suggestions, and the Enter key is used to select one of them. Aim to have the suggestion box you update in Activity 5 on the following page operate and announce like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Suggest Box A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=330

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/05%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Basic)/5.03%3A_Suggestion_Boxes.txt

Accessible Suggestion Box Based on the Suggestion Box details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the suggestion box provided accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the suggestion box by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_suggest.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated suggestion box with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements Apply your changes and test to be sure your suggestion box functions as described. Then, submit the URL of your suggest.html file located on your GitHub site, on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Initial Instructions: Instructions are provided when the country field receives focus. 2.0 pts Announce Suggestions Present: The suggestion list is announced when suggestions are available. 2.0 pts Suggestion Instructions Instructions are provided when suggestions are available. 1.0 pts Keyboard Access: A country selection can be made using only the keyboard 5.0 pts Total Points: 10.0 5.05: Tooltips A tooltip is typically used to display some information about its owning element when a user hovers a mouse pointer over or gives keyboard focus to an element. Tooltips might include a definition for a word, perhaps full wording for an acronym or abbreviation, or maybe instructions on how to operate a tool or widget. There are many possibilities. Tooltips are an enhancement for the default “title text” standard with HTML. They provide much more flexibility in the presentation and types of information that can be presented than a standard title text tooltip. WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties used in a tooltip • role="tooltip" • aria-hidden:[true|false] • aria-live="polite" • tabindex = [0|-1] Suggested Reading: For details on constructing accessible tooltips, refer to: WAI-ARIA Best Practices: Tooltips. The following JSFiddle presents a typical tooltip. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup. Test the tooltip presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle by clicking “Edit in JSFiddle”, copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the tooltip before completing Activity 6 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. The first thing to add to the `init()` function, where the tooltip `<span> `element is defined, are the WAI-ARIA attributes. First, define the tooltip with `role="tooltip"`. Hide the tooltip by default with `aria-hidden="true"`. Also, add a live region with `aria-live="polite"`, so screen readers automatically read the tooltip when it appears. Note, the WAI-ARIA 1.1 best practices recommend using `aria-describedby` within the owning element to reference the content of a tooltip, which does not announce as expected with current versions of Chrome. Instead, we use `aria-live`, which announces correctly across all current browsers. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Next, add keyboard focus to the element the tooltip belongs to with `tabindex="0"`, and add `focus` to `.on('mouseover')`, so both a mouse hover and keyboard focus open the tooltip. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Also, further down in the owning element’s definition, add `aria-hidden="false"` so the hidden-by-default tooltip becomes visible when the mouse hover or keyboard focus occurs. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Also, added here is `aria-hidden="true"` to be sure the tooltip is hidden from screen readers, should a mouseout event close the tooltip, adding it to `.on(mouseout)` chained to the element (`\$elem`) definition. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability WAI-ARIA best practices defines keyboard interaction for a tooltip as follows: Recommended Keyboard Interaction for a Tooltip Tooltip widgets do not receive focus. A hover that contains focusable elements can be made using a non-modal dialog. • Esc: Dismisses the Tooltip. Note: 1. Focus stays on the triggering element while the tooltip is displayed. 2. If the tooltip is invoked when the trigger element receives focus, then it is dismissed when it no longer has focus (onBlur). If the tooltip is invoked with mouseIn, then it is dismissed with mouseOut. Keyboard operability for a tooltip or, rather, the owning element is relatively simple. As a keyboard equivalent for the `.on(mouseout)` described above, `.on(blur)` is chained to the `\$elem` element and within it `aria-hidden="true"` hides the tooltip again, if the mouse pointer is not over the element. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Also, if the Esc key is used, add `aria-hidden="true"` to hide the tooltip, even if the mouse is hovering, or the owning element has focus. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Tooltip in Action Watch the following video to see how ChromeVox interacts with a tooltip. The Tab key is used to navigate to the first tooltip, which opens a live region when its content is read aloud. Pressing the Tab key once again, move focus to the text input field, and a second tooltip opens and its content is read aloud. Aim to have the tooltips you update in Activity 6 on the following page operate and announce like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Tooltips A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=336 5.06: Activity 6- Accessible Tooltips Accessible Tooltips Based on the Tooltip details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the tooltips there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the tooltips by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_tooltip.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated tooltips with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to be sure your tooltips function as described, submit the URL to your tooltip.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or to a Githack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Tooltips Open: Tooltips open when their owning element receives keyboard focus or mouseover. 3.0 pts Tooltips Read: Tooltips read aloud when their owning element receives keyboard focus or mouseover. 3.0 pts Tooltips Hides: Tooltips hide when focus is removed or on mouseout. 2.0 pts Tooltips Escape: Tooltips hide when the Esc key is pressed. 2.0 pts Total Points: 10.0

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/05%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Basic)/5.04%3A_Activity_5-_Accessible_Suggestion_Box.txt

Progress bars are typically implemented when a user has to wait for a process to complete, whether that may be waiting for an upload to finish, data to be compiled, a report to be generated, or any other process that takes more than a few seconds to complete. For most users, there is generally a visual representation of progress, such as a status bar or a circular progress indicator. As a process progresses, a viewer can estimate when it will be complete. For blind users, however, the visual presentation provides no useful information, so they will need to be able to retrieve the current value some other way. Roles, states, and properties in a progress bar • role="progressbar" • tabindex = [0|-1] • aria-valuenow = "0" • aria-valuemin = "0" • aria-valuemax = "[max value define in default options]" • aria-describedby = "[instruction ID]" • role = "region" • aria-live = "assertive" • aria-atomic = "additions" • aria-hidden = "[true|false]" Suggested Reading: For more about accessible progress bars, see WAI-ARIA 1.1: Progressbar The following JSFiddle presents a typical progress bar widget. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup and test the progress bar presented under the result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking the Edit in “JSFiddle” at the top, right-hand side. Copy the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the progress bar before completing Activity 7 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. WAI-ARIA to Make the Progress Bar Accessible Key Point: For the exercise in Activity 7: Accessible Progress Bar, aim to have the progress bar function in ChromeVox, but, be aware that solutions described here will not work in other screen readers. In this example, we have added WAI-ARIA to a progress bar, but due to limited support for the WAI-ARIA `progressbar` attributes by screen readers other than ChromeVox, there is also a workaround using the jQuery `.data()` function to output the current value for users of JAWS or NVDA screen readers. You can refer to the ik_progressbar_data.js file for the workaround. However, for Activity 7, be sure to start from the ik_progressbar.js file for the assignment submission. To experiment with the `.data()` version of the progress bar JavaScript file, you can adjust the reference to the file in the progressbar.html file. First, as is typical, create some instructions describing how to operate the progress bar with a screen reader and keyboard and add them to the default options. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Update the `init()` function to add the required WAI-ARIA. First set `tabindex="-1"` to be sure the bar itself is not keyboard focusable by default, and associate the bar with the instructions so when the bar does receive focus the instructions are read. Set some default values for `aria-valuemin`, `aria-valuenow`, and `aria-valuemax`. Also, add keyboard access to the bar with an `on(keydown)` reference to the `onKeyDown()` function, described below. Add to the notifications `<div>` live region attributes so when Space/Enter are pressed and the progress percent is added, or if “Loading Complete!” is added, they are read aloud by the screen reader. Finally, create the `<div>` with instructions referenced by its ID with `aria-describedby` added to the bar `<div>` and hide it by default. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Replace the `data(value)` in the `getValue()` function, used to retrieve the current value of the progress bar when the Space bar or Enter keys are pressed, with an `aria-valuenow` attribute. This replaces the `.data(value)` needed to function with screen readers other than ChromeVox. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. In the `setValue()` function, add in a `tabindex="-1"` to remove keyboard focus from the bar when the max value is reached and to add the “Loading Complete” message to the notification `<div>`. Finally, add either the current value of the progress on keypress or the max value (if progress is complete) to an `aria-valuenow` attribute. This replaces the `.data()` work-around, which is needed to function with screen readers other than ChromeVox. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability Keyboard access for a progress bar is relatively simple. There is typically no mouse or keyboard interaction. One generally waits and, when progress is complete, continues on with some other action. For screen reader users, however, they will need to be able to get the current progress value using a keypress. To allow the current value to be retrieved, set up the Enter and Space bar keyboard controls with the `onKeyDown()` function. This also triggers the `notify()` function. When one of those keys is pressed, it outputs the value to the notification `<div>` that we have set up as a live region. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Progress Bar in Action Watch the following video to see how ChromeVox interacts with a progress bar. When the Run Demo button is pressed, instructions are provided on how to announce progress. Pressing the Space bar or Enter key announces the percentage progress at any given moment. When progress has finished, “Loading Complete” is announced. Aim to have the progress bar you update in the activity on the following page operate and announce like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Progress Bar A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=341 5.08: Activity 7- Accessible Progress Bar Accessible Progress Bar Based on the Progress Bar details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the progress bar there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the progress bar by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_progressbar.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated progress bar with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to be sure your progress bar functions as described, submit the URL to your progressbar.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or to a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Instructions Provided: When the progress bar begins running, instructions are provided on how to announce progress percentage. 2.0 pts Keyboard Announce Progress: The keyboard can be used to announce progress percentage. 5.0 pts Announce Complete: When progress finishes, Loading Complete is announced. 3.0 pts Total Points: 10.0

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/05%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Basic)/5.07%3A_Progress_Bars.txt

Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Recognize the elements of an accessible slider • Identify what makes an accordion accessible • Identify the elements of an accessible tab panel • Explain the challenges of making a carousel accessible Activities • Create the following accessible elements: • Slider • Accordion • Tab panel • Carousel 6.02: Sliders Sliders typically allow users to select a value between minimum and maximum values by dragging a slider thumb along a slider bar or track. WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties used in a slider • tabindex="[0 | -1]" • role="slider" • aria-valuemin="[number]" • aria-valuemax="[number]" • aria-valuenow="[number]" Suggested Reading: Additional information about creating accessible sliders can be found in the WAI-ARIA Best Practices. The following JSFiddle presents a typical slider widget. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup. Test the slider presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking the “Edit in JSFiddle” at the top, right-hand side, copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the slider before completing Activity 8 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Define some instructions that describe how to use the slider for screen reader users. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Add a `tabindex="0"` to make the slider thumb keyboard focusable. Assign a `role="slider"` to the text box so it announces as a slider instead of a text entry field. Set `aria-valuemin`, `aria-valuemax`, and `aria-valuenow` values, and reference the instructions with `aria-describedby`. Using `.on('keydown')` reference the `onKeyDown` function to add keyboard operability to the slider. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Create a `<div>` for the screen reader instructions. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Dynamically set the value of `aria-valuenow` based on the value at which the slider thumb is located. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Remove keyboard access from the original text field. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability WAI-ARIA authoring practices defines recommended keyboard functionality for a slider, listed below. Keyboard Interaction for a Slider • Right Arrow: Increase the value of the slider by one step. • Up Arrow: Increase the value of the slider by one step. • Left Arrow: Decrease the value of the slider by one step. • Down Arrow: Decrease the value of the slider by one step. • Home: Set the slider to the first allowed value in its range. • End: Set the slider to the last allowed value in its range. • Page Up (Optional): Increment the slider by an amount larger than the step change made by Up Arrow. • Page Down (Optional): Decrement the slider by an amount larger than the step change made by Down Arrow. Note: 1. Focus is placed on the slider (the visual object that the mouse user would move, also known as the thumb). 2. In some circumstances, reversing the direction of the value change for the keys specified above (e.g., having Up Arrow decrease the value) could create a more intuitive experience. Add keyboard event handling to our slider widget. In our case, we will add Left and Right Arrow controls for moving the slider thumb along the slider bar, and End and Home controls for moving the slider thumb between the start and end of the slider bar. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Slider in Action Watch the following video of ChromeVox interacting with a slider. The Arrow keys are used to move the slider thumb along the slider bar, and the Home and End keys are used to move the slider thumb between the start and the end of the slider bar. You may notice that ChromeVox interprets “min” as “minute” rather than min and max that define the range along the slider bar. Aim to have the slider you update in the activity that follows on the next page operate and announce like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Slider A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=349 6.03: Activity 8- Accessible Slider Accessible Slider Based on the Slider details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the slider there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the code surrounding the highlighted solutions on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the slider by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_slider.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted solutions we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions as long as they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated slider with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to be sure your slider functions as described, submit the URL to your slider.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or to a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Slider Focusable: Slider thumb is keyboard focusable. 2.0 pts Keyboard Operable: Slider thumb moves using Left and Right Arrow keys, and the Home and End keys. 5.0 pts Min/Max Values Announced: Minimum and maximum values are announced. 1.0 pts Value Announced: When the slider moves, its new value is announced. 2.0 pts Total Points: 10.0

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/06%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Intermediate)/6.01%3A_Objectives_and_Activities.txt

Accordion widgets can come in single or multi-select formats, in which one or multiple panels can be opened at once, respectively. They are typically used to reduce the space that content occupies and to reduce scrolling. Accordions are made up of Accordion Headers and AccordionPanels. The accordion headers control the display of their associated accordion panel. The WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties used in an accordion ``` ``` ``` ``` • aria-multiselectable =”(true | false)” • role=”heading” • role=”button” • aria-controls=”[panel id]” • tabindex=”0″ • role=”region” • aria-hidden= “(true | false)” • aria-expanded= “(true | false)” Suggested Reading: For details on constructing accessible accordions, refer to: WAI-ARIA Authoring Practices: Accordion The following JSFiddle presents a typical accordion widget. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup. Test the accordion presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking “Edit in JSFiddle”, copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the accordion before completing Activity 9 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. First, add the accordion to the landmarked regions by assigning `role="region"` to the opening `<DL>` element when the accordion is initialized, adding the region role to the `init()` function. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Next, add the `aria-multiselectable` attribute to the `<DL>`, which will be dynamically set to true or false based on plugin configuration settings. This lets a user know that more than one accordion panel can be opened when set to TRUE or only a single panel when set to FALSE. Refer to the `\$(document).ready` block in the HTML, where the assignment takes place. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. The semantics of the children of the `<DL>` element, which was assigned `role="presentation"`, will also have their definition list semantics removed. Add the accordion semantics `role="heading"` to assign a heading role to the `<DT>` elements. The `aria-level` attribute might be used to implement nested accordion panels, but for our purpose here a simplified version is sufficient. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Add a `<div>` inside the header (i.e., `DT`) and define its `role` as a button. The button is given an `aria-controls` attribute to define which of the accordion panels it controls. By default the toggle state is set to false with `aria-expanded="false"` to be updated dynamically when the button is clicked or key pressed. Finally add `tabindex="0"` to the button (`<div>`) to make it keyboard focusable. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. The tabindex will make the button focusable, but it will not make it clickable. The `.on()` jQuery function adds a click event to the button, but a keypress event must also be added. Adding `.on('keydown')` activates the `onKeyDown` function, defined below, so the accordion headers operate with both a mouse click and a keypress. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. In the `togglePanel()` function, before `autoCollapse()`, add in the toggle to add and update the `aria-expanded` attribute for the panel headers, based on whether the associated panel is visible or not. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `autoCollapse()` function, toggle `aria-expanded="false"` and `aria-hidden="true"` for all accordion tabs that are not the current one. This ensures only one panel is open at a time. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Finally, the accordion panel semantics are added, defining the `<DD>` elements that had its semantics removed when `role="presentation"` was added to the parent `<DL>`. Panels are given a generic `role="region"` to make the panel browsable in the landmarks list, set to be hidden by default with `aria-hidden="true"` so all panels are closed when the page loads. Further, `tabindex="0"` is also added to make the panels keyboard focusable so the content of the panel is read as the user navigates to them. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability WAI-ARIA best practices defines all recommended accordion keyboard functionality, listed below. In our example, only the required keyboard events are included. Keyboard Interaction for Accordions • Enter or Space: • When focus is on the accordion header for a collapsed panel, expands the associated panel. If the implementation allows only one panel to be expanded, and if another panel is expanded, collapses that panel. • When focus is on the accordion header for an expanded panel, collapses the panel if the implementation supports collapsing. Some implementations require one panel to be expanded at all times and allow only one panel to be expanded; so they do not support a collapse function. • Down Arrow (Optional): If focus is on an accordion header, moves focus to the next accordion header. If focus is on the last accordion header, either does nothing or moves focus to the first accordion header. • Up Arrow (Optional): If focus is on an accordion header, moves focus to the previous accordion header. If focus is on the first accordion header, either does nothing or moves focus to the last accordion header. • Home (Optional): When focus is on an accordion header, moves focus to the first accordion header. • End (Optional): When focus is on an accordion header, moves focus to the last accordion header. • Ctrl+Page Down (Optional): If focus is inside an accordion panel or on an accordion header, moves focus to the next accordion header. If focus is in the last accordion header or panel, either does nothing or moves focus to the first accordion header. • Ctrl+Page Up (Optional): If focus is inside an accordion panel, moves focus to the header for that panel. If focus is on an accordion header, moves focus to the previous accordion header. If focus is on the first accordion header, either does nothing or moves focus to the last accordion header. The following `onKeyDown` function has been created to add keyboard operability to the header elements of the accordion, allowing both Space bar and Enter keys to operate the toggles (i.e., headers) that open and close panels, and the Arrow keys to move between the accordion headers. By default, users can navigate between headers, and between headers and panels using the Tab key. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Accordion in Action Watch the following video to see how ChromeVox interacts with an accordion. The Tab key is used to navigate into the accordions, move between accordion headers, and move between accordion headers and panels. Arrow keys can also be used to move between accordion headers, but not from headers to an associated panel. Aim to have the accordion you update in the activity on the following page operate and announce like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Accordions A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=353 6.05: Activity 9- Accessible Accordion Accessible Accordion Based on the Accordion details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the accordion there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the accordion by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_accordion.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated accordion with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to be sure your accordion functions as described, submit the URL to your accordion.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Header Focus: Accordion headers are keyboard focusable. 1.0 pts Headers as Buttons: Accordion headers are announced as buttons instead of list items. 2.0 pts Open Panels: Accordion headers open panels with a click or key press. 2.0 pts Expand/Collapse: Accordions announce expanded when a panel is opened and collapsed when closed. 2.0 pts Panels Focusable: Accordion panels are focusable with a Tab key press when opened. 2.0 pts Header Navigation: Navigation between accordion headers with Up and Down Arrow keys, and the Tab key. 1.0 pts Total Points: 10.0

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/06%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Intermediate)/6.04%3A_Accordions.txt

Tab panels, much like accordions, are often used to conserve space and reduce scrolling. They are typically made up of a tablist that contains a series of tabs, each tab controlling the display of a panel. As each tab is activated, its associated panel is displayed and other panels are hidden. When a tab is selected, it is highlighted to indicate which tab and panel are active. WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties used in a tab panel • role="tablist" • role="tabpanel" • role="tab" • aria-hidden="[true|false]" • tabindex = [0 | -1] • aria-controls="[panel id]" • aria-selected="[true|false]" Suggested Reading: Additional information about creating accessible tab panels can be found in the WAI-ARIA Authoring Practices. The following JSFiddle presents a typical tab panel widget. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup. Test the tab panel presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking “Edit in JSFiddle”, copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the tab panel before completing Activity 10 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. In our case, we are generating the tabs for each child `<div>` defined in the HTML, though tabs and tab panels could be static HTML. The tablist is made up of a `<ul>` and child `<li>` elements. We assign `role="tablist"` to the `<ul>` to remove its list semantics and replace it with tab panel semantics. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Next, we add WAI-ARIA to the panels, assigning `role="tabpanel"` to each of the original `<div>` elements, hide them by default with `aria-hidden="true"`, and finally adding `tabindex="0"` to make the panels keyboard focusable. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. The tabs themselves are now defined, replacing the list item semantics with tab semantics adding `role="tab"` to each of the `<li>` elements generated. We also need to define which tab controls which tabpanel, dynamically generating `aria-controls="[panel_id]"` for each of the tabs. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. When a tab is selected, we want to remove selection from other tabs with `aria-selected="false"`, and remove keyboard access temporarily by assigning `tabindex="-1"` to the unselected tabs, so that that tabpanel becomes next in the tab order, and users can navigate directly from the tab to the panel without having to pass through the other tabs in the tablist. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Likewise, when a tab is selected we assign `aria-selected="true"` so screen readers announce the selected tab, we add `tabindex="0"` as the roving tabindex to make that tab focusable. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. As the tabs change, hide all the panels with `aria-hidden="true"` so screen readers do not see them, then open the panel the current tab controls with `aria-hidden="false"` so screen readers can see the active panel. These are added to the end of the `selectTab()` function. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability W3C describes authoring practices for tab panel keyboard interactions as follows. Keyboard Interaction for Tab Panels For the tab list: • Tab: When focus moves into the tab list, places focus on the active `tab` element. When the tab list contains the focus, moves focus to the next element in the page tab sequence outside the tablist, which is typically either the first focusable element inside the tab panel or the tab panel itself. • When focus is on a tab element in a horizontal tab list: • Left Arrow: moves focus to the previous tab. If focus is on the first tab, moves focus to the last tab. Optionally, activates the newly focused tab (See note below). • Right Arrow: Moves focus to the next tab. If focus is on the last tab element, moves focus to the first tab. Optionally, activates the newly focused tab (See note below). • When focus is on a tab in a tablist with either horizontal or vertical orientation: • Space or Enter: Activates the tab if it was not activated automatically on focus. • Home (Optional): Moves focus to the first tab • End (Optional): Moves focus to the last tab. • Shift + F10: If the tab has an associated pop-up menu, opens the menu. • Delete (Optional): If deletion is allowed, deletes (closes) the current tab element and its associated tab panel. If any tabs remain, sets focus to the tab following the tab that was closed and activates the newly focused tab. Alternatively, or in addition, the delete function is available in a context menu. Note: 1. It is recommended that tabs activate automatically when they receive focus as long as their associated tab panels are displayed without noticeable latency. This typically requires tab panel content to be preloaded. Otherwise, automatic activation slows focus movement, which significantly hampers users’ ability to navigate efficiently across the tab list. For additional guidance, see 5.4 Deciding When to Make Selection Automatically Follow Focus. 2. If the tabs in a tab list are arranged vertically: 1. Down Arrow performs as Right Arrow is described above. 2. Up Arrow performs as Left Arrow is described above. 3. If the tab list is horizontal, it does not listen for Down Arrow or Up Arrow so those keys can provide their normal browser scrolling functions even when focus is inside the tab list. As usual, the tab panel needs to be keyboard operable to be accessible to screen readers. The `onKeyDown()` function is added to the functions, to add arrow key navigation between tabs, and between tabs and panels. Tab navigation and Enter keys are enabled by default and do not need to be defined here. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. The `onKeyDown` function is then added to each tab, referenced with jQuery’s `.on('keydown')` function, added to the `init()` function’s `\$tab` definition. Now, with keyboard access and WAI-ARIA added to define the semantics of the tab panel, it should be fully functional for screen readers. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Tab Panel in Action Watch the following video showing ChromeVox interacting with a tab panel. The Tab key is used to navigate into the tab panel and to the first tab. The arrow keys are used to move between tabs and, when on a tab, the Tab key is used to navigate to the associated panel. While on a panel, Shift + Tab is used to return to the tablist. There might also be Up and Down arrows enabled to move between tabs and panels, though we have not enabled them here. Aim to have the tab panel you update in the activity coming up on the next page operate and announce itself like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Tab Panel A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=357

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/06%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Intermediate)/6.06%3A_Tab_Panels.txt

Accessible Tab Panel Based on the Tab Panel details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the tab panel there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the tab panel by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_tabs.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated tab panel with ChromeVox to be sure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to ensure your tab panel functions as described, submit the URL to your tabs.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points List to Tab Semantics: List semantics are replaced with tab panel semantics. 2.0 pts Tab Position: Focus position in the tablist is announced. 1.0 pts Tab Focus opens Panel: When a tab is in focus, its associated panel displays. 1.0 pts Arrow Key Between Tabs: Arrow keys can be used to navigate between tabs. 2.0 pts Tab Key from Tab to Panel: Tab key can be used to move from a selected tab directly to its associated panel, Shift+Tab to move back to tabs. 2.0 pts Panels Focusable: Panels are keyboard focusable. 2.0 pts Total Points: 10.0 6.08: Carousels Carousels are typically used to present a series of panels or images that rotate at a particular frequency. WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties used in carousels • role="region" • aria-live="polite" • tabindex="0" • aria-describedby="[id of div with instructions]" • aria-hidden="(true|false)" Suggested Reading: The Carousel Tutorial from the W3C provides additional details on constructing accessible carousels. The following JSFiddle presents a typical carousel widget. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup. Test the carousel presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking “Edit in JSFiddle.” Copy the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the accordion before completing Activity 11 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Though instructions are not always required, they can be helpful for screen reader users when there is non-standard keyboard navigation. In our case, we’ll add a few words and assign them to the “instructions” variable in the default settings of the `init()` function for the carousel. The instructions will be rendered in its own `<div>` and referenced with `aria-describedby` a little later in the code. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. We’ll define a few attributes when the carousel is initialized: give it a `role="region"` to add it to the landmarks, add a `tabindex` to make it keyboard focusable, and reference the ID of the instructions `<div>` with `aria-describedby`. Add keyboard operability with `.on('keydown')` and a reference to the `onKeyDown` function, described below. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Screen reader users will not need the Next/Previous controls, so hide them. They will be using the Arrow keys instead, defined in the `onKeyDown` function further below. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Hide images from screen readers. Notice that the `alt` text for the images are defined in the HTML but left empty so it is not read in this case. Screen readers will read the `figcaptions`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Add screen reader instructions by generating a `<div>` that contains the instruction text defined earlier and hide the `<div>` by default. The instructions are read when the carousel receives focus, and the `aria-describedby` attribute is dynamically added to reference the instructions. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Add an `aria-live` attribute to the `stopTimer` function. Set its value to `polite` so content updating in the live region announces when a screen reader is not reading elsewhere on the page. The content of the visible carousel panel is read automatically when it is in focus, manually navigating between panels with the Arrow keys. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Remove the live region when focus on the carousel is removed in the `startTimer` function. By doing so, the live region stops reading when the timer is reactivated `onblur`, and it does not interfere with the screen reader reading elsewhere on the page. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Hide the active slide from screen readers with `aria-hidden="true"`. Then, make the next slide visible to screen readers with `aria-hidden="false"` in the `gotoSlide` function. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability Add keyboard operations for the carousel, pulling keyboard events from ik_utils.js to use Left and Right arrows for moving between panels in the carousel, and the Esc key to exit the carousel and resume automatic rotation. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Carousel in Action Watch the following video to see how ChromeVox interacts with a carousel. The carousel rotates automatically when focus is elsewhere on the page. When it receives focus, rotation stops, and navigation instructions are read. The Left and Right arrow keys are used to move manually between panels in the carousel while it has focus. The contents of each panel are read through a live region, dynamically added to the main container `<div>` when the carousel has focus. Using the Tab key while the carousel has focus sends focus to any focusable element within the panel that is in view, a link to the person who shared the photo in this case. Aim to have the carousel you update in the activity on the following page operate and announce like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Carousel A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=362 6.09: Activity 11- Accessible Carousel Accessible Carousel Based on the Carousel details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the carousel there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the carousel by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_carousel.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated carousel with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to ensure your carousel functions as described, submit the URL to your carousel.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Instructions Provided Screen reader instructions are provided when carousel receives focus. 1.0 pts Carousel Focusable Carousel panels are keyboard focusable. 1.0 pts Carousel Navigation Navigate between panels with the Left and Right Arrow keys. 3.0 pts Panels Read Aloud While the carousel has focus, each panel reads aloud when it comes into view. 2.0 pts Manual while in Focus When in focus, or while a mouse pointer is hovering over the carousel, panels rotate manually only. 2.0 pts Rotate when No Focus When the carousel is not in focus, panels rotate automatically. 1.0 pts Total Points: 10.0

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/06%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Intermediate)/6.07%3A_Activity_10-_Accessible_Tab_Panel.txt

Objectives By the end of this unit, you will be able to: • Describe the elements of an accessible menu bar • Identify tree menu accessibility features • Explain how an accessible sortable list functions Activities • Create the following accessible elements: • Menu bar • Tree menu • Sortable list 7.02: Menu Bars Menu bars are typically presented horizontally across the top of a website or web application. They contain links to key areas of the website or application. They function as toggles that open submenus or function as both links and toggles. Menu bars remain in view across the entire website or application. Roles, states, and properties used in a menu bar • aria-hidden = [true|false] • role = "menubar" • role = "menu" • role = "menuitem" • aria-labelledby = "[instruction div id]" • aria-label = [link text] • tabindex = [0 | -1] • aria-haspopup = "true" • aria-expanded = "[true|false]" • aria-selected = "[true|false]" Suggested Reading: For more about accessible menus, see WAI-ARIA Best Practice 1.1: Menus or Menu Bar. The following JSFiddle presents a typical menu bar widget with a variety of sub menus. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup. Test the menu bar presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking the “Edit in JSFiddle” link at the top, right-hand side, copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the menu bar before completing Activity 12 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. First, provide some instructions on how to use the menu with a keyboard and add them to the default options. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Hide the instructions from screen readers until needed, adding `aria-hidden="true"` to the instructions `<div>` defined when the menu is initialized. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Add `role="menubar"` to the top level `<ul>` in the menu. Make that `<ul>` keyboard focusable with `tabindex="0"`, so it reads the instructions while in focus and referenced with `aria-labelledby`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. For all the menu items in the menu bar that have submenus, add `role="menu"` to their `<ul>` and hide them by default using `aria-hidden="true"`. This can be located after the `\$elem.find('ul:eq(0)')` block presented immediately above. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Hide the links in the menu items from screen readers by default using `tabindex="-1"` and setting `aria-hidden="true"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Set up the menu items throughout the menu using `role="menuitem".` Also, remove keyboard access by default with `tabindex="-1"`. Next, label each menu item with the text of the associated link using `aria-label="[\$link.text]"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. For each of the menu items that has a submenu, add `aria-haspopup="true"` to announce the presence of the submenu, and set its default state to “collapsed” by adding `aria-expanded="false"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. When a menu item is marked selected, also add `aria-selected="true"` and add keyboard access back to the menu item with `tabindex="0"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Add keyboard access back to menu items using `tabindex="0"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Reference the keyboard access class, where mouse events are defined in the `onKeyDown` function, described below. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. In the `showSubMenu` function, add `aria-expanded="true"` submenus when they are expanded, remove keyboard access from the submenu container with `tabindex="-1"`. Then, make the submenu visible with `aria-hidden="false"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. In the `hideSubMenu` function, set `aria-expanded="false"`, hide submenus with `aria-hidden="true"`, and remove keyboard access with `tabindex="-1"` when a submenu is closed. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. When the `collapseAll` function is called, to collapse any open menus, reverse all attributes defining the element as open, reverting to `aria-hidden="true"`, `aria-expanded="false"` and re-adding keyboard access with `tabindex="0"` so it can be opened again. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability Menu bar keyboard functionality can be complex, particularly with large menus with multiple levels of submenus, and they can include redundant keys that perform the same function. The W3C defines suggested keyboard interaction for a menu bar as follows: Menu Bar Keyboard Interaction This description of keyboard behaviours assumes the following: 1. A horizontal `menubar` containing several `menuitem` elements. 2. All items in the `menubar` have child submenus that contain multiple vertically arranged items. 3. Some of the `menuitem` elements in the submenus have child submenus with items that are also vertically arranged. When reading the following descriptions, also keep in mind these items: 1. Focusable elements, which may have role `menuitem`, `menuitemradio`, or `menuitemcheckbox`, are referred to as items. 2. If a behaviour applies to only certain types of items, e.g., `menuitem` elements, the specific role name is used. 3. Submenus, also known as pop-up menus, are elements with role `menu`. 4. Except where noted, menus opened from a menu button behave the same as menus opened from a menu bar. • When a `menu` opens, or when a `menubar` receives focus, keyboard focus is placed on the first item. All items are focusable as described in 5.6 Keyboard Navigation Inside Components. • Enter: • When focus is on a `menuitem` that has a submenu, opens the submenu and places focus on its first item. • Otherwise, activates the item and closes the menu. • Space: • (Optional): When focus is on a `menuitemcheckbox`, changes the state without closing the menu. • (Optional): When focus is on a `menuitemradio` that is not checked, without closing the menu, checks the focused `menuitemradio` and unchecks any other checked `menuitemradio` element in the same group. • (Optional): When focus is on a `menuitem` that has a submenu, opens the submenu and places focus on its first item. • (Optional): When focus is on a `menuitem` that does not have a submenu, activates the `menuitem` and closes the menu. • Down Arrow: • When focus is on a `menuitem` in a `menubar`, opens its submenu and places focus on the first item in the submenu. • When focus is in a `menu`, moves focus to the next item, optionally wrapping from the last to the first. • Up Arrow: • When focus is in a `menu`, moves focus to the previous item, optionally wrapping from the first to the last. • (Optional): When focus is on a `menuitem` in a `menubar`, opens its submenu and places focus on the last item in the submenu. • Right Arrow: • When focus is in a `menubar`, moves focus to the next item, optionally wrapping from the last to the first. • When focus is in a `menu` and on a `menuitem` that has a submenu, opens the submenu and places focus on its first item. • When focus is in a `menu` and on an item that does not have a submenu, performs the following 3 actions: 1. Closes the submenu and any parent menus. 2. Moves focus to the next `menuitem` in the `menubar`. 3. Either: (Recommended) opens the submenu of that `menuitem` without moving focus into the submenu, or opens the submenu of that `menuitem` and places focus on the first item in the submenu. Note that if the `menubar` were not present, e.g., the menus were opened from a menubutton, Right Arrow would not do anything when focus is on an item that does not have a submenu. • Left Arrow: • When focus is in a `menubar`, moves focus to the previous item, optionally wrapping from the last to the first. • When focus is in a submenu of an item in a `menu`, closes the submenu and returns focus to the parent `menuitem`. • When focus is in a submenu of an item in a `menubar`, performs the following 3 actions: 1. Closes the submenu. 2. Moves focus to the previous `menuitem` in the `menubar`. 3. Either: (Recommended) opens the submenu of that `menuitem` without moving focus into the submenu, or opens the submenu of that `menuitem` and places focus on the first item in the submenu. • Home: If arrow key wrapping is not supported, moves focus to the first item in the current `menu` or `menubar`. • End: If arrow key wrapping is not supported, moves focus to the last item in the current `menu` or `menubar`. • Any key that corresponds to a printable character (Optional): Move focus to the next menu item in the current menu whose label begins with that printable character. • Escape: Close the menu that contains focus and return focus to the element or context, e.g., menu button or parent `menuitem`, from which the menu was opened. • Tab: Moves focus to the next element in the tab sequence, and if the item that had focus is not in a `menubar`, closes its `menu` and all open parent `menu` containers. • Shift + Tab: Moves focus to the previous element in the tab sequence, and if the item that had focus is not in a `menubar`, closes its `menu` and all open parent `menu` containers. Note: 1. Disabled menu items are focusable but cannot be activated. 2. A separator in a menu is not focusable or interactive. 3. If a menu is opened or a menu bar receives focus as a result of a context action, Esc or Enter may return focus to the invoking context. For example, a rich text editor may have a menu bar that receives focus when a shortcut key, e.g., Alt+F10, is pressed while editing. In this case, pressing Esc or activating a command from the menu may return focus to the editor. 4. Although it is recommended that authors avoid doing so, some implementations of navigation menu bars may have `menuitem` elements that both perform a function and open a submenu. In such implementations, Enter and Space bar perform a navigation function, e.g., load new content, while Down Arrow, in a horizontal menu bar, opens the submenu associated with that same `menuitem`. 5. When items in a `menubar` are arranged vertically and items in `menu` containers are arranged horizontally: 1. Down Arrow performs as Right Arrow is described above, and vice versa. 2. Up Arrow performs as Left Arrow is described above, and vice versa. Here we have implemented a subset of the keyboard interaction W3C recommends in an `onKeyDown()` function that is called when event handlers are set up for menu items. These keys include Left and Right arrows, Up and Down arrows, the Space bar and Enter keys, and Tab and Esc keys. Copy the following function into the ik_menu.js file, near the end, to add keyboard operability to the menu. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Menu Bar in Action Watch the following video showing ChromeVox interacting with a menu bar. The Tab key is used to navigate into the menu bar, to the first menu item, and to exit the menu bar. Left and Right arrow keys are used to move across the top level menu items. Up and Down arrows are used to move into and out of a submenu and to move between menu items in a submenu. The Space bar or Enter key are used to activate a menu item. The Esc key closes the current submenu. Aim to have the menu bar you update in the activity on the next page operate and announce itself like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Menu Bar A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=368

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/07%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Advanced)/7.01%3A_Objectives_and_Activities.txt

Accessible Menu Bar Based on the Menu bar details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the menu there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the menu bar by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_menu.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated menu bar with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to be sure your menu bar functions as described, submit the URL to your menu.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Instructions Provided: Instructions are announced on how to use the menu bar with a keyboard, when the menu bar first receives focus. 1.0 pts Menu Bar Semantics: List item semantics are replaced with menu semantics. 2.0 pts Submenus Announced: When a menu item with a submenu receives focus, the presence of a submenu is announced. 2.0 pts Focus Control: Only elements of the menu bar that are in view are able to receive focus. 2.0 pts Keyboard Operable: As described in Adding Keyboard Operability for a menu bar, the menu bar functions using a keyboard (and mouse). 3.0 pts Total Points: 10.0 7.04: Tree Menus Tree menus often have the same underlying HTML structure as a menu bar, but rather than being arranged in a horizontal layout, they tend to be arranged vertically. WAI-ARIA roles, states, and properties used in a tree menu • tabindex = [0 | -1] • aria-labelledby = [instruction div id | title div id] • aria-hidden = [true | false] • role = "tree" • role = "treeitem" • role = "presentation" • aria-level = [number of parent ULs] • aria-setsize = [number of LIs in a level] • aria-posinset = [position of each LI in a set] • aria-expanded = [true | false] • aria-selected = [true | false] Suggested Reading: For more about accessible tree menus, see WAI-ARIA 1.1 Authoring Practices 1.1: Tree View The following JSFiddle presents a typical tree menu widget with a few submenus. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup. Test the tree menu presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking “Edit in JSFiddle” at the top, right-hand side, copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the tree menu before completing Activity 13 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. First, define instructions on using the tree menu with a keyboard. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function add keyboard focus to the tree container by applying `tabindex="0"` to it, and label the container with the instructions created above, which gets read by screen readers when the menu initially receives focus. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function, hide the instructions `<div>` from screen readers by default by setting `aria-hidden="true"` when the tree menu is initialized. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function replace the unordered list semantics with tree menu semantics using `role="tree"`, and give it a title using `aria-labelledby` to reference the title defined in the default options. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function, define menu items with `role="treeitem"`, remove all keyboard access by default with `tabindex="-1"`, set the number of levels in the tree based on the number of parent ULs with `aria-level=[number of ULs]`, set the number of tree items on a given level with `aria-setsize="[number of LIs in a UL]"`, and finally define the position of each tree item within a level using `aria-posinset="[child LI index]"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function, if a tree item has a submenu UL that has been opened, set `aria-expanded="true"`, otherwise set `aria-expanded="false"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function, for each tree item use the text of the associated `span` element as its label. To ensure both the label and the contents of the `span` element are not both read, assign `role="presentation"` to the `span`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function, where mouse `onclick` functionality is used, provide equivalent `keydown` functionality, here referencing the `onKeyDown` function, shown below, that defines the keys to operate the menu. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function, right after adding `keydown` operability, make the first item in the tree menu focusable by adding `tabindex="0"` to the first `li`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `selectItem()` function, set up a roving tabindex, while at the same time applying `aria-selected=[true | false]` when tree items receive or lose focus. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. In the `toggleSubmenu()` function, announce the state of submenus to the screen reader by toggling the `aria-expanded=[true | false]` attribute when a menu is opened or closed. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability Much like the menu bar described in the previous activity, keyboard operability for a tree menu can be complex, with various operations using multiple key strokes to perform the same function. W3C describes potential keyboard operation in the WAI-ARIA Authoring Practices 1.1, reproduced below. Tree Menu Keyboard Interaction For a vertically oriented tree: • When a single-select tree receives focus: • If none of the nodes are selected before the tree receives focus, focus is set on the first node. • If a node is selected before the tree receives focus, focus is set on the selected node. • When a multi-select tree receives focus: • If none of the nodes are selected before the tree receives focus, focus is set on the first node. • If one or more nodes are selected before the tree receives focus, focus is set on the first selected node. • Right Arrow: • When focus is on a closed node, opens the node; focus does not move. • When focus is on a open node, moves focus to the first child node. • When focus is on an end node, does nothing. • Left Arrow: • When focus is on an open node, closes the node. • When focus is on a child node that is also either an end node or a closed node, moves focus to its parent node. • When focus is on a root node that is also either an end node or a closed node, does nothing. • Down Arrow: Moves focus to the next node that is focusable without opening or closing a node. • Up Arrow: Moves focus to the previous node that is focusable without opening or closing a node. • Home: Moves focus to the first node in the tree without opening or closing a node. • End: Moves focus to the last node in the tree that is focusable without opening a node. • Enter: Activates a node, i.e., performs its default action. For parent nodes, one possible default action is to open or close the node. In single-select trees where selection does not follow focus (see note below), the default action is typically to select the focused node. • Type-ahead is recommended for all trees, especially for trees with more than 7 root nodes: • Type a character: focus moves to the next node with a name that starts with the typed character. • Type multiple characters in rapid succession: focus moves to the next node with a name that starts with the string of characters typed. • * (Optional): Expands all siblings that are at the same level as the current node. • Selection in multi-select trees: Authors may implement either of two interaction models to support multiple selection: a recommended model that does not require the user to hold a modifier key, such as Shift or Ctrl, while navigating the list or an alternative model that does require modifier keys to be held while navigating in order to avoid losing selection states. • Recommended selection model – holding a modifier key while moving focus is not necessary: • Space: Toggles the selection state of the focused node. • Shift + Down Arrow (Optional): Moves focus to and toggles the selection state of the next node. • Shift + Up Arrow (Optional): Moves focus to and toggles the selection state of the previous node. • Shift + Space (Optional): Selects contiguous nodes from the last selected node to the current node. • Ctrl + Shift + Home (Optional): Selects the node with focus and all nodes up to the first node. • Ctrl + Shift + End (Optional): Selects the node with focus and all nodes down to the last node. • Ctrl + A (Optional): Selects all nodes in the tree. Optionally, if all nodes are selected, it can also unselect all nodes. • Alternative selection model – moving focus without holding the Shift or Ctrl modifier unselects all selected nodes except for the focused node: • Shift + Down Arrow: Moves focus to and toggles the selection state of the next node. • Shift + Up Arrow: Moves focus to and toggles the selection state of the previous node. • Ctrl + Down Arrow: Without changing the selection state, moves focus to the next node. • Ctrl + Up Arrow: Without changing the selection state, moves focus to the previous node. • Ctrl + Space: Toggles the selection state of the focused node. • Shift + Space (Optional): Selects contiguous nodes from the most recently selected node to the current node. • Ctrl + Shift + Home (Optional): Selects the node with focus and all nodes up to the first node. • Ctrl + Shift + End (Optional): Selects the node with focus and all nodes down to the last node. • Ctrl + A (Optional): Selects all nodes in the tree. Optionally, if all nodes are selected, it can also unselect all nodes. Note: 1. DOM focus (the active element) is functionally distinct from the selected state. For more details, see this description of differences between focus and selection. 2. The `tree` role supports the aria-activedescendant property, which provides an alternative to moving DOM focus among `treeitem` elements when implementing keyboard navigation. For details, see Managing Focus in Composites Using aria-activedescendant. 3. In a single-select tree, moving focus may optionally unselect the previously selected node and select the newly focused node. This model of selection is known as “selection follows focus”. Having selection follow focus can be very helpful in some circumstances and can severely degrade accessibility in others. For additional guidance, see Deciding When to Make Selection Automatically Follow Focus. 4. If selecting or unselecting all nodes is an important function, implementing separate controls for these actions, such as buttons for “Select All” and “Unselect All”, significantly improves accessibility. 5. If the nodes in a tree are arranged horizontally: 1. Down Arrow performs as Right Arrow is described above and vice versa. 2. Up Arrow performs as Left Arrow is described above and vice versa. For the tree menu created here, we’ve added in basic keyboard operability. Keyboard operation includes: Up and Down, and Left and Right Arrows for navigating within the tree, and the Enter or Space bar keys to toggle submenus open or closed. The Tab key by default enters and exits the tree menu and does not need to be defined as part of the keyboard operability of the tree menu. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Accessible Tree Menu in Action Watch the following video showing ChromeVox interacting with a tree menu. The Tab key is used to navigate into the tree menu, to the first tree item, and to exit the tree menu. The Up and Down arrows are used to move between tree items. The Space bar or Enter key are used to expand and collapse a tree item with a submenu. When a submenu is opened, focus moves to the first tree item in the menu. Aim to have the tree menu you update in Activity 13 operate and announce itself like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Tree Menu A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=374

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/07%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Advanced)/7.03%3A_Activity_12-_Accessible_Menu_Bar.txt

Based on the Tree Menu details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the tree menu there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied. Repair the accessibility of the tree menu by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_treemenu.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated tree menu with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to be sure your tree menu functions as described, submit the URL to your tree.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Instructions Provided: When the tree menu receives focus, instructions are announced on how to use the menu with a keyboard. 1.0 pts Tree Menu Semantics: When navigating through the tree menu with a keyboard, elements are announced with tree menu semantics. 2.0 pts Tree Submenus: When a tree menu item with a submenu receive focus, the submenu state is announced as expanded when open or collapsed when closed. 2.0 pts Focus Control: Only elements of the tree menu that are in view are able to receive focus. 2.0 pts Keyboard Operable: Tree menu functions with a keyboard as described in Adding Keyboard Operability for tree menus. 3.0 pts Total Points: 10.0 7.06: Sortable Lists One of the more common types of widgets that present barriers for screen reader users are drag and drop features. These can be set up in a grid, where draggable items can be rearranged horizontally or vertically by clicking on an item and moving it to a new position in the grid. A drag and drop may also be a sortable list, where items in a list can be dragged vertically to perhaps position the more important list items near the top of the list. For drag and drop elements you may come across on the Web today, the vast majority only function with a mouse, making them inaccessible to many people who rely on a keyboard to navigate. Here, we will look at a sortable list, and the WAI-ARIA and associated keyboard operability required to make that list sortable while using only a screen reader and a keyboard. Role, states, and properties used in a sortable list • role = “list” • role = “listitem” • tabindex = “[0 | -1]” • aria-labelledby = “[instruction div id]” • aria-hidden = “[true | false]” Suggested Reading: 4 Major Patterns for Accessible Drag and Drop The following JSFiddle presents a typical sortable list widget. Review the JavaScript and HTML markup, and test the list presented under the Result tab with ChromeVox to understand how it functions without any accessibility features added. You can work in JSFiddle itself by clicking “Edit in JSFiddle” at the top, right-hand side, copying the accessibility/WAI-ARIA code described below to fix the accessibility of the menu bar before completing Activity 14 on the page that follows. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. As usual, create instructions on using the sortable list with a keyboard. In this case, we also want to determine which modifier key to include in the instructions. For Mac, it will be the Command key, otherwise it will be the Control key. Here, the standard accesskey key commands will also work as the modifier and can potentially be described as well (e.g., Ctrl + Alt on Mac, or Ctrl on Windows). A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Assign a redundant `role="list"` to the opening `ul`, make the `ul` keyboard focusable, and attach the instruction with `aria-labelledby="[instruction div id]"` so keyboard navigation details are announced when the list initially receives focus while using a screen reader. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Within the `init()` function, generate the `<div>` that will contain the instructions, and add `aria-hidden="true"` to hide it from screen readers by default. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. In the items section of the `init()` function, where draggable is defined for each item in the list, add a redundant `role="listitem"`, and generate a label for each item that describes the list item’s current position and that that list item is “movable.” Finally, set `tabindex="0"` on the first list item, and `tabindex="-1"` on the other list items in order to ensure a list item is focusable by default. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Where the draggable attributes are defined near the end of the `init()` function, attach a keydown reference to the `onKeyDown()` function to make the list draggable with a keyboard. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. In the `resetNumbering()` function, update the label for moved items to reflect their new position in the list using `aria-label = "[new position]"`. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Adding Keyboard Operability Keyboard operation for a drag and drop sortable list is relatively simple, compared to the menu bar and tree menu. Essentially, only the Up and Down arrow keys are needed. The standard operating system modifier keys, typically used with tabindex (e.g., Crtl + Alt, Alt, or Ctrl), function as the modifier keys when using them in addition to the Up and Down arrows to grab, drag, and drop a list item. The `onKeyDown()` function for the sortable list presented below, defines just up and down arrow key operability, along with a roving tabindex. W3C has not yet created a best practice for authoring keyboard interaction for drag and drop elements. A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page. Sortable List in Action Watch the following video showing ChromeVox interacting with a sortable list. The Tab key is used to navigate into the list and to exit the list. The Up and Down arrows are used to move between list items. On a Mac, the Command key plus Up or Down arrow, selects a list item and moves it to a new location. On windows the Ctrl key is used instead of Command, along with the Up or Down arrow keys to move list items. Aim to have the sortable list you update in the activity on the next page operate and announce itself like the one in the video. Video: Accessible Sortable List A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/wafd/?p=379 7.07: Activity 14- Accessible Sortable List Based on the Sortable List details on the previous page, apply what you have learned to the associated activity files to make the sortable list there accessible. Files for this activity include: Use the surroundings of the highlighted code on the previous page as a guide to find where the fixes should be applied, Repair the accessibility of the sortable list by applying the highlighted code to the /assets/ik_sortable.js file. Note: While we suggest using the highlighted code we’ve provided, you are free to come up with your own solutions provided they produce the expected results listed in the marking rubric below. Test your updated sortable list with ChromeVox to ensure each element described in the marking rubric below is functioning as suggested. Requirements When you have applied your changes and tested to be sure your sortable list functions as described, submit the URL to your sortable.html file on your GitHub Pages site, to the file on the web server you are using to host your copy of the activity files, or a GitHack URL. Grading Rubric Criteria Points Instructions Provided: Instructions are announced on using the sortable list with a keyboard when it first receives focus. 1.0 pts Movable List Items: When navigating through list items, their position is announced along with an indication they can be moved. 2.0 pts List Items are Sortable: Using the keyboard operation described in Adding Keyboard Operability for sortable lists, list items can be moved without using a mouse. 3.0 pts Moved position: When a list items is moved, its new position is announced. 4.0 pts Total Points: 10.0

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Web_Accessibility_for_Developers_-_Essential_Skills_for_Web_Developers/07%3A_Interactive_WAI-ARIA_(Advanced)/7.05%3A_Activity_13-_Accessible_Tree_Navigation.txt

In this unit, we discuss the basic on-screen elements of Microsoft Word and Google Docs. We explore the toolbars, menus, commands, and taskbars. Toolbars and menus are located at the top of the screen and list options that allow you to insert, view, or change the layout of a document. Each menu option lists different commands that let you format, save, and print documents. We also discuss the Quick Access Toolbar and learn how to add and delete commands. As you go through this unit, open up your version of Microsoft Word or Google Docs and follow along with the tutorials. This will help you learn as you explore the window and menu environment. Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to: • open documents in Microsoft Word and Google Docs; • identify the parts of documents created in Microsoft Word and Google Docs; • identify each of the menu elements in Microsoft Word and Google Docs; and • identify and describe important commands in Microsoft Word and Google Docs. 01: Getting Started with Microsoft Word and Google Docs Microsoft Word is a popular word processing program that is part of the Microsoft Office Suite. Many businesses use it to create, edit, format, and organize documents. How to Open a Microsoft Word Document Watch this introductory video to learn how to open a new document, insert text, name your document, use spell check, center your text, change your font, and use the basic navigation tools in Microsoft Word. Microsoft Word Layout Basics Watch this video to explore the Microsoft Word interface, such as the title bar, the task bar, ribbon display options, and the quick access toolbar. The presenter also shows how to maximize and minmize the windows in your screen space. Microsoft Word's Quick Access Toolbar Watch this video to learn how to use Microsoft Word's Quick Access toolbar to easily perform common commands. 1.02: Google Docs Window and Menu Environment Google Docs is a free web-based word processor offered by Google. Many businesses use it to create, edit, and format documents. Google Docs are especially easy to share online and to collaborate with colleagues. You can access them from anywhere, view and restore older versions of documents if necessary, and allow several users to edit at the same time. How to Open a Google Docs Document Watch this brief video for a quick overview of how to open and create a new Google Docs document. Google Docs Layout Basics Watch this video on how to navigate the Google Docs interface, including the layout of the menu bar, toolbar, and document area. 2.01: Creating Documents In this unit, we explore how to use Microsoft Word and Google Docs to create new documents and documents based on templates. We review the different commands used to format documents, and introduce options for saving and printing documents. As with the previous unit, we encourage you to open up your version of Microsoft Word or Google Docs to follow along with the tutorials. This will help you learn as you practice creating and formatting documents. • Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to: • create a new blank document in Microsoft Word and Google Docs; • create documents in Microsoft Word and Google Docs using templates; • use commands such as font, bold, italics, and underline to format text; • use themes and colors to change the look of a document; • save and print documents; • insert images into documents; and • share a document using Google Doc's sharing tools. 02: Creating and Formatting Documents Now that we have looked into the basic Microsoft Word and Google Docs environment, let's explore how to create a new document. In this section we demonstrate how to use commands to change the font style, such as bold, italics, and underline, and how to save and print your work. We also discuss how you can use themes and colors to change the overall look of your document. Creating a Microsoft Word Document Watch this video to learn the basics of how to create a new document in Microsoft Word, add text, and use basic formatting such as bold, italics, and underline. Creating a Google Docs Document Watch this video to learn how to create a document in Google Docs, and for a quick tutorial of basic formatting tools, such as how to change the font size of text; add headings, titles, and subtitles; create links to other pages; and rename your document. An advantage of Google Docs is that it saves your work while you are typing and you can review past versions of your document.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Word_Processing_(Saylor)/01%3A_Getting_Started_with_Microsoft_Word_and_Google_Docs/1.01%3A_Microsoft_Word_Window_and_Menu_Environment.txt

A template is a pre-designed document you can use as a starting point to create your own document. When you open the template, the fonts, styles, margins, and paragraph settings are already set. For example, one template might include all the formatting elements of a standard business letter, which you would then modify to fit your needs. You can also create your own templates to use later, such as when you need to create the same kind of document over and over. Microsoft Word Templates Watch this video to learn how to use and create templates in Microsoft Word. A variety of templates are available, such as for business letters, resumes, and newsletters. You also can save your edits to create your own new template which you can use later. Microsoft Word and Google Docs have document elements you can insert into your template that update automatically, such as the date or time. Google Docs Templates Watch this video to learn how to find, use, and create templates in Google Docs. More Google Templates Watch this video to see the gallery of templates available in Google Docs. Note that after timestamp 2:13 this video also looks at some templates in two other Google products, Google Sheets and Google Presentation. 2.03: Basic Tools Let's dive in and look at several ways to save and print a document, some simple editing tools, how to insert and resize an image, and how to share documents with Google Docs. Microsoft Word and Google Docs make it easy to create and edit documents that look professional and are easy to read. Note that while some of these videos present commands or features of Google Docs or Microsoft Word, both programs share most of these same basic commands. Save and Save As Watch this video to learn about the difference between the Save and Save As commands, which you can use to replace or create new versions of your document. Printing in Google Docs Watch this video learn how to use the print command in Google Docs. The presenter reviews some additional commands on the Google Docs toolbar, such as different style headers which you can use to format the text throughout your document. Note that the version of Google Docs in this video will look different than your version, but the principles are the same. Printing Selected Text Watch this video to learn how to print a document or a portion of a document. Reviewing and Editing This video discusses the editing features in Google Docs. When you are collaborating with someone in Google Docs, you can make "suggested edits" that allow the document owner to review, accept, or reject your suggestions. The "voice type" tool lets you input text with your voice. You can also use these features on your phone. Inserting an Image Watch this video to learn how to insert and resize images you have saved on your computer into Google Docs. Dragging Pictures Watch this video to learn how to insert, move, and resize images and pictures in Microsoft Word. Sharing with Google Docs This video demonstrates two ways to share documents you create in Google Docs with someone else. Google offers different types of sharing permissions so you can simply allow your work colleagues to view your materials, or you can offer editing permissions so you can all insert comments and suggest edits to collaborate on a single document. 2.04: Basic Formatting Commands Formatting refers to the appearance of a document. A confusing layout can be frustrating to read and difficult to understand. Documents that are organized and properly formatted are not only easier to read, but you probably want to highlight the data and information you want your audience to see clearly. For example, you may want to showcase how you and your team were able to achieve a difficult sales goal. In this section, we demonstrate how to use Microsoft Word and Google Docs to format documents as you want them to appear. As we noted in the previous section, while some of these videos present commands or features of Google Docs or Microsoft Word, both programs share most of these same basic commands. How to Format Your Text Watch this video to learn about some basic Microsoft Word tools you can use to change the format your text, such as font size, bold, italics, strikethrough, subscript, superscript, and underline. Using Themes, Fonts, and Colors Watch this video to learn how to use colors, fonts, and themes to change the appearance of your document. Character Spacing Watch this video to learn how to use Microsoft Word's character spacing options. Using Styles This video demonstrates how to use style commands to easily change the appearance of the text in your document. This formatting technique which is available in Google Docs and Word is especially useful when you create multi-page documents. Your materials will look more organized and are easier-to-read when the font type and spacing for each different level of header shares the same style. More Tips for Formatting Multi-page Documents Watch this video to learn some techniques for organizing multi-page Microsoft Word documents, such as using different types of headings, a table of contents, headers, and page numbers. We explore headers and footers in more detail at the end of Unit 3. Collaborating with Google Docs While this tutorial is intended to prepare teachers who plan to use Google Docs to share materials and editing commands with their students, the principles apply to the workplace as well. More Advanced Google Docs Tools This tutorial reviews advanced Google Docs features for making documents more visually appealing, such as adding new fonts to your toolbox, inserting media and tables, and using Google's explore panel to find additional resources.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Word_Processing_(Saylor)/02%3A_Creating_and_Formatting_Documents/2.02%3A_Using_and_Creating_Document_Templates.txt

In this unit, we discuss how to create and format two standard business documents, block-style business letters and memos. Word processing tools allow us to incorporate a variety of font styles to emphasize text. These techniques include creating text that is in bold type, in italics, and underlined. We can also use borders to create a visual break between sections of a document. Finally, we explore how you can add headers and footers to present a polished, professional, and organized business document. Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to: • outline the elements of a business letter and memo; • format document margins and adjust spacing between headings and body text; • add headers, footers, page numbers, and borders to a document; • create a basic block-style business letter; and • create a basic block-style business memo. 03: Creating Business Documents Many businesses use standard templates and styles for their memos, letters, and emails. Since these formats are standardized, you can use these templates to quickly create business documents in the proper format. How to Construct a Business LetterPage Read this handout which discusses business writing and the proper way to format business letters. As you read, think about a work-related letter you have sent or received. Did you or the author follow these guidelines? What this Handout is About This handout will help you write business letters required in many different situations, from applying for a job to requesting or delivering information. While the examples that are discussed specifically are the application letter and cover letter, this handout also highlights strategies for effective business writing in general. Principles to Keep in Mind Business Writing is Different Writing for a business audience is usually quite different than writing in the humanities, social sciences, or other academic disciplines. Business writing strives to be crisp and succinct rather than evocative or creative; it stresses specificity and accuracy. This distinction does not make business writing superior or inferior to other styles. Rather, it reflects the unique purpose and considerations involved when writing in a business context. When you write a business document, you must assume that your audience has limited time in which to read it and is likely to skim. Your readers have an interest in what you say insofar as it affects their working world. They want to know the “bottom line”: the point you are making about a situation or problem and how they should respond. Business writing varies from the conversational style often found in email messages to the more formal, legalistic style found in contracts. A style between these two extremes is appropriate for the majority of memos, emails, and letters. Writing that is too formal can alienate readers, and an attempt to be overly casual may come across as insincere or unprofessional. In business writing, as in all writing, you must know your audience. In most cases, the business letter will be the first impression that you make on someone. Though business writing has become less formal over time, you should still take great care that your letter’s content is clear and that you have proofread it carefully. Pronouns and Active versus Passive Voice Personal pronouns (like I, we, and you) are important in letters and memos. In such documents, it is perfectly appropriate to refer to yourself as I and to the reader as you. Be careful, however, when you use the pronoun we in a business letter that is written on company stationery, since it commits your company to what you have written. When stating your opinion, use I; when presenting company policy, use we. The best writers strive to achieve a style that is so clear that their messages cannot be misunderstood. One way to achieve a clear style is to minimize your use of the passive voice. Although the passive voice is sometimes necessary, often it not only makes your writing dull but also can be ambiguous or overly impersonal. Here’s an example of the same point stated in passive voice and in the active voice: Passive voice: “The net benefits of subsidiary divestiture were grossly overestimated.” [Who did the overestimating?] Active voice: The Global Finance Team grossly overestimated the net benefits of subsidiary divestiture. The second version is clearer and thus preferable. Of course, there are exceptions to every rule. What if you are the head of the Global Finance Team? You may want to get your message across without calling excessive attention to the fact that the error was your team’s fault. The passive voice allows you to gloss over an unflattering point—but you should use it sparingly. Focus and Specificity Business writing should be clear and concise. Take care, however, that your document does not turn out as an endless series of short, choppy sentences. Keep in mind also that “concise” does not have to mean “blunt”—you still need to think about your tone and the audience for whom you are writing. Consider the following examples: After carefully reviewing this proposal, we have decided to prioritize other projects this quarter. Nobody liked your project idea, so we are not going to give you any funding. The first version is a weaker statement, emphasizing facts not directly relevant to its point. The second version provides the information in a simple and direct manner. But you don’t need to be an expert on style to know that the first phrasing is diplomatic and respectful (even though it’s less concise) as compared with the second version, which is unnecessarily harsh and likely to provoke a negative reaction. Business Letters: Where to Begin Reread the description of your task (for example, the advertisement of a job opening, instructions for a proposal submission, or assignment prompt for a course). Think about your purpose and what requirements are mentioned or implied in the description of the task. List these requirements. This list can serve as an outline to govern your writing and help you stay focused, so try to make it thorough. Next, identify qualifications, attributes, objectives, or answers that match the requirements you have just listed. Strive to be exact and specific, avoiding vagueness, ambiguity, and platitudes. If there are industry- or field-specific concepts or terminology that are relevant to the task at hand, use them in a manner that will convey your competence and experience. Avoid any language that your audience may not understand. Your finished piece of writing should indicate how you meet the requirements you’ve listed and answer any questions raised in the description or prompt. Application Letters and Cover Letters Many people believe that application letters and cover letters are essentially the same. For purposes of this handout, though, these kinds of letters are different. The letter of application is a sales letter in which you market your skills, abilities, and knowledge. A cover letter, on the other hand, is primarily a document of transmittal. It identifies an item being sent, the person to whom it is being sent, and the reason for its being sent, and provides a permanent record of the transmittal for both the writer and the reader. Application Letters When writing an application letter, remember that you probably have competition. Your audience is a professional who screens and hires job applicants—someone who may look through dozens or even hundreds of other applications on the day she receives yours. The immediate objective of your application letter and accompanying resume is to attract this person’s attention. Your ultimate goal is to obtain an interview. As you write your application letter, be sure you complete three tasks: catch the reader’s attention favorably, convince the reader that you are a qualified candidate for the job, and request an interview. Application Letter Checklist: • Identify the job by title and let the recipient know how you heard about it. • Summarize your qualifications for the job, specifically your work experience, activities that show your leadership skills, and your educational background. • Refer the reader to your enclosed resume. • Ask for an interview, stating where you can be reached and when you will be available. If your prospective employer is located in another city and you plan to visit the area, mention the dates for your trip. • If you are applying for a specific job, include any information pertinent to the position that is not included in your resume. To save your reader time and to call attention to your strengths as a candidate, state your objective directly at the beginning of the letter. I am seeking a position as a manager in your Data Center. In such a management position, I can use my master’s degree in information systems and my experience as a programmer/analyst to address business challenges in data processing. If you have been referred to a company by one of its employees, a career counselor, a professor, or someone else, mention that before stating your job objective. Example: I am seeking a position as a manager in your Data Center. In such a management position, I can use my master’s degree in information systems and my experience as a programmer/analyst to address business challenges in data processing. If you have been referred to a company by one of its employees, a career counselor, a professor, or someone else, mention that before stating your job objective. Example: During the recent ARRGH convention in Washington, D.C., one of your sales representatives, Dusty Brown, informed me of a possible opening for a manager in your Data Center. My extensive background in programming and my master’s degree in information systems make me highly qualified for the position. In subsequent paragraphs, expand on the qualifications you mentioned in your opening. Add any appropriate details, highlighting experience listed on your resume that is especially pertinent to the job you are seeking. Close with a request for an interview. Proofread your letter carefully. Two sample letters of application are presented below. The first letter (Sample Number 1) is by a recent college graduate responding to a local newspaper article about the company’s plan to build a new computer center. The writer is not applying for a specific job opening but describes the position he seeks. The second letter (Sample Number 2) is from a college senior who does not specify where she learned of the opening because she is uncertain whether a position is available. Sample Number 1 6123 Farrington Road, Apt. B11 Chapel Hill, NC 27514 January 11, 2005 Taylor, Inc. 694 Rockstar Lane Durham, NC 27708 Dear Human Resources Director: I just read an article in the News and Observer about Taylor’s new computer center just north of Durham. I would like to apply for a position as an entry-level programmer at the center. I understand that Taylor produces both in-house and customer documentation. My technical writing skills, as described in the enclosed resume, are well suited to your company. I am a recent graduate of DeVry Institute of Technology in Atlanta with an Associate’s Degree in Computer Science. In addition to having taken a broad range of courses, I served as a computer consultant at the college’s computer center where I helped train users to work with new systems. I will be happy to meet with you at your convenience and discuss how my education and experience match your needs. You can reach me at my home address, at (919) 233-1552, or at [email protected]. Sincerely, Raymond Krock Sample Number 2 6123 Farrington Road, Apt. G11 Chapel Hill, NC 27514 January 11, 2005 Taylor, Inc. 694 Rockstar Lane Durham, NC 27708 Dear Ms. Jones: I am seeking a position in your engineering department where I may use my training in computer sciences to solve Taylor’s engineering problems. I would like to be a part of the department that developed the Internet Selection System but am unsure whether you have a current opening. I expect to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering from North Carolina State University in June and by that time will have completed the Computer Systems Engineering Program. Since September 2000, I have been participating, through the University, in the Professional Training Program at Computer Systems International in Raleigh. In the program I was assigned to several staff sections as an apprentice. Most recently, I have been a programmer trainee in the Engineering Department and have gained a great deal of experience in computer applications. Details of the academic courses I have taken are included in the enclosed resume. If there is a position open at Taylor Inc., please let me know whom I should contact for further information. I look forward to hearing from you soon. I may be reached at my office (919-866-4000 ext. 232) or via email ([email protected]). Sincerely, Rebecca Brock Cover Letters As mentioned previously, application letters and cover letters are not the same. A cover letter identifies an item being sent, the person to whom it is being sent, and the reason for its being sent. A cover letter provides a permanent record of the transmittal for both the writer and the reader. In a cover letter, keep your remarks brief. Your opening should explain what you are sending and why. In an optional second paragraph, you might include a summary of the information you are sending. A letter accompanying a proposal, for example, might point out sections in the proposal that might be of particular interest to the reader. The letter could then go on to present a key point or two explaining why the writer’s firm is the best one for the job. The closing paragraph should contain acknowledgements, offer additional assistance, or express the hope that the material will fulfill its purpose. The following are examples of cover letters. The first letter (Sample Number 1) is brief and to the point. The second letter (Sample Number 2) is slightly more detailed because it touches on the manner in which the information was gathered. Sample Number 1 Your Company Logo and Contact Information January 11, 2005 Brian Eno, Chief Engineer Carolina Chemical Products 3434 Pond View Lane Durham, NC 27708 Dear Mr. Eno: Enclosed is the final report on our installment of pollution control equipment at Eastern Chemical Company, which we send with Eastern’s Permission. Please call me collect (ext. 1206) or email me at the address below if I can answer any questions. Sincerely, Nora Cassidy Technical Services Manager [email protected] Enclosure: Report Sample Number 2 Your Company Logo and Contact Information January 11, 2005 Brian Eno, Chief Engineer Ecology Systems, Inc. 8458 Obstructed View Lane Durham, NC 27708 Dear Mr. Eno: Enclosed is the report estimating our power consumption for the year as requested by John Brenan, Vice President, on September 4. The report is the result of several meetings with Jamie Anson, Manager of Plant Operations, and her staff and an extensive survey of all our employees. The survey was delayed by the transfer of key staff in Building A. We believe, however, that the report will provide the information you need to furnish us with a cost estimate for the installation of your Mark II Energy Saving System. We would like to thank Billy Budd of ESI for his assistance in preparing the survey. If you need more information, please let me know. Sincerely, Nora Cassidy New Projects Office [email protected] Enclosure: Report Works Consulted We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. • Covey, Stephen R. FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Writing. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Franklin Covey, 2012. • Business and Administrative Communication . Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2012. • Source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/business-letters/ How to Construct a Business MemoPage Read this chapter to learn how to formulate a business memo or email. Memos A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance. Memo Purpose A memo’s purpose is often to inform and represent the business or organization’s interests, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call to action. All organizations have informal and formal communication networks. The unofficial, informal communication network within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is often characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo. On the grapevine, one person may hear that someone else is going to be laid off and start passing the news around. Rumors change and transform as they are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the word is that they are shutting down your entire department. One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all employees what is going on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send a memo explaining the changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to take action, they may also issue a memorandum. Memo Format A memo has a header with guide words that clearly indicate who sent the memo, who the intended recipients are, the date of the memo, and a descriptive subject line. The content of each guide word field aligns. The message then follows the header, and it typically includes a declaration (introduction), a discussion, and a summary. Figure 4.1.1 shows a sample memo. Five Tips for Effective Business Memos 1. Audience Orientation Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo (or any message for that matter). An acronym or abbreviation that is known to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and if the memo is to be posted and distributed within the organization, the goal is to be clear and concise communication at all levels with no ambiguity. 2. Professional Tone Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the organization. Use a professional tone at all times. 3. Subject Emphasis The topic of the memo is normally declared in the subject line, and it should be clear, concise, and descriptive. If the memo is announcing the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the subject line—for example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance.” 4. Direct Format Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but memorandums are almost always direct. The purpose is clearly announced immediately and up-front, and the explanation or supporting information then follows. 3.02: Creating a Block-Style Letter or Memo When creating the basic block-style that many offices use for their emails, memos, and letters, be sure to pay attention to spacing between paragraphs and words, since it is an important component of block-style documents. How to Create a Block-Style Letter in Microsoft Word Watch this video for a tutorial on how to create a block-style letter using Microsoft Word. How to Create a Block-Style Letter in Google Docs This video demonstrates how to create a block-style letter using Google Docs. Block-Style Memos Watch this video to learn how to create a block-style business memo. 3.03: Adjusting the Margins and Page Borders of your Business Letter Margins are the space between the text and edge of a document. By default, margins in Microsoft Word and Google Docs are set to one inch from the right, top, left, and bottom of the page. You may want to adjust the page margins if, for example, your company uses a logo at the top of the page. We can use page borders to customize documents with background colors and shading. You can apply a border to an entire page, a paragraph, or a section of text. Margins in Microsoft Word This video demonstrates how to change the margins in Microsoft Word. Margins in Google Docs While this video focuses on how to set up MLA formatting, it also shows how to adjust the page margins in Google Docs. Note that scholars use three main style conventions to format their documents depending on the subject matter: APA (American Physiological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), and Chicago Manual of Style. Page Borders Watch this brief video to learn how to add page borders to document. 3.04: Creating Headers and Footers for your Business Letter This section focuses on how to use headers and footers which we often use when creating documents that have multiple pages. For example, they may contain information, such as the author’s name, date and time, or page numbers. As their names suggest, headers appear at the top of a document, while footers appear at the bottom. Headers and Footers in Google Docs Watch this video to learn how to create headers and footers in Google Docs. Headers and Footers in Microsoft Word Watch this video to learn how to create headers and footers in Microsoft Word.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Word_Processing_(Saylor)/03%3A_Creating_Business_Documents/3.01%3A_What_is_a_Business_Letter.txt

Learning Objectives • Simple instructions for managing files using USB drives. Usb Drive Usb drive can be used for storing file and folders, it can be used for backing up files, and it is Easy to share and travel with. • You can find the USB Drive in my computer in start. • You will find it under Devices with removable storage. • You can rename the USB Drive by clicking the right side of the mouse. To create a folder in the USB Drive Folders can be created in Documents and in the Desktop, with creating folders you can create a folder within the folder that’s called “Subfolders”. • Start my computer. • Double-Click on the removable disk • Right click on the empty space find the word “New” – find the word “Folder”. To save fills in the folder USB Drive Saving files is very easy, you can save files anywhere in the computer, you can rename the file; change the saving location of the file, and save it in a Different type. Press the “office button”. Click on “Save as”. Type the file name. Change the location of the file anywhere on the computer Click “Save”. 1.02: Undo Command Learning Objectives • When and how to use the "undo" command when using word processing. The undo command is used to quickly undo any recent key strokes. It is used when mistakes occur and the user wishes to undo it. For example when a user was typing some text then suddenly it disappears through pressing the wrong key, the easiest way to retrieve the data is through the undo command. The undo command is located next to the save button. As shown in the image above you will have to press the undo command to commence undoing. 2.01: Paragraph Concept Learning Objectives • Explain the following laws An explanation of how to type paragraphs properly within word processing documents. • An explanation of how tabs and returns are treated; including the use of the show/hide feature. the Ideal Gas Law Word Wrap Word wrap is the feature of breaking lines between and not within words, except when a single word is longer than a line. So, when your line is full of text, the word processor automatically jumps to the next line. Sometime, the text may wrap in an unwanted location. To make the reading easier, you need to proofread word wrapping location and insert special characters. Two things to be concerned with are how to control word wrapping with nonbreaking hyphens and nonbreaking spaces? • Insert Nonbreaking Hyphens If there is a word with hyphen at the end of a line, the first word and the hyphen may appear on the first line, and the second word will be in the next line. So, to keep word with hyphen together, replace the regular hyphen with a nonbreaking hyphen. A nonbreaking hyphen prevents the word with hyphen from becoming separated at the hyphen. To insert a nonbreaking hyphen, press Ctrl+Shift+Hyphen. • Insert Nonbreaking Spaces Sometimes text willwrap to the next line if a word does not fit at the end of the line, so some words should be kept together for improved readability. To prevent words from separating due to the word-wrap feature, you can insert a nonbreaking space. To insert a nonbreaking space, press Ctrl+Shift+Spacebar between the two words that you want to keep together. Show/Hide spaces, return, and tabs I cannot tell you how helpful using this feature can be. If you get used to working in Word with this feature turned ON, you'll keep yourself out of so much trouble! As you type text, Word inserts nonprinting marks or symbols. To see these symbols click the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click Show/Hide button that look like a reversed “p”. When you click it you will see the different characters that show you there are spaces, returns, and tabs on your text. 2.02: Insert versus Overtype Learning Objectives • An explanation of how these two modes of entry effect what you see when typing. How to toggle between the two modes. Insert Insert means that you add text to the current text without replacing any single letter. For example, the original sentence is “John is a good person”; if you insert “very” between “a” and “good”, the sentence will be “John is a very good person”. To insert a text: Step 1 - Move the insertion point to the place you want to insert the text. Step 2 - Type the text you want. Overtype Overtype means that you replace the current text with another text using the ‘Insert’ button on the keyboard. For example, the original sentence is “John is a very good person” and you want to replace “good” with “nice”. If you put the insertion point before “good” and type “nice”, the sentence will be “John is a very nice person” not “John is a very nice good person”. To overtype a text: Step 1 - Be sure to activate the ‘Overtype option’. To do that , follow the instructions: Step 2 - To overtype the text, move the insertion point to the place you want to replace the text (before the text); click the insert button (toggles from insert mode to overtype mode). Step 3 - Type the new text that will overtype the existing text. Hit the insert key to toggle off the overtype and return to the insert mode. 2.03: Auto Correct and Auto Text Learning Objectives • An explanation of how these two featured effect what happens when typing. AutoCorrect Many people make mistakes while they are typing in the word. You will notice while you are typing your misspelled words will automatically be corrected. Here are the steps to turn on the AutoCorrect. 1. Click on start button as shown, and then press word option. 2. Choose Proofing. 3. When you click on proofing click on AutoCorrect option. 4. At the last step here you can replace the incorrect word with the correct one you choose. AutoText Auto text is one way to complete your unfinished words in the word document, while are you typing specially dates, time, and years you will notice that there is something popping to you like in the picture below as shown to you. You can confirm that just by pressing ENTER.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Word_Processing_Essentials_(Busbee)/01%3A_Preliminaries/1.01%3A_Files_Management.txt

Learning Objectives • Simple instructions for using the spelling and grammar checking features of word processing. Spelling and Grammar Checker Many students, especially ESL students, hope to write an academic essay, paper, or any academic writing that is free of spelling or grammar mistakes. Sometimes when we revise our work, we might miss or cannot recognize some of those mistakes, and for that reason, Microsoft Office Word has provided the world an awesome feature called Spelling and Grammar Checker. Spelling and Grammar Checker helps you avoid many common spelling and grammar errors in your word documents, and at the same time you may correct some of them. Types of Errors There are three different wavy underline colors that have three different meanings: green, red, and blue; the green wavy underline indicates grammatical error(s), the red wavy underline refers to spelling error(s), and the blue wavy underline refers to contextual error(s). Auto Corrections Microsoft Office Word has a feature that corrects some spelling errors automatically; for example, if you type "teh" instead of "the", the word "teh" will be adjusted automatically to "the". However, the application cannot correct or find all grammar mistakes, so you have to review your document thoroughly before printing the final draft, and make sure that your document does not have any spelling, grammatical, or contextual errors. There are many methods to identify misspelled words or questionable grammar in your document: you may print your document and give it to someone else to correct it using a marker, or you may read your document aloud that helps you find some mistakes. Using Spelling and Grammar Checker To start Spelling and Grammar Checker, do the following steps: Then, choose the appropriate options. Once you finish, click the X button on the right top corner of the Spelling and Grammar dialog box to close the dialog box. 3.01: Selecting Text and Applying Effects Learning Objectives • How to select text within a document coupled with how to apply commonly used effects such as bold, font types, etc. onto the selected text. Selecting Text If you want to select a text you have to: • Move insertion point to the word that you want to select • left click in the mouse and select the wanted text Applying Effects If you want to apply effect in your text:- • From the font box which is placed in home tab you can apply effects in your text such as, font, size, bold, underlined, italic … • You have to select the text, and then press the icon that you desire. The explanations for these numbers are:- 1. Bold: to make your type apper like this. 2. Italic: to make your type face curve or (bend) to the right like this. 3. Underline: to make a line below your text Like this. 4. Strikethrough: to cross the text or make a line at the middle of the text. 5. Highlight color: to highlight a text. 6. Font color: to change the font color. 7. Font size: to change the text size. 8. Font: to change the font hand writing or style. 3.02: Styles Learning Objectives • How to use the "Heading 1" style, plus how to change styles for an entire document. All formatting in Microsoft Word is controlled by styles. A style is a set of formatting instructions. Word applies the formatting instructions when you apply a style. Microsoft Word comes with dozens of built-in styles. Here are the steps of applying a style: Step 1: Select the text. Step 2: Apply the style: using the mouse. The results when choosing Heading 1: 3.03: Using the Thesaurus Learning Objectives • How to use the thesaurus to improve a docoument. What is a Thesaurus: A thesaurus is a reference work that lists words grouped together according to similarity of meaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms), in contrast to a dictionary, which contains definitions and pronunciations. Here are the first basic steps on how to use the thesaurus. Here its explaining on when you have a paragraph written instead of typing the word in the search bar, you can just click on the word you want to change.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Word_Processing_Essentials_(Busbee)/02%3A_Typing/2.04%3A_Spelling_and_Grammar_Checker.txt

Learning Objectives • How to create a title page for a document. Most research papers have a title page (sometimes called a cover page). The slide below shows simple instructions to make a title page. 4.02: Headers and Footers Learning Objectives • How to create headers and footers for a document. Header and Footer are to insert whatever you need (such as page numbers, title, date…Etc.) into the head (top) and the foot (bottom) of each page. However, the main purpose for the header and footer is to add various scripts to track the access to the blog (such as Google…Etc.). To create a header or a footer: 1. Click the Insert tab. 2. Click on the Header/Footer pop-down menu. After you insert the header/footer, type in header or footer whatever you like… 1. You can insert page numbers as it shown in the picture above by choosing the design you like. 2. Also, you can change the height of the Header/footer from the Position group as it shown in the picture above. 3. After finishing editing the header/footer, to exit click the (" Close Header and Footer", the red X next to the Position group). 4.03: Citations with Footnotes or Endnotes Learning Objectives • How to cite references using either footnotes or endnotes. Footnotes and endnotes make it easy to give credit to your sources or to add explanatory material. A footnote appears at the end of the page, and the endnote appears at the end of the document. Footnotes and endnotes are also used for additional information about a topic. To insert footnote or endnote do the following as shown in figure below: 1. Place the pointer where you want to insert the reference note. 2. Go to the references tab. 3. In the Footnotes group, click Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote. 4. Type your text, and click back to the text. Automatically, Word places footnotes at the end of each page and endnotes at the end of the document. Footnotes and endnotes are both separated from the body text by a short horizontal line. Both footnotes and endnotes contain a note reference mark in the body text to indicate that additional information as shown in figures below. The footnote uses sequenced numerals (1, 2 …) and the endnote uses sequenced Roman numerals (i, ii...). If add or delete notes, numbers automatically modified. Note text can be formatted as any other text. You can change its color, size, style, etc. You can easily modify your notes simply by clicking inside the note and edit it. To delete note select its note reference number in the text and press Delete. Also you can modify it by clicking the Footnote and Endnote Dialog box launcher. Use the dialog box launcher (a little box with an arrow) at the lower-right corner of the Footnotes group of the References tab. To convert the footnote to endnote or opposite, click on convert in the Footnote and Endnote Dialog box launcher. After converting: 4.04: Citations In-Line with Bibliography Learning Objectives • How to cite references in-line then adding a bibliography. bibliography is a list of works cited by an auther and should be included with the document when published. Select either Bibliography or work cited from the list of Bilt-In Bibliographies. After you add the sources using the Insert Citations feature, you click Bibliography in the Citations & Bibliography group on the References tab, and then click Insert Bibliography. The insert Bibliography selection at the bottom will work the same way it just won’t format the bibliography like the Bilt-In selections. 4.05: Print Preview and Printing Learning Objectives • How to print preview a document to review for problems, plus how to print from the print preview screen. In the Print Preview, you can see what your document looks like before printing. It helps you to make your paper looks perfect and organized which saves more papers . In particular, if a part of your document is in the area in which the printer cannot actually print, the Print Layout view may show your text anyway, but Print Preview probably will not. Students must print preview their documents before printing to make sure that the document looks perfect and to avoid wasting papers. To start Print Preview, do the following steps. This is how the Print Preview mode looks like. 5.01: Show Hide File Extensions Learning Objectives • General instructions on how to show or hide file extensions. Specific instructions and web page links for Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7 operating systems. By default, file extensions for known file types are hidden in Windows operating systems. However, you can change this setting so that file extensions are shown for all file types. Being able to see file extensions can be very helpful for students taking computer courses because those course instructions often refer to file extensions. All Windows operating systems navigate you to the “Folder Options” menu, then have you select the “View” tab. Indeed the box is identical in Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7. The check in the box acts like a toggle switch. With a check present, it will hide known file types. Without the check present, it will show all file types. Click on the box to make the check appear [hide file extensions] or disappear [show file extensions] and then select “OK”. Instructions for navigating to the “Folder Options” for various Windows operating systems along with an Internet link for additional help are provided below. Windows XP With the Windows Explorer open, slect the “Tools” tab and then “Folder Options”. Link for additional help: http://www.fileinfo.net/help/windows-show-extensions.html or http://dotwhat.net/page/displayextensions/ Windows Vista Select the “Start” button, then “Control Panel”, then “Appearance and Personalization” and then “Folder Options”. Link for additional help: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-vista/Show-or-hide-file-name-extensions Windows 7 Select the “Start” button, then “Control Panel” and then “Folder Options”. Link for additional help: http://maximumpcguides.com/windows-7/hide-file-extensions/ 5.02: Using the Longman Dictionary Learning Objectives • Simple instructions to help students more effectively use the Longman dictionary. Key to the Dictionary You will find below some simple explanations that would help you comprehend the major elements of the Longman dictionary. Searching for a Word The key to search for a word is the upper left/right smaller font words which represents a guide for the search as shown below.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Word_Processing_Essentials_(Busbee)/04%3A_Printing/4.01%3A_Title_Page.txt

Learning Objectives • Understand the parts of an information system • Identify companies that practice user centered design • Identify typical careers for information systems graduates It’s More Than Just Computers Information systems are the combination of people, information technology, and business processes to accomplish a business objective. Every information system (IS) has people, processes, and information technology. In fact, many IS professionals add most of their value working with people and processes. They manage the programmers but typically avoid programming themselves. We can represent an information system as a triangle with people, processes, and information technology (computers) on the three vertices. The three parts of an information system are often referred to as the information systems triangle. Consider the popular trend of letting the TV audience vote on some talent shows such as Dancing with the Stars. The voting is managed by a sophisticated information system. The voters are the people involved with the system. Voters can cast the votes by phone, by text, or by online poll—three different information technologies. A central server at ABC records and tallies the votes. The business processes include the phone, texting, and online procedures—how and when to cast votes, and rules limiting the number of votes from each household. In November 2010, ABC had to defend the legitimacy of its business processes when detractors claimed that Bristol Palin, daughter of political candidate, Sarah Palin, received an inflated vote tally from Tea Party supporters. Some of these supporters bragged on blogs about how they had circumvented the ABC business processes to record multiple votes for Bristol. ABC claims that it has systems in place to spot and discount suspicious voting activity. They have publicly revealed some, but not all, of these fraud detection systems. At this point we don’t know for sure if fraudulent votes got through. For more on this story see for example: http://insidetv.ew.com/2010/11/19/dwts-bristol-palin-tea-party-voting-conspiracy/. The three parts of the information systems triangle must interact in concert to realize business objectives. The job of the IS professional is to ensure that a balance is maintained and enhanced for the good of all the actors and the business as a whole. Good and Bad Information Systems Information systems professionals work with others to design and customize the systems that you interact with everyday. When you register at a hospital, the information goes into an information system designed to support administrative reporting and insurance processing. When you buy from Amazon.com, the information goes into an information system designed to support customer relationship management. Every information system is designed to make someone’s life easier. Unfortunately, that someone is not always the consumer. When was the last time that you had a good registration experience at a hospital? That system probably was not designed with you in mind—but rather designed to support backend reporting for the hospital administration and by proxy for the government and insurance companies. So the administrators are happy, but not the customers. From the hospital’s point of view there is no business need to make the registration experience extraordinarily pleasant. They are betting that you will not choose your hospital based on how difficult it was to register. Amazon.com, by contrast, delivers an extraordinary experience to its customers so that they will stay loyal. Amazon practices user centered design—designing to meet the needs of the user. However, the clever folks at Amazon also have tremendous backend reporting. So it is possible to design systems that please customers and administrators simultaneously—but it takes a bit more effort. What would hospital systems look like if they were designed to Amazon standards? Imagine 1-click appointments, 1-click payments, shielding the client from the insurance companies. How about an integrated patient record of all past procedures? The world will continue to gravitate toward Amazon style systems. In the end it is good business to make everyone happy—employees, customers, and administrators. It is also the right thing to do. Think back to the hospital. In a competitive market, maybe you would choose the better customer experience. A hospital worker might choose to work for the hospital with the more user friendly patient information system. No one likes to be yelled at by unhappy customers. It doesn’t take much to improve the user experience (UX) of a system. You have to design a user interface (UI) anyway—why not make it a good one? In the words of Hall of Fame basketball coach John Wooden, “If you don’t have time to do it right, when will you have time to do it again?” Consider the tremendous success of Apple Computer. One of the main advantages that Apple has over its rivals is that it carefully analyzes how people best interact with technology, develops requirements based on that analysis and then designs elegant computers, the iPhone, iPad, iTunes, and so forth based on those requirements. Google Health, pictured here, has created a user centered patient record—and for free! It will be interesting to see if hospitals adopt it. Most Professions Use Information Systems Marketing, accounting, finance, manufacturing – there are many different professional goals and types of work in the business world. There are also many different industries where this work can be performed – manufacturing, retail, banking, healthcare. No matter what your career goal is or what industry interests you, your success and the success of the business rely on your ability to recognize opportunities where information systems can be used to improve performance. In most lines of work, you will need to store information in and retrieve information from databases. You will have to create persuasive and professional reports and presentations to convince others that your ideas make sense. Using Microsoft Excel and other tools, you will analyze data to find patterns and trends to aid decision-making. You will manage your relationships with contacts and clients using customer relationship management systems. The business’s success will depend on you leading efforts that use technology to support the introduction of new products, efficiently manage supply chains, and effectively manage complex financial activities. Retailers rely on past purchase data to develop sales forecasts and predict purchase behavior. Most businesses utilize collaboration technologies to bring together employees from all over the world to solve problems. Your ability to recognize opportunities to use information technology to create business value is central to both your success and that of your firm. What Does an IS Career Look Like? A career in information systems is full of action, problem-solving, and teamwork. It is the goal of information systems professionals to bridge the knowledge gap between business users and technologists, and thus IS professionals must be fluent in both worlds. Work in the field of information systems is exciting, fun, and fast-paced. There is always a new team to work with and new technology to learn about, and projects move quickly leaving openings for new endeavors. In a recent report published in The Wall Street Journal, information systems professionals were tied for the highest percentage of college graduates that were satisfied with their career path. See finance.yahoo.com/college-education/article/111000/psych-majors-not-happy-with-options?mod=edu-continuing_education. When preparing to become an IS professional, students focus on learning about the types of systems that exist, what they offer to businesses, best practices for implementation, and the advantages and disadvantages of each. Students also focus on how to work with business users and discover what their system needs are and how they can best be served by information systems. Information systems professionals focus on solving problems in businesses through the use of information systems. When students start their careers, they frequently work on teams that connect businesspersons with the appropriate system solution for their situation. Usually the organizations they work for adopt a set of best practices to create consistency across project teams. Through the use of these best practices, IS professionals determine what options are available, consider the pros and cons of each, design a customized solution to match the specific business, and develop a plan on how to best implement the information system, including rollout phases and training. As mentioned, IS professionals typically work in teams. This is because the projects are usually very large and have many interworking pieces. As a result, IS professionals specialize in a particular type of work and contribute their expertise in this area. Specializations include system analysts, software developers, database administrators, and project managers. Information systems as a career is attractive to many individuals because of the traits above. However, it is also engaging because it is a career in which you get to work on making people’s lives easier. IS professionals focus on developing systems that businesspersons will use to create efficiency and increase their performance. IS professionals design systems that help businesspersons make better decisions (decision support systems) and lead organizations (executive dashboards). Systems are also created to keep track of materials (supply chain management systems) and customers (customer relationship management systems). And given the important role of information in modern organizations, IS professionals record, monitor, and analyze data to learn how the business can improve (business intelligence systems). IS professionals work to design these systems to be more usable, more efficient, and more informative. This book will discuss these topics and allow you to experience many of them. It walks you through what it is like to be an IS professional, rather than telling you about it. Key Takeaways • The information systems triangle includes people, processes, and information technology. It is a good reminder that MIS is about much more than just technology. • Well designed information systems keep the user in mind at each step of the process. • Information systems are used by every functional area of business—marketing, management, finance, and accounting. For this reason it is good to have a strong background in information systems. • Careers in information systems tend to be dynamic, team based, and focused on problem solving. • Few information systems careers involve programming. However, IS professionals must be able to communicate with programmers. Questions and Exercises 1. Search for news stories on the Bristol Palin vote controversy. What systems did ABC put in place to catch voter fraud? 2. Pick a user centered web site other than Amazon.com and explain why you think it is well designed. 3. Find job descriptions for two information systems jobs. Do the job descriptions emphasize soft skills or technical skills or both?

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/01%3A_Information_Systems_in_Your_Life-_Types_of_Systems_and_Careers/1.01%3A_What_Are_Information_Systems.txt

Learning Objectives • Compare and contrast usability, graphic design and analytical design. • Outline the steps by which an information system should be designed. Many Meanings of Design The key to successful information systems is good design. But what makes a good design? A number of disciplines weigh in on this topic. We will look at design from a number of different perspectives. Whenever possible we will contrast good and bad designs. Different people use the word design in different contexts. When IS professionals speak of design, they are referring to business processes. Problems must be analyzed and requirements documented before solutions are designed, developed, and implemented. After all if the design does not satisfy the business need, then what’s the point? However, satisfying the business need is really a baseline standard. The vilified hospital system described earlier meets the business need of registering patients. And yet its design is in other ways lacking. Similarly, fast food meets the need for feeding one’s hunger. However, we want to be metaphorically better than fast food in our designs. Usability describes how easy the system is to navigate. The easier the system is to navigate, the less time a user will need to spend learning to use the system. A more usable system also leaves less room for error. Usability theory provides rules of thumb (heuristics) that document best practice conventions for designing a user interface. Amazon.com has one of the most usable online systems because they follow established conventions. Following conventions tremendously increases the potential acceptance of your website or app. Graphic design refers to the visual appeal and organization of the user interface. There is obviously some overlap here with usability. Usable systems typically adhere to at least some graphic design rules. However, a usable system could be bland and uninteresting. Employing graphic design principles helps ensure that the system will have visual appeal. Designs also need to fit with the overall brand of the client. Existing colors, fonts, and logos are all a part of the brand for which the system is being created. Analytical Design describes how to best represent information—especially quantitative information—to communicate clearly and truthfully. Every information systems project has quantitative dimensions associated with project management. These include estimating costs, time schedules, and so forth. The convergence of usability, graphic design, and analytical design on Yahoo Finance. This graph shows the three month stock price for Amazon vs. Google. From a usability standpoint it could not be easier to request the graph. Type the company name and it suggests the stock ticker symbol. Also, as you move your cursor (the hand), the black dot on the line moves as well, and the numbers on the top left update to display values for the date you are passing over—very slick! The graphic design is excellent—muting the underlying grid so that the data stands out by contrast. The analytical design is also first rate. Hundreds of data points are effortlessly represented. We see the trading volume on each day. At the bottom, the stock price is placed in context over a multi year period. In sum, we have a tremendous amount of information beautifully represented without clutter. Think about this the next time you see an impoverished PowerPoint graph with four bars representing four data points. Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Information systems are designed using the systems development life cycle (SDLC). The SDLC is to a large extent common sense spelled out in stages. First, analyze the current situation. Then specify the requirements that a solution should embody. The next stage is to design a solution (no programming yet). Then the system is developed (programmed) and tested. Finally, the system goes live for the end users as it is implemented in the business setting. To review, the five phases are: 1. Analysis 2. Requirements (vision of future state) 3. Design 4. Development 5. Implementation In this course we will cover all five stages. However we will focus most heavily on the first three stages for two reasons. First, because that is where IS professionals tend to spend most of their time and second because it is much easier to make changes to a system when in the planning stages, than after code has already been generated. It is good to frequently interact with the end user and show them screen mockups and a systems architecture diagram of what the final system will look like. The systems architecture is a hierarchy diagram of the flow of the website or app—what the relationship between the pages of the system will be. It is sometimes called a site map. Ideally the systems architecture is done on paper with sticky notes that can be moved around at will by multiple users. A final systems architecture can be represented as a hierarchy chart in PowerPoint. Once the systems architecture is complete, wireframes or mockups of the individual pages may be constructed. Mockups are non-functioning pages generated in a drawing program such as PhotoShop, Omnigraffle (Mac), or even PowerPoint. PowerPoint turns out to be a fairly respectable mockup tool—especially when working off of some predefined templates. The SDLC in action. By analogy think of home improvement shows on TV. such as Curb Appeal. They typically follow a similar life cycle when improving a home. The current state of the home is analyzed in consultation with the resident. During this stage the residents reveal their requirements for a solution. For example, they might want a way to interact more with the neighbors. Next the designer produces a plan to meet those requirements. For example, a French door in the living room leading to a front deck from which to interact with the neighbors. Actually blowing a hole through the wall and installing a deck is the development stage. If the design is good and workmanship good, the owner is normally delighted with the solution. At least they seem to be on TV. The illustration below helps to tease out some of the equivalencies. Key Takeaways • The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is an approach for designing and developing MIS solutions. It proceeds in stages: analysis, requirements (vision of future state), design, development, and implementation. • Information systems professionals often make the equivalent of a sketch of the design of the final system. When the sketches are crude they are called wireframes; when they are more refined they are called mockups. However, sometimes the terms are used interchangeably. Questions and Exercises 1. Watch a home improvement show such as Curb Appeal and identify all five stages of the SDLC in the show. About how much time does the show devote to each stage? 2. Read and summarize an article on interface design from humanfactors.com.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/01%3A_Information_Systems_in_Your_Life-_Types_of_Systems_and_Careers/1.02%3A_Designing_Information_Systems.txt

Learning Objectives • Compare and contrast Enterprise, Collaboration and Collaboration systems Business Information Systems Most information systems can be grouped into three broad classifications—enterprise systems (ES), knowledge management/collaboration systems, and business intelligence (BI) systems. These collectively comprise the information systems architecture for an enterprise. Enterprise systems are used to manage the day to day business processes. Supply chain management (SCM) controls inbound and outbound logistics. Customer relationship management (CRM) manages communications and marketing initiatives directed at customers. However, the grandaddy of them all are enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems that control business transactions from accounts payable/receivable to product movement on the factory floor. If this seems dense now, don’t worry about it. Books have been written about all these pieces. What is important for you to see is that ideally all the systems are smoothly coordinated so that management makes information driven decisions. All of these enterprise systems communicate and share information as needed. They also store each of their activities in databases. At regular intervals these databases are copied into a centrally located data warehouse. The copying process is called extract, transform and load (ETL). Data is extracted from the multiple databases, transformed to a common format, and then loaded into the data warehouse. The data warehouse then becomes a gold mine of data about the business. The beauty of the data warehouse is that it can be queried offline without interrupting operations of the business. However, the data warehouse is only as useful as the systems that query it for information. These are called business intelligence (BI) systems. One of the most well known types of BI systems is for advanced reporting or data mining. BI systems look to spot trends in the data and then convey that information to the appropriate management level. For example, BI systems discovered years ago that diapers and beer were often purchased in the same supermarket visit. Clever marketing sleuths concluded that dad sent out to buy diapers was also picking up a 6 pack on his way out of the store. This creates opportunities for product placement—locating the beer closer to the diapers. Knowledge management and collaboration systems are ways that members of the organization capture and institutionalize organizational knowledge. The most familiar types of systems are internal websites for the company as well as blogs and wikis. However, leading organizations will also require that reports be filed in a systematic way to allow for easy retrieval in case the organization encounters a similar business problem in the future. The big picture of information systems architecture. We will touch all these systems—albeit at a surface level. We will create a store that handles customer relationship management (CRM). Blackboard and similar systems are examples of collaboration systems. Finally, we will analyze our sales data as a form of business intelligence. Key Takeaways • Most business information systems can be classified as enterprise systems, collaboration systems, or business intelligence systems. • Ideally all these systems smoothly exchange data to help managers make information driven decisions. Questions and Exercises 1. In Good to Great, Jim Collins quotes former Kroger CEO, Lyle Everingham, on how Kroger management made the decision to pursue the Superstore concept, “Basically, we did extensive research, and the data came back loud and clear: The super—combination stores were the way of the future.” Which of the information architecture systems could produce such data? Explain.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/01%3A_Information_Systems_in_Your_Life-_Types_of_Systems_and_Careers/1.03%3A_The_Big_Picture.txt

“If you don’t know where you’re going, you might not get there.” -Yogi Berra Learning Objectives • Identify a business process • Describe the difference between an As-Is and To-Be business process • Ask questions to elicit business process information from the client Introduction Every information system is designed to improve business in some way. However, before making an improvement, it is critical to understand the current business process. In this chapter we will develop a technique to diagram business processes. We will first diagram the current business process—the so-called As-Is process. After studying the process, we will be in a position to propose and diagram a future process—the so-called To-Be process. If we have done our job well, the To-Be process will improve upon the As-Is process, making it more efficient, effective, user friendly, and so forth. In other words, every process improvement should move the business closer to achieving its goals. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Goal Directed Activities. Implicit in each current and future state are one or more business processes. A business process is a set of goal directed activities. In other words, a process describes the actions To-Be taken to accomplish a task. For example, applying to a university, filing taxes, and evaluating employees are all processes. The steps in applying to a university might include filling out an online form, submitting a credit card payment, requesting test scores be sent, and requesting that high school transcripts be sent. Note that all of the processes mentioned above took place even before the advent of computers. Try to imagine how. Information systems simply transform the processes with the goal of making the process more efficient, convenient, effective, reliable, and so forth. First, we represent the current (usually deficient) state As-Is process. Seeing the As-Is process diagrammed exposes obvious areas for improvement in the process. For example, many years ago students registered for classes in person. The As-Is process in that era might have shown a student waiting in line outside a large auditorium. When his turn comes up, the student enters the auditorium. There are tables representing each department staffed with faculty from that department. For each course that the student wishes to take, he must find the corresponding department table and add his name to the list for that class. Buying concert tickets followed a similar process before services like Ticket Master went online. People used to camp out for days in advance outside the Ticket Master office. Sometimes information technology may improve processes, other times no technology is required. Sometimes the solution is as simple as providing information for individuals completing a business process at the appropriate time, or simply rearranging the steps in the business process, in which case, no new information technology is needed. The redesigned and improved business process is called the To-Be process. This process takes into consideration the deficiencies identified in the As-Is process and the goals of the business. The area of work that focuses on improving business processes is called business process redesign. Individuals performing this work focus on understanding the As-Is process and how to improve it in the To-Be process. Business Process Examples: • Shopping at a grocery store • The deli • Taking numbers • Rules about which products can be sliced on which machines • Rules about wrapping product after slicing • The fish counter • Taking numbers • Rules about how to prepare the fish—head and tail off and so forth. • Checkout • Scanning and weighing procedures • Gathering customer data • Printing customized coupons • Optimal bagging • Taking payment • Shopping at an online retailer • Product display • Best selling • By price • By rating • Cross selling—“You might also like…” • Shopping cart and checkout processes • Inventory management • Determining the inventory need • Reordering with supplier • Tracking and receiving shipments • Stocking shelves Note that most business processes subsume other business processes. One of the toughest challenges is knowing what process to focus on and with what degree of granularity to zoom in on the process. Never lose site of the problem you are trying to solve—and use that as your filter. The Initial Client Meeting Obviously, you can not diagram a business process without understanding the business. This will require meetings with the client. It is best to walk into those meetings with a willingness to listen rather than pretending that you know the client’s business. Ask open ended questions and take lots of notes. Those that design systems are called business analysts or consultants. Analysts begin their work with an initial client meeting. The quality of the questions asked at that meeting may well determine the success or failure of the project. Using the following four open ended questions can help in this consulting situation (Starr, 2010): • Current state: What does the client see as the current state of the situation/project? • Future state: What is the vision of the client for the end point of the situation/project? • Barriers: What barriers does the client envision will hinder reaching the vision? • Enablers: What is the client already doing to reach the vision? What does the client think will help? Note that these questions capture the aspirations of the client as well as perceived barriers and enablers to reach that vision. The assumption here is that the client knows her business pretty well, and the goal of the initial meeting is to capture her knowledge and vision without jumping to a solution. The initial client meeting for a home renovation project adding a second story to a home. Note the barriers, time and money, and the enablers, the crane and manpower. Business problems require a similar type of analysis. Never assume that you know these items. Give the client the opportunity to explain. It will save you a great deal of time in the final analysis. Key Takeaways • A business process is a set of goal directed activities • The As-Is process captures the analysis of the current state of the business • The To-Be process captures the client’s requirements for the future state of the business. Ultimately the To-Be process will be the measuring rod against which you will evaluate the completed system. Questions and Exercises 1. Identify three business processes involved in the purchase of a car. 2. Describe how the process of going on a date changed with the introduction of online dating services such as Match.com. What do you see as the pros and cons?

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/02%3A_Information_Systems_to_Enhance_Business-_Business_Process_Redesign/2.01%3A_What_Is_a_Business_Process.txt

Learning Objectives • Create deliverables for the first two phases of the systems development life cycle • Create As-Is and To-Be process diagrams for the redesign of a business process • Given an advertisement, research and represent the business process redesign • Manipulate images and text to create a best practice diagram in PowerPoint • Choose and successfully employ PowerPoint techniques to solve a complex task Actors and Actions Improving a business process requires first understanding the process. Diagramming the steps in the process contributes greatly to that understanding. Business process diagrams typically consist of actions linked by arrows. However, it is also important to be clear about who is performing each action. For this reason we create a swim lane for each actor in the process. The actors pass a metaphorical baton among themselves at different stages of the process. An easy way to diagram a business process is to first identify all of the actors and place each in a swim lane. The process begins at the top of the page and continues down the page following the arrows. Arrows represent communication among the actors, while diamonds represent decision points. While actors are normally people, a computer standing in for the role of a person can also be an actor. At times we can simplify the business process diagram by eliminating all but the essential elements. This makes the diagram less cluttered and easier to read. On the facing page we have a process diagram reduced to just three elements — swim lanes, actions, and arrows. For the level of analysis needed in this course, the simplified diagram is more than sufficient. However, it is good to know the full lexicon, especially the decision point diamond shown on the next page. To-Be business process for IBM’s package routing solution. In this solution Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags in the boxes communicate with their surroundings to report their geographic position back to the help desk. If a truck has taken the wrong turn, the boxes will notify the help desk. A help desk employee will in turn communicate by phone with the truck driver to reroute the truck. It’s More Complicated Than That What we showed on the prior page is actually a simplified form of a business process diagram. For the purpose of this course, the simplified form works just fine. However for the sake of completeness, we show a more advanced diagram more in the spirit of Universal Modeling Language (UML). It is not that the UML style diagram is better—just that you should be prepared to see it. The following table lists some of the symbols that you might encounter in a process flow diagram. Table 2.1 Action state An action taken in the flow Start state A beginning of a flow; only one start state can be used End state An end of a flow; any number of end states are allowed Transition Indicates the control passing from one object to another Decision point Showing possible options and paths to follow Fork The beginning of parallel processes Join The integration of parallel processes Swim lane Represents ownership or assignment of a group of actions Artifact An object involved in the system, such as a server or database Key Takeaways • A business process can be diagrammed by showing actors in swim lanes taking actions. Communication or message passing among the actors is represented by arrows. Questions and Exercises 1. Diagram the As-Is and To-Be processes before and after online dating. Universal Modeling Language (UML) style As-Is process flow for recording grades. Techniques The following techniques, found in the PowerPoint section of the software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter.: Layout-Change • Align • Shape-Insert • Text Box-Insert L1 Assignment: Diagram Business Processes Create As-Is and To-Be diagrams of a business process, given a video commercial. Many commercials on TV are really advertisements for improved business processes. IBM has been particularly active in this arena. IBM’s focus on business process improvement makes sense given that IBM is one of the largest consulting organizations in the world. In this exercise, you will view a commercial on YouTube and then create the As-Is and To-Be business process diagrams that the commercial implicitly represents. Setup Start up PowerPoint. Content and Style • Use the drawing tools in PowerPoint to create swim lanes and diagram the As-Is and To-Be business processes on separate slides. • Make sure you title each slide to identify which is which. • Align and space the content consistently. A sharp looking diagrams conveys professionalism. • Include a copyright symbol and your name in the bottom left corner. • When you are finished, submit the PowerPoint file according to your professor’s instructions. Your professor may want hard copy or an electronic submission to the course management system. Deliverable Electronic submission: Save your file as a PowerPoint presentation. Submit it electronically. Paper submission: Create a printout by printing the slides directly out of PowerPoint. Sample To-Be deliverable for the IBM RFID trucking commercial.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/02%3A_Information_Systems_to_Enhance_Business-_Business_Process_Redesign/2.02%3A_Diagramming_a_Business_Process.txt

“We are all inherently visual communicators. Consider kindergarten: crayons, finger paints, and clay propelled our expression, not word processors or spreadsheets…” “Unfortunately, somewhere, at some time, someone probably told you that you weren’t very good at drawing. And, after looking around and comparing yourself to other kids in the classroom, you probably consented, threw in the towel, and decided that piano lessons or football might prove a better bet for primary education glory.” “Now, as an adult, you may not try anymore—at least in the visual realm. This is ironic considering that your employers and colleagues assess you by how well you communicate—a skill that is reflected in annual reviews, pay increases, promotions, and even your popularity. Effective communication is a job requirement now, whether you’re trying to beat competitors, communicate vision, demonstrate thought leadership, raise capital, or otherwise change the world. And like it or not, your profession likely requires you to communicate using a visual tool, regardless of your proficiency or training in this medium. Business schools in particular drill their students in management, accounting, and technology, but few offer anything approaching Design 101—the one thing that combines creative thinking, analytics, data assimilation, and the inherent ability to express oneself visually.” Duarte, Nancy, Slide:ology: the Art and Science of Creating Great Presentations, O’Reilly Media, Inc. 2008, p2. -Nancy Duarte Learning Objectives • Compare and contrast artwork using graphic design principles—contrast, repetition, alignment, proximity (C.R.A.P.) • Compare and contrast artwork using ad design principles (picture, headline, text, logo) • Compare and contrast artwork using type design principles (font, size, weight, color, form, direction) • Distinguish between layouts that conflict versus layouts that go well together • Categorize fonts based on visual inspection • Manipulate images and text to re-create a best practice advertisement in PowerPoint • Choose and successfully employ PowerPoint techniques to solve a complex task Introduction How much graphic design do you need in business? Considering the heavy emphasis that is currently placed on “the look” of deliverables, the answer might be a lot. We don’t pretend that you will become a master of graphic design after just one chapter. However, there are some survivor principles of graphic design laid out by Robin Williams. Those principles are contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity (C.R.A.P.). You will learn to see the world in a new way. For years, you have looked at magazine layouts, ads, banners, flyers, etc. Some have caught your eye and some have not. Unless you have been trained in graphic design, it would most likely be hard for you to vocalize what it is about a layout that appeals to you. The principles of graphic design, ad design, and type design will be repeated throughout the text when designing the following deliverables: • Ads • Websites • Resumes • Term papers • PowerPoint presentations • Spreadsheets • Graphs Everything that you design in this course will have a professional feel to it. Our goal is to make your work indistinguishable from the work that appears in publications such as the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal. Realizing that goal will also help make you a valuable contributor in the workforce. Others will value your work as professional, polished and communicative. You will also be able to give guidance to others on how to improve the look of their deliverables. Robin Williams Robin Williams is the author of the Non-Designer’s Design Book. This is an essential reference used even in graphic design programs. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Contrast Contrast focuses our attention and should be used to highlight the most important points that the audience should take away. Designers should use colors, bold type, and size to distinguish parts of text or an image and create contrast. Contrast is used in all aspects of life. For example, jewelers usually display their diamond pieces on a background of black velvet to let the jewels stand out. The page you are reading uses headings to create contrast with the text. Formatting, including the use of a blue shape, creates contrast, drawing attention to important data points in the Excel graph. Formatting headings for the title and subtitles creates contrast.. Contrast Through Visual Weight Another way to create contrast is by using visual weight. You create a focal point and then lead the reader’s eye around the page. The main focal point is the picture. The next “heaviest” item on the page is the headline, followed by the date, followed by the logo, followed by the body text. The reader’s eye is led from one item to the next based on these “weights.” The greatest mistake that most students make in flyer design is to make all the text the same size as though it needed to be readable from 20 feet away. As long as the picture and headline capture interest, a reader will move in closer to read the rest of the flyer. Also, if every item is the same size then nothing stands out and it looks unprofessional. Variation of font sizes and weights is critical to focus attention. Visual weight in action. Note how your eye travels around this flyer in the numbered sequence depicted. Contrast with Fonts: Type Design When working with type, aim for a contrasting layout. Contrasting layouts create visual interest and energy. For example, when you wear clothes of contrasting colors, such as red on navy blue, the outfit can be quite eye catching. Our examples will follow the conventions Robin Williams sets out in her book.Williams’ book, The Non-Designers Design Book discusses design principles for the novice designer. The opposite of contrast is affinity. Layouts demonstrating affinity show subtle variations in color or brightness. The overall effect is pleasing, though not particularly remarkable. For example, a person wearing a dark suit with a dark tie would be wearing an outfit that shows affinity. In type design, a layout showing affinity is best for formal documents, such as wedding and graduation invitations. For most other documents, use a contrasting style to make your documents really pop. However, tailor the contrast to suit the audience and the occasion for the document. For example, a business plan prepared for a bank should have less contrast than the layout of this text book. When in doubt, be conservative. The one type of layout that you must avoid is a conflicting layout. In a conflicting layout the type is very similar but different. For example, never use two different serif fonts on the same page. Think of wearing an outfit that has two different shades of red that are very similar but different. The combination looks like a mistake—as though part of the outfit had faded in the wash. In the same manner two serif fonts side by side will look like a mistake. Fonts should be identical or very different. The text on the next page is taken from The United States Declaration of Independence and demonstrates some type contrasting techniques. By increasing the font size and changing the text color, you can highlight certain words or information that you want to stand out. The goal is to make “Creator” stand out as the most important word in the sentence. You can also boldface to dramatize the weight of the text or italicize to accent the text. Direction refers to adding space between letters to make text stand out. Structure, using serif or sans serif fonts, can also differentiate text and will be discussed in the next section. Contrast with Fonts: Serif/Sans Serif The two main categories of font are serif and sans serif. Serifs are the ornamental strokes at the end of the letters, which all serif fonts have. Sans serif means without serifs, therefore sans serif fonts do not have these decorative additions. Serif and sans serif fonts can be used together to create contrast within text. Typically sans serif fonts are used for headings while serif fonts are used for body text. Note that you should avoid combining two fonts that are from the same category. For example, two serif fonts that look similar, such as Georgia and Garamond, should not be used together. Serif fonts are best used in text heavy books because the serifs quickly guide the reader’s eye from letter to letter. Sans serif fonts are the best choice for online text because serifs can blur in the pixels on a screen. The resolution of most computer screens is not sufficient to precisely draw the serifs in a body of text. The result tends to look blurry. Therefore, most websites use a sans serif font. An exception is sometimes made for the page title, which because of its greater font size, can show serifs much more clearly. To allow for serifs online, Microsoft developed a series of ClearType fonts designed to accurately reproduce serifs. Though font options are limited online, other techniques such as size, weight, color, form, and direction can be used to create contrast within online material. Color is especially powerful on a website as most viewers have a color monitor. Please see the Appendix for additional font categories. These include slab serif, modern, script, and decorative. Contrast with Fills and Outlines A fill is the color, gradient, or pattern the occupies the inside of a drawn object. An outline is the color, gradient, or pattern that borders the drawn object. PowerPoint has extensive fill and outline options. Different fills, same outline Same fill, Different outlines Repetition Unifies an Image Repetition ties objects or images together. For instance, we know which football players are on a team because of the repetition of their uniforms. This text uses repetition of fonts, styles, and sizes to unify the design. On the facing page, repetition of graphic elements draws an image together. The repetition of formatting in the text headings creates a unified professional look. This ad uses repetition with the colors in the text, arrow, stain, and background to reflect the colors in the logo and nachos. Notice how this ad looks more cohesive and professional. Special thanks to Gregg Fouch for designing the Casa de Yuca marketing materials. Repetition with Color Adobe has a wonderful free web-based application called Kuler, which helps you choose a color palette. One of its most spectacular features is the ability to upload an image and have Kuler automatically generate a color palette from that image. You then use that palette for fonts, fills, and so forth in your composition, and you are virtually guaranteed that the colors will all work well together. To use the more interesting features of Kuler you must first create an account at: kuler.adobe.com. Now you can save your color palettes. Once saved, you can reveal the numerical values that correspond to your color palette. These numeric values may be imported into PowerPoint (under custom color). Kuler helps create a color palette. You can create a color palette by uploading a picture. After saving your palette, Kuler will allow you see the RGB values associated with each color. You can then type these values into PowerPoint. Adobe product screenshot reprinted with permission from Adobe Systems Incorporated. Alignment Alignment indicates organization, polish, and strength. Text on a page is easier to read and understand if it is properly aligned to the margin. Alignment should be applied to every design or page layout to show order. Alignment on this page is created by left aligning all of the text and graphics. The alignment of text organizes the categories on the resume. The alignment of text and images in this ad creates a polished and professional look. Proximity Proximity creates relationships within objects in an image. Placing objects close together shows their connectedness and focuses the audience’s attention. For example, captions placed near photos on a page layout show that they describe the photos they are near. The page you are reading places headings next to the text they introduce to signify their relationship. Proximity helps to organize this spreadsheet in Excel. The title and subtitle are separated from the rest of the spreadsheet. Proximity is used to group the links on the navigation bar. Similarly the image, title, and price of each bottle are grouped together. Graphic Design Summary Graphic design is perhaps the most creative aspect of information design. Though design leaves room for originality, there are clearly articulated principles every designer should follow to create clear and effective images. We will adopt four basic principles outlined by Robin Williams. These principles that have been introduced in the previous pages are: contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity (C.R.A.P.). Mastering these principles will allow you to produce clear documents and make presentations look more professional. The business cards on the next page demonstrate good and bad examples of each design principle. Please study these principles as they will appear again and again throughout this text. Good contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity. Bland design lacks contrast. Images lacking repetition look disconnected. Lack of alignment looks sloppy. Poor proximity lacks focus. Ad Design: Picture, Headline, Text, and Logo The C.R.A.P. graphic design principles are universal. However, most media have additional design principles that should be followed. For example advertisements tend to follow a convention in their composition. These additional principles are described here and serve as the basis for one of the assignments. An effective ad should position the product in an appealing light to its target audience while also demonstrating the product concept. While there are many ways to design an ad, we will adopt the format advocated by John McWade.John McWade wrote an excellent book called Before & After Page Design. He also maintains a design web site, www.bamagazine.com. The four ad design principles are: • Picture: Pictures are the focal point of an ad and should occupy a majority of the space. They are used to grab an audience’s attention. • Headline: The headline of an ad should be concise and illustrated in a clear font. This is one of the few times that centered text works. • Text: The body of text is used to sell the product. It delivers the message to the audience. • Logo: Every ad should include a tag line — the company or product motto - and a logo. Because pictures are the focal point of the ad, they should take center stage. Using a picture in an ad is an opportunity to showcase the product and, therefore, the picture should occupy roughly two-thirds to three-quarters of the available space no matter what the shape of the ad. Some sample ad layouts. The picture should occupy two-thirds to three quarters of the ad and appear in the space above the white line. Key Takeaways • The same graphic design principles apply to computer screens, documents, and presentation graphics. • The four graphic design principles are contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity (C.R.A.P.). • Contrast helps to highlight and focus attention. Contrast may be achieved using color, shades of gray, size, visual weight, and so forth. • Repetition helps to unite a document so that it looks like a • coherent whole. Repetition may be achieved by repeating fonts, styles, images, and so forth. • Alignment helps to organize information to make it clearer and more professional looking. Alignment may be achieved using onscreen guidelines. • Proximity helps to establish relationships between items. Items in close proximity appear related. • Type design may be used to reinforce contrast and/or repetition. Font, size, weight, color, form, and direction are all type design attributes. • Colors should harmonize in a palette. Professional tools such as Kuler help to establish a color palette from an image. • Fills and outlines can create contrast and/or repetition. • Every ad should have a picture, headline, text, and logo. Questions and Exercises 1. Identify the Picture, Headline, Text, and Logo in 3 different ads. 2. Describe the use of C.R.A.P. principles by your favorite magazine. 3. Describe the use of C.R.A.P. principles by your favorite website. Techniques The following techniques, found in the software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter: PowerPoint: Overview Map of Interface • Image-Crop • Image-Delete Background • Image-Insert • Image-Rotate • Guide Lines-View • Turn Off Snap To Grid; In the Google section of the Cloud Computing software reference: Create an Account • Add a Signature Graphic; and in the Word section of the software reference: Text-Formula L1 Assignment: Email Signature Many students wonder how to create eye catching email signatures. A catchy signature helps you to stand out from the crowd. Part of your signature is the font and size that you use to respond to other emails. You will also learn more about cloud computing through Gmail. Setup If you don’t have one already, create a Gmail account at www.gmail.com. Sign into your Gmail account and go to Settings to change your signature. The fonts in Gmail are limited as they are trying to show fonts available on all computer platforms—Windows, Mac, and Linux. However, you can type up your signature in Word or PowerPoint and copy/paste it into Gmail with more inventive fonts. To see which fonts are likely to be installed on all systems receiving your messages visit these sites: http://www.ampsoft.net/webdesign-l/WindowsMacFonts.html www.codestyle.org/css/font-family/sampler-CombinedResults.shtml Content and Style • Create a readable, interesting, and professional email signature using text and [optionally] graphics. • Specify the font you will use to respond to messages. • Apply and follow all graphic design principles. • [Optionally] Create graphics for the signature in PowerPoint using drawing tools. Save the slide as a PNG image in your public Dropbox folder. Then right click on the file in Dropbox to copy its URL. If you want to change the signature, just update the PowerPoint file and re—save as a PNG file to replace the prior version. In Gmail click on settings and insert an image in the signature editor. It will ask for a URL. Paste the URL from the file in your public Dropbox folder. • Send an email to yourself with at least one line of text to test the signature. Save your test email with the signature as a PDF file or take a screen shot of the file using the Windows Snipping Tool (Mac users can use Cmd+Shift+4). Deliverable Electronic submission: Submit the PDF or screenshot from your Gmail test message to the course management system as proof of completing the assignment. Paper submission: Create a printout of your Gmail test message. Sample test message for email signature assignment. L2 Assignment: Laptop Hotspot Ad PowerPoint allows you to alter images to create a composition that does not really exist. Compositions like this should be done with caution. You don’t want to misrepresent anything to a potential client. In this case we are not selling the beach, just the idea of working from the beach, so no harm done. However, this would not be appropriate to advertise a resort. If this were a “photo” for a news article then altering the scene would actually be unethical. The example shown here is an ad for a restaurant, but you will be creating an ad for a cell phone provider—showcasing their ability to use the cell phone as a wifi hotspot so that you can work from your laptop. You pick the provider and then include their logo and appropriate text in the ad. Setup Sketch a design on paper then find creative commons images and save them to your folder. Search Content and Style • Create an original advertisement. You may use some or all of the images given or create a completely different context—e.g. outer space. • Create an original heading, text, and tagline for this assignment. • You may have to remove backgrounds from your images using PowerPoint’s background removal tool. • Apply and follow all graphic and ad design principles. • Each picture and text box will appear on a separate layer in the selection pane. Name each layer as you create it. • Make sure that your name and copyright is large enough to be read, but small enough to remain discreet on your document. (Your name replaces “Joe Bobcat”). • Upload your image to Kuler to find a color for your text background. • You may choose to include a picture of a laptop, cell phone, and/or person as you deem appropriate to the ad. Deliverable Electronic submission: Save your file as a PowerPoint presentation. Submit it electronically. Paper submission: Create a color printout by printing the slide in color directly out of PowerPoint.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/03%3A_Professionalism_in_Deliverables-_Principles_of_Graphic_Design/3.01%3A_C.R.A.P._Principles_of_Graphic_Design.txt

Learning Objectives • Understand the relationship between MIS and marketing • Accurately characterize the relationship among the following terms: target market, demographics, market segmentation, and niche market • Determine a target market for your app • Describe a persona in the target market • Use the persona to influence user centered design choices Introduction MIS is infused into all the other business disciplines. Marketing is no exception. The relationship is even more pronounced when the item being marketed is itself an MIS product—such as an iPhone app. In this chapter you will design an iPhone app and create a photo realistic mockup of the app. To do this you need to apply both MIS and marketing skills. Marketing skills help to establish the need for the app—is it something that will sell? MIS skills help to craft the product in order to meet those needs. At some point in their lives many students dream of starting their own business. The iPhone has given hope to millions of entrepreneurs to do just that by creating and selling an app. You will have the opportunity to envision your own app and make a mockup of that app in PowerPoint or KeyNote. Every MIS product, including an iPhone app, should be designed with a specific group of people in mind. These groups, called market segments, are normally described demographically using characteristics such as age, income, location, gender, and so forth. When a company identifies a market segment upon which it will focus its efforts, that becomes the target market. For this class, your target market is your classmates. To make it even more real we ask that you develop a fictional persona in the target market. You design the app for that persona. You need to develop a brand position that will distinguish your app from the competition. An app should improve a process through higher efficiency or effectiveness. Taking a detailed look at a current process diagram will help you identify where and how a process can be improved and enable you to design an enhanced future process. Through understanding the app’s market segmentation and analyzing the process, a popular app can be put on the market. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Designing for a Target Market Marketers identify groups of potential customers for a company’s product. This process is called market segmentation. Markets can be segmented based on a variety of demographics, or characteristics of the population. Examples include age, income level, gender, hobbies, or interests. Each group is called a market segment. Marketing dollars are best spent targeting the segments most likely to buy the product. It would be unwise to waste money on promotional campaigns aimed at audiences not interested in a particular product. For example, a good marketer would not tailor an ad campaign for low-rise jeans to 50-year-old men. Part of the marketer’s job is to persuade the members of the target market that they need the product. Abercrombie & Fitch has little difficulty convincing 14 to 24-year-olds that they need A&F branded merchandise. However, it would be much harder to sell this merchandise to an older age segment. A good marketer knows not to target everyone for a certain product. Instead, they target only those segments most likely to be interested. The challenge for marketers is to find a way to appeal to each target segment. For A&F, a large part of their appeal is sex — a theme of great interest to its target market. However, universities recruiting students in the same age group would most likely not use sex as an appeal in their advertising. Universities do not use sex appeal because although students are their customers, it is likely that their parents will have veto power over the final decision in college selection. Therefore, a marketer’s job becomes more difficult when there are multiple decision makers, each with different needs and wants. One common marketing mistake, known as the majority fallacy, is to exclusively pursue those segments that make up the majority of the market. Marketers most likely do this because the competition is also pursuing those segments. It may be wiser to go after a smaller segment, or a niche, that is under served by the competition. Concentrating on a small, highly defined segment is called niche marketing. This type of marketing can be very profitable. The power of a brand is proportional to its focus. A brand should not try to target everyone. Instead, a brand should narrowly define a product and all of its benefits. Mention of a brand should conjure a single word in the consumer’s imagination, such as “sporty” (Mini Cooper), “safety” (Volvo), or “luxury” (Lexus). Table 4.1 Apps App Name Price Wheels on the Bus \$0.99 Becker’s 2010 CPA Mobile Flash Cards \$299.99 Dress Up and Makeup \$1.99 Star Chart \$2.99 Kids Song Machine \$1.99 iHomework \$1.99 SkyVoyager \$14.99 Baby Pregnancy Tracker \$2.99 These are all apps listed in the education category at the iTunes store. The apps target different market segments. What market segment does each app target? Would it be a good or a bad idea to go after multiple segments? Demographic variables tend to overlap. The market segments are defined at the points of overlap. A niche market is defined where multiple variables overlap. User centered design The MIS methodology best suited to designing for a target market is user centered design. According to Wikipedia, “The chief difference from other product design philosophies is that user-centered design tries to optimize the product around how users can, want, or need to use the product, rather than forcing the users to change their behavior to accommodate the product.” In a later chapter we will look at some heuristic rules of usability—how easy something is to navigate and use—especially as applied to websites. However, in this chapter we are envisioning the overall user experience (UX). What would a person in our target market actually want the app to do? How would they want it to behave? Can we make using the app a natural and pleasant experience? Designers have found that it is a lot easier to answer these questions if you first envision a user in the target market. This fictional user is called a persona. Once a persona, say Fred, is created then designers can debate what Fred would like based on agreed upon characteristics of Fred. Of course Fred is no substitute for testing an app with real users, but he does help get you off the ground and moving in the right direction. Create a persona. Fred age 27, earns \$60K and just recently moved to the East Side of Cleveland. Fred lives in a 1 bedroom apartment with his dog, Ajax. On weekends Fred likes to mountain bike with his dog and hang out with his fiancée, Mary. This biking trail app will enable Fred to identify areas to go mountain biking, and because it is ‘animal friendly’, it can also show him maps of areas he can ride with Ajax off leash and the location of areas where they can both stop to rest and get some water. Test the power of a persona. Which of the restaurant ads below would appeal to Fred? Key Takeaways • Identify your users using market segmentation and target marketing. • Design the system according to the needs of the users—don’t make users change their behavior to fit your app. To help focus your design, create a persona in the target market for whom you design the application. • Segment markets using demographic criteria such as age, gender, income, and so forth. • Pick a segment to target. Then design an appeal for that target. • A highly focused target is called a niche market—and can be very profitable. Questions and Exercises 1. Describe the demographics of a market segment that would be interested in an app that monitors multiple vital signs such as temperature, heart rate, blood glucose, and so forth. In case you think such an app is impossible, check out the following link: http://www.tedmed.com/videos#Eric_Topol_at_TEDMED_2009 2. Describe a persona in that target segment.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/04%3A_User_Centered_Design-_Design_an_iPhone_App/4.01%3A_MIS_and_Marketing.txt

Learning Objectives • Choose an appropriate name and color scheme for your App Law of the Generic There are hundreds of thousands of apps in the iPhone store. Picking a unique brand name for your app is difficult. It is a good idea to try to avoid names that are easily confused with others. For example for a photography app it might be a good idea to avoid the word camera in the name. To illustrate the dangers of generic names consider that Camera Flash Deluxe is easily confused with Camera Flash & Zoom. In general, generic names are the most easily confused. If your brand name can be confused then it will be difficult to differentiate your brand in the eyes of the consumer. It may be no accident that very few of the top grossing photography apps actually have camera in their name as is illustrated below. The law of the generic is a special case of the concept of singularity. Many of the laws of branding are built upon the concept of singularity. A brand’s power is driven by its unique qualities. The following analogy, written by Al and Laura Ries,Al and Laura Ries are marketing professionals and coauthors of 22 Immutable Laws of Branding. describes what a successful brand should entail: “From a business point of view, branding in the marketplace is very similar to branding on the ranch. A branding program should be designed to differentiate your cow from all other cattle on the range. Even if all the cattle on the range look pretty much alike. A successful branding program is based on the concept of singularity. It creates in the mind of the prospect the perception that there is no product on the market quite like your product. Can a successful brand appeal to everybody? No. The same concept of singularity makes certain that no one brand can possibly have a universal appeal. (page 7)” Law of the generic in action. Below are the top 12 grossing photography apps in October, 2010. Note very few have camera in their name. Table 4.2 Top 12 Grossing Photography Apps Rank No. App Name Price 1 Hipstamatic \$1.99 2 iMovie \$4.99 3 Color Splash \$1.99 4 Pano \$2.99 5 Pro HDR \$1.99 6 ReelDirector \$3.99 7 AutoStitch Panorama \$2.99 8 CameraBag \$1.99 9 iVideoCamera \$0.99 10 Vintage Video Maker \$1.99 11 Camera Plus Pro \$1.99 12 FX Photo Studio \$0.99 Below are those apps that begin with the word camera and their sales rank. Table 4.3 Other Camera Apps Rank No. App Name Price 8 CameraBag \$1.99 87 Camera Flash Deluxe \$0.99 167 Camera Flash & Zoom \$0.99 128 Camera for iPad \$0.99 90 Camera Fun Pro \$0.99 19 Camera Genius \$1.99 181 CameraKit \$1.99 156 Camera Magic \$1.99 11 Camera Plus Pro \$1.99 135 Camera Pro: All-In-1 \$0.99 94 Camera Vault \$1.99 63 Camera Zoom \$0.99 Law of Color According to Al and Laura Ries: “A brand should use a color that is the opposite of its major competitors. What color is a Tiffany box? It’s that distinctive robin’s-egg blue. All Tiffany’s boxes are blue. If Tiffany had used a variety of colors for its boxes, it would have lost a marvelous opportunity to reinforce the brand name with a distinctive color. Basically there are five colors (red, orange, yellow, green, and blue) plus the neutral colors (black, white, and gray).” (pages 134-135) For icons we would go a step further and recommend using an image that is also different from the competition. For example, a camera app whose icon is a camera lens is not very original. Almost all the brands that start with the word camera also use the color black (as in a black camera lens) — as if to say, “...and if you didn’t get it the first time...” How different really is one black camera lens than another — especially at icon size? Few of the top selling camera apps show a black camera lens. And if it is not original then it does not differentiate, which means customers may have trouble finding your app in the iTunes store. Key Takeaways • Establish in the mind of the user that there is no app on the market quite like your own. • To establish your brand, avoid generic names that can easily be confused. • Pick colors distinct from the competition. Questions and Exercises 1. What would be an appropriate name and color for an app that monitored multiple vital signs such as temperature, heart rate, blood glucose, and so forth? 4.03: Icon Design Learning Objectives • Design the icon that will represent your app Simplify For most apps, the icon in the iTunes store also serves as the logo. These icons are very small—especially when viewed on the iPhone. That means that detail on the logo must be avoided as it will be lost. Curiously enough, the NFL ran into a similar issue with its logo. Prior to 2008 the NFL logo had 25 stars. This was a nightmare for those creating embroidered caps that sport the logo. It was also a challenge for grounds keepers painting the logo on the field of play. The NFL simplified its logo and sharpened its image at the same time. To get a feel for how the NFL changed their logo, please look at the before and after of the NFL logo at the following link: http://www.usatoday.com/sports/football/nfl/2007-08-30-shield-change_N.htm Some of the changes that the NFL made to its logo include: • The background color has been changed to a deeper blue to enhance contrast • The font has been changed to a more masculine style • The football resembles the ball atop the Lombardi championship trophy • Eight stars represent the eight AFC and NFC divisions Make Your Icon Meaningful Your icon is the face of your app — make it meaningful. Designing an icon may require some trial and error. Logo designers typically run through a lot of competing designs before settling on a winner. Each design projects a unique message. During the 2008 United States Presidential Campaign, the Obama team picked a memorable and iconic design. Behind the scenes, the campaign actually considered a variety of designs before deciding on the now famous Obama “O.” So powerful was the logo that its designer, Sol Sender, rose to fame in the design world. The logo was designed to convey hope and change, the sun rising on a new day. Obama logo: the winner and the runners up as designed by Sol Sender. Which would you have picked? Source: Sol Sender & VSA Partners Key Takeaways • The fonts, colors, and graphics in an icon convey specific messages and should be carefully chosen. • Keep the design of icons simple. Intricate detail will be lost in a small icon. • Pick an icon that will evoke emotion and meaning on the part of the user. Questions and Exercises 1. What would be an appropriate icon design for an app that monitored multiple vital signs such as temperature, heart rate, blood glucose, and so forth?

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/04%3A_User_Centered_Design-_Design_an_iPhone_App/4.02%3A_Laws_of_Branding.txt

Learning Objectives • Brainstorm an app that solves a business problem • Identify and describe a target market for an app • Create process flows that will help you plan your app. • Mockup an iPhone app using the MockApp.com template Analyze the Problem Your app needs to solve a business problem for someone in order to be marketable. For the sake of this lesson, your classmates compose your target market—people like you. You are asked to identify a problem then describe how your app will solve the problem. Your app should provide some tangible benefits for the target market. Finally, you are asked to describe a fictional persona in the target market. Having a persona helps you make decisions in the design of the app. Analyzing the problem and describing the marketability of the Hi Mom app. This app is designed to ease Mom’s worries while giving the student more free time. You should make your own original example. Define Requirements with Process Flows After analyzing the business problem, you need to set requirements for the design of your app. We will envision requirements using process flow diagrams. Some students struggle with what they should create for their app screens until they do process flows. The key is to construct an app swim lane in the process flow. Then look at the app swim lane of the To-Be process flow to help determine which screens to create. The screens should follow logically by looking at the action the app is taking (e.g. ask user X or show user X). The connection will not necessarily be one screen per action. In fact you may have multiple screens for each action. It depends upon the level of detail in your process flow. Creating a planning diagram almost always saves time in the end. It is much easier to add, update, and remove actions from a process diagram than it is to add, update, and remove screens from your app. Process flows also highlight the importance of doing business process management and business process redesign and why business process is so important to information systems. How different will your As-Is and To-Be diagrams be? If you are migrating an existing computerized process to the iPhone, they may be fairly similar. However, if you are comparing a non-computerized process to one that uses an iPhone, then they are likely to be quite different. Continuing the analysis (As-Is) and setting the requirements (To-Be) for the Hi Mom app. You should make your own original process flows to match your app. Design Your App According to Plan Now that we have discussed target markets, laws of branding, icon design, and process flows, you are ready to design your iPhone app. Your app should have a close relationship with your process flows. In other words, the actions identified for the app in the process flows should be illustrated in the mockups. Fortunately, the iPhone interface is highly standardized, which means you have fewer decisions to make about the placement and style of interface elements. This allows you to focus more on the content of your app. The status bar should appear at the very top of the screen and display important information about the device itself. The status bar displays information such as the current time, battery level, network provider, and network strength. The navigation bar appears at the top of the screen directly under the status bar and displays the title of the page currently being viewed. The tab bar always appears at the bottom of the screen and should appear on every screen of your app. The tab bar allows the user to switch modes or views very easily. Multiple screenshots from the Hi Mom app. You should make your own original screen shots using the MockApp template and library. The MockApp Template and Library To create your iPhone app, you need access to all of the screen elements on the iPhone. Fortunately, there is a wonderful PowerPoint template called MockApp, which contains a comprehensive set of iPhone screen elements. MockApp is located at MockApp.com. When you download MockApp you will have access to two files—a template and a library. The template is simply a series of blank iPhone screens that you populate with the appropriate screen elements from the library. Your task is to copy screen elements from the library and then paste them into the template. You then rearrange and relabel screen elements to simulate a working app. Because PowerPoint supports hyperlinks among slides, you can even simulate buttons that navigate among screens in your app. In this manner, you can create a photo realistic mockup. The MockApp template and library are depicted here opened simultaneously in overlapping windows. We recommend setting up in this way. The library consists of a series of PowerPoint slides each having an array of iPhone screen elements. The library slide shown here is for keyboards—but there are many other library slides. Copy elements off any of these library slides and paste them into the blank iPhone template. Then customize the text to suit your app. MockApp.com screen shot reprinted with permission from Dotan Saguy. Key Takeaways • Process flows help to plan your app by creating a high level overview of functionality. • Thankfully, the iPhone has enforced interface standards. Knowing what required elements go where frees the designer to focus on the content of the app. • The four major parts of the iPhone interface are the status bar, the navigation bar, the activity indicator, and the tab bar. Questions and Exercises 1. Describe the content and screen elements that you would expect to see in an app that monitored multiple vital signs such as temperature, heart rate, blood glucose, and so forth? Techniques The following techniques, found in the PowerPoint section of the software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter. iPhone Interface Map • Hyperlink • Shape-Insert L1 Assignment: A Market and Persona for Your App When brainstorming iPhone Apps it is sometimes helpful to look at other apps already developed. The best way to check out other apps is on the iTunes store (iTunes is free). However, even if you do not have iTunes loaded, you can check out apps at the following link: app-store.appspot.com/ We can not overstate the importance of the assignments in this chapter. The rest of the course will build on what you create here. Your app will be viewed by your classmates so make it something you can be proud of. Your classmates will “buy” your app in a future assignment, so the app needs to appeal to them either for their own consumption or to be given as a gift. You will also construct financial projections for your app in a future chapter. Finally, your report at the end of the course will be a culmination of all the deliverables you have constructed about your app to that point. Setup Start a blank PowerPoint presentation. Using a 12 point font, complete the following exercise using complete sentences and paragraphs. Content and Style • In one or more paragraphs describe the situation or problem that your app is designed to address. Note that you are not limited by technological constraints. Your app can have superpowers. • In one or more paragraphs describe your solution to the situation or problem. • In one or more paragraphs list at least three benefits that your solution will provide. You may use bullets. • Describe three market segments that would buy your app—one of which must be your classmates. Provide demographics for the market segments—e.g., age, education, household income, gender, geographic location, and so forth. • Now pick one of those segments and create a fictional persona in the target market. Tell us details about your persona—where they live, how much they earn, where they go on vacation, if they have a girlfriend/boyfriend, and so forth. Remember that your persona must be willing to buy the app. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit a PowerPoint file containing your responses. Paper submission: Print out your responses. A sample student write-up for the L1 exercise. You Translate is an app that does translation. You should make your own original example. L1 Assignment: Demonstrate the Benefits of Your App By creating As-Is and To-Be process flow diagrams, you will be able to analyze the benefits of the app. Here you show us how your persona engages in a business process with, and without, your app. The app should build a strong case that the To-Be process is a significant improvement over the as-is version. Create both the As-Is and the To-Be process flow diagrams of the use of the iPhone app. The As-Is diagrams should model how the persona performs the task without the app. The To-Be diagram will describe how the task is completed using the app. Setup Start a blank PowerPoint presentation. Using a 12 point font, complete the following exercise using complete sentences and paragraphs. Content and Style • Create each process diagram on separate slides. • Use a combination of drawing shapes (lines, arrows, etc.) and text. • Use design principles to maximize professionalism. • Label each diagram with an appropriate title and your name. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit your PowerPoint file. Paper submission: Create a color printout by printing directly from PowerPoint. Sample student process flows for the You Translate app. You should make your own original process flows to match your app. L1 Assignment: Create a Mockup of Your App In this assignment you will create an iPhone app mockup based on your analysis. PowerPoint allows you to create a mockup of an application before doing any coding. This mockup acts as a visual model to use in a product proposal. Using the templates provided, design a creative and useful iPhone app. Setup Complete the free registration to obtain the files to design your app from MockApp.com. MockApp contains three files—the library of icons used by an iPhone app, and two templates—one that allows you to demo in PowerPoint and one that allows you to demo on an iPhone. You will use the one that allows you to demo in PowerPoint. Note that Mac users can also choose the Keynote versions of the MockApp files. Build your app in the MockApp template file. Do not build your app in the same file that you used for either the L1 or L2 assignments. The dimensions of the PowerPoint files are different and your images will distort. Content and Style • Use the images given to recreate an original mockup. • The mockup must contain at least six slides. • Create an icon for your app with an appropriate logo on the first slide. • Apply and follow all graphic design principles. • Include all of the necessary images. • Create hyperlinks between your PowerPoint pages to simulate the app in action. You should build hyperlinks off of the buttons, not the text on the buttons. (Otherwise the text will be underlined, which does not look right). • Include your name as the wireless carrier instead of AT&T (in upper left corner). Deliverables Electronic submission: Save and submit your PowerPoint file. Paper submission: Create a color printout by printing directly from PowerPoint. Sample screen shots for the You Translate app. You should make your own original screen shots using the MockApp template and library.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/04%3A_User_Centered_Design-_Design_an_iPhone_App/4.04%3A_Plan_and_Design_Your_App.txt

Learning Objectives • Compare and contrast a usable website with a non-usable website using Nielsen’s usability principles • Balance usability and graphic design considerations in a site design Introduction For the purposes of this course we will consider your iPhone app to be a fully functional and marketable product. Now the challenge is to build a store to market the app. Building the store will be a community project. Each student will build a piece of the store. But before we build the store, we need to design it. Part of the beauty of the iPhone interface is its predictability. All iPhone applications share the same interface elements. Apple ensures this uniformity by reviewing every app before it is published on the iTunes store. It’s not that way on the web. To have uniformity on a website the designer must enforce his/her own design standards. In general the website will be more successful with more repeat business if it follows industry standard conventions for website design. Most of those conventions fall under the heading of usability—literally, how usable or easy to navigate is the site? The problem with usability is that you only notice it when it is absent. It is like the phone system—it only gets your attention when it doesn’t work. We expect sites to be usable and get upset when they are not. Why then do so many sites have usability issues? Because site designers lose sight of the end user. Mastering some common sense rules or heuristics of usability can go a long way toward making sure that designers create a satisfying experience for the end user. As you go through this chapter you will note some overlap between usability and graphic design principles. For example, creating contrast between the type and page background is also a usability principle. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: User-Friendly Websites Are in Demand Web designers have met the need for user-friendly websites by following standard conventions for easy navigation and other site design elements. Internet users should not have to learn how to use a specific site; they should already know how to navigate the site based on prior web experience. The concept of usability is very familiar to us in other settings. For example, most automobile manufacturers put the pedals, turn signals, and light controls in the same place regardless of car make or model. This way, consumers will not need a tutorial each time they purchase a new car, because they can base their knowledge on previous vehicles. There is also some standardization of icons used in computer operating systems. For example, an icon with a drawing of a printer on it will most likely enable a user to print a document. Similarly, the standardization of websites with regard to usability makes it possible for users to navigate without learning new conventions. Usability refers to sites that are well-organized, easy to navigate, designed with the consumer in mind, and rigorously tested. These sites allow marketers to deliver the product message to their target markets. Sites that fail to meet these objectives will be abandoned by frustrated users. Usability also refers to how easy it is to complete tasks, such as purchasing an item or scheduling a meeting. Usability is influenced by site organization, following convention, features of the site, fonts, and colors. Both usability and graphic design are subsets of information design. However, they overlap and reinforce one another. The most recognizable name in usability is Jakob Nielsen.Nielsen has written numerous books and articles, and has spoken publicly on the subject of website usability. His website is www.useit.com. Yet, Nielsen’s own website sacrifices visual appeal for usability. So are usability and creativity at opposite ends of the spectrum? The solution is to balance the two for the betterment of both. Ultimately, we need a way to evaluate how usable a site is. Nielsen has developed specific design elements to look for in a website. This site demonstrates how to properly balance usability and creativity in a website. The Importance of the Homepage Potential customers typically look at a company’s website before doing business with them. The first site page they come across is the homepage, and the design and usability of the homepage can make or break a possible business deal. The following list compiled by Jakob Nielsen is composed of ten things that can be used to increase the usability of a homepage and, therefore, enhance your website business value.All of these guidelines are quoted from Jakob Nielsen, Top Ten Guidelines for Site Usability, copyright © 2003-2007, ISSN 1548-5552. Images were placed by the authors to illustrate Nielsen’s concepts. Usability in Action. The site above exhibits good graphic design and usability. The site below does not. Make the Site’s Purpose Clear: Explain Who You Are and What You Do 1. Include a One-Sentence Tagline Start the page with a tagline that summarizes what the site or company does, especially if you’re new or less than famous. Even well-known companies presumably hope to attract new customers and should tell first-time visitors about the site’s purpose. It is especially important to have a good tagline if your company’s general marketing slogan is bland and fails to tell users what they’ll gain from using the site. 2. Write a Window Title with Good Visibility in Search Engines and Bookmark Lists Begin the TITLE tag with the company name, followed by a brief description of the site. Don’t start with words like “The” or “Welcome to” unless you want to be alphabetized under “T” or “W.” 3. Group All Corporate Information in One Distinct Area Finding out about the company is rarely a user’s first task, but sometimes people do need details about who you are. Good corporate information is especially important if the site hopes to support recruiting, investor relations, or PR, but it can also serve to increase a new or lesser-known company’s credibility. An “About <company-name>” section is the best way to link users to more in-depth information than can be presented on the homepage. [See also my report with 50 guidelines for the design of “about us” areas of corporate websites.] Usability principles in action: 1. Include a one-sentence tagline. 2. Write a window title with good visibility in search engines and bookmark lists. 3. Group all corporate information in one distinct area. Help Users Find What They Need 4. Emphasize the Site’s Top High-Priority Tasks Your homepage should offer users a clear starting point for the main one to four tasks they’ll undertake when visiting your site. 5. Include a Search Input Box Search is an important part of any big website. When users want to search, they typically scan the homepage looking for “the little box where I can type,” so your search should be a box. Make your search box at least 25 characters wide, so it can accommodate multiple words without obscuring parts of the user’s query. [Update: Based on more recent findings, my recommendation is now to make the search box 27 characters wide. This and other new guidelines are covered in my tutorial on fundamental Guidelines for Web Usability at the User Experience 2007 conference in Las Vegas and Barcelona.] Usability principles in action: 4. Emphasize the site’s top high-priority tasks. 5. Include a search input box. Reveal Site Content 6. Show Examples of Real Site Content Don’t just describe what lies beneath the homepage. Specifics beat abstractions, and you have good stuff. Show some of your best or most recent content. 7. Begin Link Names with the Most Important Keyword Users scan down the page, trying to find the area that will serve their current goal. Links are the action items on a homepage, and when you start each link with a relevant word, you make it easier for scanning eyes to differentiate it from other links on the page. A common violation of this guideline is to start all links with the company name, which adds little value and impairs users’ ability to quickly find what they need. 8. Offer Easy Access to Recent Homepage Features Users will often remember articles, products, or promotions that were featured prominently on the homepage, but they won’t know how to find them once you move the features inside the site. To help users locate key items, keep a short list of recent features on the homepage and supplement it with a link to a permanent archive of all other homepage features. Usability principles in action: 6. Show examples of real site content. 7. Begin link names with the most important keyword 8. Offer easy access to recent homepage features. Use Visual Design to Enhance, Not Define, Interaction Design 9. Don’t Over-Format Critical Content, Such as Navigation Areas You might think that important homepage items require elaborate illustrations, boxes, and colors. However, users often dismiss graphics as ads and focus on the parts of the homepage that look more likely to be useful. 10. Use Meaningful Graphics Don’t just decorate the page with stock art. Images are powerful communicators when they show items of interest to users, but will backfire if they seem frivolous or irrelevant. For example, it’s almost always best to show photos of real people actually connected to the topic, rather than pictures of models. Designing in the Real World—Putting Usability in Context As important as usability is—it is only a piece of the design process. How are websites designed in the real world? A professional team might include some or all of the following individuals: • The brand planner devises the marketing strategy. • The copywriters and designers produce the creative material for the site. • The project manager schedules the other individuals on the site’s team, determines how much their time will costs and maintains the budget. • The database manager ensures that the system ties in smoothly with the backend database. Typically, all of the content is stored in a database and then formatted for the screen. • Usability experts ensure that the information architecture or site organization is logical, customer focused, and consistent. • The testing members of the team run the site through its paces to catch errors before releasing it to the public. Usability principles in action: 9. Don’t over-format critical content, such as navigation areas. 10. Use meaningful graphics. Designing the Class App Store This chapter has shown examples from the homepage of the Class App store. But what about your pages? To be thematically consistent your pages must follow a consistent structure. The key is to roughly maintain the structure as well as thematic colors from the home page of the store. The user should always be aware that he or she is on the same site. Here is a guide to follow: Key Takeaways • Because the web does not enforce interface standards, it is all the more important to follow established conventions. • You should design your website for a specific target market while ensuring that you follow usability standards. • Jakob Nielsen is a recognized leader in usability standards. He has found that a surprising number of websites do not follow standards. • Usability is important but it is only one factor in the design process. Questions and Exercises 1. Examine a website of your choice and grade it against each of the Nielsen usability principles on a scale of 1 to 10 for each dimension. Then total up the dimensions to create a composite score for the site. Provide a short comment to justify each of your grades. 2. Explain how each of the C.R.A.P. principles relates to the usability of a website.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/05%3A_Planning_Usable_Websites-_Design_a_Website_to_Market_the_App/5.01%3A_Top_Ten_Guidelines_for_Site_Usability.txt

Learning Objectives • Determine when to build vs. buy a website solution • Compare and contrast the benefits of authoring in the cloud vs. on a workstation • Bring corporate standards into the decision making process when choosing development options Introduction In this chapter you will create a website prototype to help market your iPhone application. Your prototype will become part of the Class App store. Other students will be able to review and purchase your app online. We are going to build a store together—so let’s get started! Like the iTunes store, our class store will have separate pages describing each app offered for sale. Those pages will include screenshots of the apps—the same screenshots that you produced with MockApp. Each student developer will make his or her own page and then link that page to the store. Once all the pages are linked we will have a shopping period during which we will “buy” each other’s apps. We will capture the sales data to see which apps are best selling and highest rated. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Compatibility with Corporate Standards In the design chapter we talked about how important it is for us to standardize the look and feel for each page in our store so that it indeed looks like a store and not a loosely affiliated and somewhat bizarre collection of pages. However, it is also important that we standardize the development platform so that our store operates seamlessly. The corporate world tends to be conservative in choosing information systems solutions. In fact corporations usually like to standardize to preserve the brand image and to ensure reliability and ease of maintenance. Our classroom corporation is no different. Since we will be developing on online store together, it makes sense for us to agree on a common look and feel for each page in the site as well as a common platform for development. Our common platform is Google Sites and your professor may also require that you use a specific theme family on Google Sites to preserve a common look and feel. Corporations such as Amazon.com have a clearly established corporate identity, which appears on every page. They use an orange and blue color scheme and consistently place navigation elements. Amazon uses a proprietary development tool since they are an industry leader. Why is standardization so important? Consider that if you create something wonderful in a cutting edge authoring tool and then leave, no one else will be able to update the site you created. More often than not this is exactly what happens when students create websites for small businesses. The business has no way to update and maintain the site in response to business needs. Concern about site maintenance is one of the reasons that businesses are hesitant to engage students to create their websites as a class project even for free. If given a choice between features and standardization, corporations will almost always choose standardization. We see this in other arenas as well such as office productivity tools. Corporations often mandate that everyone use the same word processor and even the same version! Students are often surprised when they arrive at the workplace to find that corporations live one or two versions behind on word processing software. Every upgrade represents potential costs in software, hardware, training, and lost productivity during training. Unless there is an overriding benefit to be realized, corporations will often choose to avoid the cost. In sum, corporations tend to be very conservative when it comes to software choice. The corporate world is also happiest when there are clear market leaders to choose from. The last thing that a corporation needs is to invest in software from a company that later goes out of business. Build vs. Buy You might well ask why we are building a store rather than using off the shelf software that performs store management. The bottom line is that we want you to get under the hood to see how an information system functions—particularly how it interacts with a database. Nonetheless, the first decision that a developer needs to make is whether to build or buy a solution for the business problem. To build means creating a customized solution; to buy means purchasing an off the shelf solution. The rule of thumb here is that if your business is similar in nature to thousands of other businesses, then you should buy a pre-built solution. There is no point in reinventing the wheel. Off the shelf solutions tend to have a number of advantages. They anticipate functionality that your business requires and they are thoroughly tested. Most systems can be further customized to meet the needs of your business. From a support perspective, not only do you have customer service from the company that developed the solution, but you also have a user community that shares tips and tricks. Furthermore, as new versions are released you can improve the functionality and acquire bug fixes for your website with relatively little additional cost. There are off the shelf solutions for almost any industry you can imagine—from doctor’s offices to construction companies. And the market is competitive, which helps drive down prices. Rather than hire a programmer, many businesses choose to adopt off the shelf solutions. Many of these off the shelf solutions live in the cloud so that the business does not even need to have a server in their office—only workstations to access the data in the cloud. For example www.curvedental.com is a cloud solution for a dental office. The major disadvantage of off the shelf solutions is that they are limited in how far they may be customized. If you do choose to build a customized solution from scratch, you still need to choose an authoring tool. Ideally, you want a tool that has some pre-built features that snap together much like Legos. We will employ a user friendly tool provided by Google called Google Sites. Design View vs. Code View Because this is an introductory course we want to avoid writing programming code. Fortunately Google Sites is sophisticated enough to allow us to avoid code view. However, we should understand the relationship between what we see on the screen—design view—and the underlying code. Every webpage is constructed from HTML code. Professionals go to great lengths to refine that code for optimal look and performance. Most professional sites use a suite of products to prepare images for the site, to manage code on the site, to keep the pages organized, and to integrate with the backend database. Adobe is probably the leading vendor of professional website authoring tools. Many custom built website solutions are authored at least in part with Adobe tools. The following page shows just a few of the many tools available from Adobe in their Creative Suite. The very fact that Adobe packages the tools in a suite is a hint at the complexity involved in creating a professional site. Professional authoring tools typically have a design view and a code view allowing the developer to switch back and forth between the two. The design view is much like working with PowerPoint. You drag text and graphics where they belong on the page. The code view allows the developer to edit HTML code for even more precise control or the look, feel, or operation of the site. However, few beginners ever want to see website code nor pay for the sophisticated code editing features. Fortunately, they don’t have to. A number of website authoring tools have been developed over the years to automate the process of code generation and shield users from code view. One of them, Google Sites, is shown on the following page. But what if you really need a piece of code to accomplish a specific task? Google Sites created an open platform so that developers can create and publish “gadgets,” which can be dropped into your website. Gadgets are like the prebuilt Lego assemblies mentioned earlier. They snap into an existing site. In fact gadgets are to Google Sites what apps are to the iPhone platform. In the same way that the Apple touts, “There’s an app for that,” for almost every iPhone need, just so Google might boast, “There’s a gadget for that,” for many website development needs. And like iPhone apps, some gadgets provide very sophisticated functionality. Adobe Creative Suite (above) and Google Sites (below) are both website authoring tools. Creative Suite runs on high powered workstations and is used by professionals who need precise control over the look and feel of their site. Creative Suite is really a family of tools including Photoshop, Flash, and others than work well together. Google Sites is a rapid development solution that lives in the cloud. Control is more limited to template based solutions. Development time is much shorter with Google Sites than with Creative Suite. Adobe product screenshot reprinted with permission from Adobe Systems Incorporated. Client Side vs. Cloud Development Our authoring tool, Google Sites, lives in the cloud. Amateur sites and some small businesses tend to prefer cloud based tools for their low cost and ease of use. Client side toolkits such as Adobe Creative Suite allow all development and testing to take place offline before uploading to the web server in the cloud. By contrast, cloud based tools such as Google Sites require the development to take place in the cloud. Cloud based tools tend to run a bit slower due to internet response times, but the results are instantly published. The issue on client side vs. cloud development is where the authoring software is located. Client side development takes place on a local computer. Only after the website is thoroughly tested is it uploaded to the cloud for hosting. Almost all professional systems are developed in this way. There are numerous advantages to client side development, especially for large sites. The developer tends to have greater control over the look and feel of the website. The response time of the computer during development is very quick since there is no delay waiting for a cloud service to redraw the screen. Furthermore, the site is portable. The developer can choose to host it on any computer in the cloud. Client side authoring tools range in price from free packages such as Pages, which is part of Apple’s operating system, to very expensive packages such as Adobe Creative Suite, which costs hundreds of dollars. Cloud development tends to have a more template based look and feel. Google Sites is an example of a cloud development tool. The developer has less fine grained control over the look and feel of the website. However, with cloud development it is potentially easier to collaborate and integrate content. Cloud development tools tend to be free or very low cost. The vendor of cloud development tools recovers their costs by running ads alongside, or even within, your site. In other words, you have no choice but to host your site with the cloud provider. As the page views or business features of the site begin to increase, the cloud provider will begin charging higher fees. Key Takeaways • It is usually best to buy rather than build an information system solution. And normally a cloud solution is preferred. Purchased cloud solutions tend to be more cost effective, better tested, and reliable. • Following corporate standards for software selection tends to lead to better integrated solutions. • A prototype is one step up from a mockup. It is a working version of the website though incomplete. • If you do decide to build then you will need an authoring tool to simplify the process of website construction. Authoring tools may live on your computer or you can use a cloud based authoring tool such as Google Sites. Questions and Exercises 1. As Internet speed and security increases would you expect to see more or fewer businesses turning to cloud solutions? Explain. 2. Is it better to outsource domestically or internationally? Explain the factors upon which your decision rests.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/06%3A_Build_Buy_or_Reuse_Solutions-_Develop_a_Website_to_Market_the_App/6.01%3A_Development_Considerations.txt

Learning Objectives • Create a working website prototype • Author and customize a website in the cloud • Develop a website with good usability • Integrate text and graphics • Integrate other cloud services • Match colors, logos, fonts, and other design elements to your iPhone App • Add and modify navigation buttons Now it is time to build our store. We will walk you through some of the aspects of page creation. We will begin by discussing templates and themes. Get a Google Account Google Sites allows users to build a website in the cloud using just a web browser. The site editor as well as all of the content lives in the cloud on Google’s servers. Google Sites is free to Gmail account holders. Sign up for a Gmail account if you do not have one already. Start Up Sites Sites is located under the More menu of your Gmail account. You need to pick a unique site name. One way to make it unique is to add your Gmail username as a prefix or suffix to your site name—e.g., FrostCoolApp or CoolAppFrost. Choose a Site Template = Prebuilt Pages & Theme A site template is a pre-built site with lorem ipsum (Latin gibberish) placeholder text and images. Each page is already laid out. For example the Family template has Family blog, Family calendar, Family map, and so forth. Template users simply swap in their own content. Site templates are provided for different types of applications such as a classroom or small business. While some of the templates are pretty slick, we will begin with the Blank template in order to learn Google Sites. The Blank template contains only a home page with a simple theme. You add pages to the Blank template as needed. Choose a Theme = Layout & Formatting The theme is similar to a theme in PowerPoint. Every page in the site derives its look and feel, layout, colors, fonts, and so forth from the theme. You must pick a theme in the same family as the Class Store website since your site is part of the store. It is easier to pick a Theme when you create the site but you may change it later by accessing: More Actions > Manage Site > Themes << Return to Site Google Sites opening screen allows you to choose a template, name for your site, and a theme. For our purposes we will stick with the Blank template so that we learn to build a site from scratch. Google Sites: Management The built in templates and themes are a good start. However, you will want to control the look and feel of the site to match your corporate standards and the brand. Tweak the Theme While the theme is a good start, you may want to tweak the theme on your site much as you might modify the Master Slide in PowerPoint. Modify items such as the Header and Sidebar, which show on every page. Modify background colors and fonts for the different regions of the page if necessary. More Actions > Manage Site > Site Settings > General > Site Name .... > Save Changes > Site Appearance > Site Layout ..... > Save Changes > Site Appearance > Colors and Fonts << Return to Site Layers on a Page When working with colors and fonts it is helpful to understand that a web page is made up of a number of layers stacked on top of one another. Here is the order of the layers beginning with the Page Background on the bottom. • Page Background • Page Wrapper • Content Background • Content Create Pages from Page Templates Google Sites was constructed to support workgroup collaboration. Therefore it has some interactive prebuilt page templates (Announcements, File Cabinet, and List). You will probably stick with the simple Web Page template for most pages. Unfortunately, even this template sometimes allows user to attach files and post comments to individual pages. You will have to turn this feature off as described below. Select template for page. More Actions > Change Page Template • Web Page (choose this one for most pages) • Announcements (announcements to the team) • File Cabinet (if you want users to be able to upload files) • List (maintain to do lists for a workgroup website) Eliminate user attachments and comments • More Actions > Page Settings Select Layout for Each Page In edit mode the content area of each page can be edited. In our experience the layout is best controlled by inserting tables to contain the content. The Manage Site menu has powerful options that control the look and feel of the site. Changes made from this menu affect every page in the site. Google Sites: Text, Graphics, Video, and Gadgets Add Text Add text to the pages. Be consistent on formatting throughout site. Choose appropriate headings styles. Choose appropriate font sizes if necessary. Add Images Before you can add images you need to save them and prepare a place on the page to receive the images. When using images from your iPhone app you can save them in two ways. You can right click on the image and save it as a PNG file. (You may have to group it first). Alternatively, you can take screen shots of your app. To prepare the page to receive images, insert a table to receive the images. Then Insert > Image. Resize and align images in their table cells as necessary. Insert Gadgets Gadgets can add tremendous functionality to a page. We will use a gadget that captures customer information for customers who sign up for product updates. The gadget is a form that saves to a Google Docs spreadsheet. Google Docs is yet another free Google service that allows you to store and collaborate on documents in the cloud. You access Google Docs by clicking on the Documents link at the top of your Gmail account. Create and save a Form in Google Docs. Documents > Create > Form. Then insert the Form in your web page. Edit Page > Insert > Spreadsheet Form. To test, try visiting the page and filling out the form with some test data. Then return to Google Docs to view the spreadsheet of customers. There are many other gadgets available from the Edit Page menu including the ability to embed YouTube videos. The Insert menu is used to insert images and gadgets. If you get the following error message when inserting a gadget answer NO, otherwise you get only part of the gadget—the part that can be delivered securely. Key Takeaways • Google Sites tries to simplify the development process by providing pre-built templates for different businesses and themes to control the overall look and feel. • Gadgets are to Google Sites what apps are to the iPhone. • You can accomplish most operations in Google Sites without writing a single line of HTML code. Questions and Exercises 1. In what ways is Google Sites similar to a word processor? In what ways is it different? 2. Which repeated elements from the store theme are required to make your page look like part of the store? Explain.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/06%3A_Build_Buy_or_Reuse_Solutions-_Develop_a_Website_to_Market_the_App/6.02%3A_Google_Sites.txt

Learning Objectives • Explain why websites need to capture and display data • Explain the role of a form in capturing data • Create a form that captures data and saves it to a Google spreadsheet Even our simple store must collect and display data from a database. We collect data about each app—what it is called, its description, and the link to the student page. We also collect data about each sale—who purchased what and when. Every time you register on a website, your registration information is stored in a database. Similarly, when you make an online purchase the information is stored in a database. If you play online games, your scores are stored in a database. Websites constantly capture customer data in order to improve their services. A database is a collection of one or more related tables of data stored in rows and columns. By this definition even a spreadsheet is a simple database. However, many business databases consist of multiple files that are interrelated. Databases may be searched, sorted, and summarized to display information. Most businesses would not function without databases of information. For example, imagine a bank trying to function without its database of customer and account information. Information is usually entered into a database using a form. Each form normally corresponds to a single record or row in the database. Each field in the form normally corresponds to a single column or cell in that record. The form helps ensure that correct information is entered. Drop down menus in particular help ensure that users do not type in gibberish. Just a short time ago, only professional programmers could save website information to a database. There are now tools that make this functionality easily accessible. The simplest example of database integration is to save information to a one table database. The simplest one table database is a spreadsheet. Information is extracted from databases in the form of reports. The simplest report is a listing of all the records in the database. However, most reports summarize the information in a way that is helpful to business managers so that they can make data driven decisions. For example, a report might show total sales by product allowing managers to adjust inventory to meet demand. One very interesting use of database information is to create custom web pages. For example, imagine you have purchased multiple items from Amazon.com. Amazon keeps track of your purchases and those of millions of other customers. By looking for patterns of buying behavior in its database, Amazon is able to suggest products you might like based on the buying behavior of customers who match your purchase profile. Save Website Data to a File While the site registration and sale forms are created by the professor, we would like you to have some experience with data integration. Therefore, you will make a form whereby users can register with your site to receive product update information even without making a purchase. Because the form includes the customer’s email address, the information is a valuable resource for future mass mailings. If used judiciously, such mass mailings are appreciated by customers; if overused they are considered spam. Google Docs lets you create a form to accept customer information and then stores the information in a spreadsheet. In other words, when you create a form, you get both a form and a spreadsheet automatically. Start Google Docs Create New > Form Complete the form so that it looks similar to the form below. After completing each field you need to click Done. The first two fields are already on the form. To get the third field, check Add item. Then save the form. Add the form to your web page from the same menu that you use to insert gadgets, calendars, and so forth. Then exit edit mode and practice filling in the form. Return to Google Docs. You will see a spreadsheet listed with the same name as your form. Open the spreadsheet to view the captured data. Google Docs allows you to develop an input form, which you can then embed in a page of your website. Data entered into the form by users is automatically saved in a Google spreadsheet. Each user record becomes a new row in the spreadsheet. Key Takeaways • The ability to capture and store customer data using a Google Docs form and spreadsheet is the first step toward database integration. Full database integration allows you to customize pages for individual customers. Questions and Exercises 1. A spreadsheet is sometimes referred to as a one table database. Describe a business problem requiring more than one table? 2. Why do websites make such heavy use of drop down menus for filling in forms? Techniques The following techniques, found in the Google section of the Cloud Computing software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter: Overview Map of Interface • Share a Document • Create a Form • Background Color • Copyright in Sidebar • Page Layout • Content-Delete “Comments and Attachments” and the Default Page • Title • Page-Create New • Gadgets-Insert • Logo-Insert L3 Assignment: Develop a Website In this assignment you create a working website prototype to help market your app. Your site will become part of the class app store. Setup Sign on to your Gmail account. Select Sites from the More menu. Content and Style • Follow all graphic design and usability principles. • Follow your design plan. You may make some changes as necessary. However, the bottom line is that you should meet the requirements that you laid out earlier. • You will be creating three pages in the Class App store. Your logo should appear in the upper left corner of each page. • Homepage • Text describing your app and its features and benefits • Show at least six screenshots of your app with a link to purchase the app. For ease of viewing without scrolling horizontally, the screenshots should be in a two row table. • Provide a form where people can register for email updates about your product. • Provide a link back to the Store in your navigation panel. • About Us • Describe your business soft skills. • Include your name, picture, and email address. • Blog • Include at least two entries in the blog. For example, you might describe how you came up with the idea or who the target market is for your product or discuss future plans. • Extra Credit (if you make it work) • Show a real time counter on your home page of how many people have purchased your app. Your counter will use a query similar to that found on the main store site. • Your pages MUST tie in thematically with the Class App store. You may have an original design, but it MUST be obvious to the user (the grader) that they are still in the same store. Using the same theme or a similar theme family is the most obvious way to do this. • Register your site with the professor’s online store. • Embed a working Buy link on your homepage. • Buy your own app just once to make sure that your Buy link is working. Register for email updates to make sure that your form is working. Check this by viewing the report on your homepage. • Turn on Google Analytics from the Manage Sites menu using ID number provided by your professor. Do this last after you have thoroughly tested your site. Deliverables Electronic submission: Post a WORKING link to your website. Paper submission: Create a printout of each screen of your site. Shopping After everyone’s site is posted the professor will open the store for shopping. At that point you need to buy 10 apps of your choice.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/06%3A_Build_Buy_or_Reuse_Solutions-_Develop_a_Website_to_Market_the_App/6.03%3A_Database_Integration.txt

Learning Objectives • Diagram the role of a business analyst in the development process • List pros and cons of outsourcing, both onshore and offshore • Estimate expenses for iPhone app development Introduction In this chapter we will look at the costs and revenues involved in bringing your app to market. The steps involved in bringing an app to market include: 1. Brainstorm an idea for an app. 2. Analyze potential target markets. 3. Create a mockup and description of the app. 4. Solicit bids to develop the app. 5. File for necessary legal licenses to do business. 6. Enroll in the Apple Developer Program. 7. Promote your app. Note that you have already completed steps 1 to 3 and even part of step 7! We have stopped short only of the steps that actually cost money. In this chapter we will look at what those costs are and how to manage them in a spreadsheet. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: IS Professionals Serve the Role of Intermediary To actually program an iPhone app requires fairly extensive programming knowledge. Apps are programmed in a language called objective C. This is beyond the scope of most information systems (IS) business analysts. IS professionals hire the programmers, rather than doing the coding themselves. In fact, most IS curricula teach programming only so that the business analyst is able to communicate effectively with programmers by speaking a bit of their language and understanding some of their constraints. Within a large corporation there will typically be a team of developers (usually computer science majors) and a team of business analysts (usually IS majors). The business analysts communicate with the business units, such as marketing or finance, to analyze the business needs. They then translate those needs into requirements that are delivered to the developers. The process flows, mockups, and market descriptions that you have done in earlier chapters are all part of those requirements. The developers program the application and then deliver it back to the business analysts for testing. In this way, IS professionals serve as the bridge between the developers and the business units. The business analyst’s job continues even after the app is developed. They test the app extensively when it is delivered back from the developer. Most of the iPhone apps with which you are familiar are designed for the consumer market. However, there are a number of corporations that design in-house proprietary iPhone apps for their employees. If you were designing your app for a company you would serve as the intermediary between the business unit and the developers. IS professionals typically serve in the role of a business analyst. They find out the requirements of the business unit and then translate those requirements into documentation that the programmers can work with. Outsourcing: Let Developers Bid for Your Business Some corporations, especially small ones, do not retain a team of developers. They rely on the ability to contract out development work. With the advent of the web, the process of locating programmers has become much easier. There are a number of portals such as Elance.com that allow you to auction off your job much the same way that you would auction a product on eBay. Developers then bid on your job and you select your preferred developer. To help you in the decision, these services also maintain ratings of developers based on feedback from prior clients. The process of bidding out a job to a developer outside of your corporation is called outsourcing. Outsourcing comes in two flavors depending on where the developer is located. Outsourcing to a local developer is called onshoring. Outsourcing to a developer in another country is called offshoring. Offshoring is a popular movement among North American companies due to the high cost of skilled labor in the United States. Many developers live offshore in countries such as India, Pakistan, Russia, and Brazil. One key factor in outsourcing is communicating clearly with the developer. Any documentation that you prepare in advance helps reduce the possibility of misunderstandings. That is why we spent time planning the app and constructing a mockup. Choosing a developer is not about getting the lowest price, but rather about getting the best value. You want a good developer, but maybe you do not need the best. Make sure that your developer has a reputation for delivering on time and within budget. Furthermore, you often get what you pay for. Cheaper developers may deliver lower quality. There is a myth of developers in third world countries working practically for free. However, as countries such as India, Pakistan, and Russia become wealthier, the wages rise. The offshoring process is imperfect and some U.S. companies have found that documentation requirements are so extensive, and communication problems so prevalent, that it is almost cheaper in the end to hire a local programmer somewhat familiar with the business already. Some portals, such as iPhoneAppQuotes.com, advertise on-shoring as their competitive advantage. Many companies provide iPhone quotes. Elance.com is more general and worldwide, developing lots of different kinds of systems with developers all over the world. iPhoneAppQuotes.com develops iPhone apps using only developers in the United States. Estimating Costs: It’s OK to Be Approximately Right Sometimes students resist the process of estimating costs since there is so much uncertainty in the variables. Uncertainty is normal in business and is accepted by investors. The solution is to proceed with good faith estimates and perhaps produce a range of possible outcomes dependent on positive and negative scenarios. Uncertainty implies risk. In the negative scenario, you might lose everything and go out of business. On the other hand, in the positive scenario, you might do very well. Fortunately, there are always people willing to take the risk to bring new products to market. Below you will find a summary of the costs involved in creating an iPhone app. Note that we are not including the value of your time to conceive, document, and test the app. Like many entrepreneurs you will be working for free. Legal costs: If your business has a name other than your own, then by law you must file for a Doing Business As (DBA) license. However, that license does not protect you from liability. You are still personally liable for the debts of your business. A safer but more expensive option is to set up a Limited Liability Corporation (LLC). The LLC offers some protection from personal liability. We are picking relatively inexpensive options though you may want to add the cost of an attorney to your estimates. Developer costs: Your greatest cost will be to pay the developer. Avoid being too cheap here or the entire project will fail. To register and test your app with iTunes requires that you have an Apple Developer license. So even though you are not the developer, still you need to register as an Apple developer. Marketing costs: Finally, you need to promote your app. You have already created a web site to which you can direct traffic. But ultimately people have to find out about you. App review sites such as AppVee.com offer advertising packages for around \$200/month. All of the above are fixed costs. You have to pay them whether you sell one app or 10,000. However, you also have a variable cost from Apple. Apple takes 30% of every sale on iTunes. This is for the privilege of selling your app in their store. Since they are the only store allowed to sell apps, you do not really have a choice. So if your app costs \$2.00, Apple gets \$0.60 for each app sold. You make \$1.40 per sale. What you make per unit after subtracting variable costs is called the contribution margin. Knowing the contribution margin helps you quickly calculate your total revenue—simply multiply contribution margin by the number of units sold. Table 7.1 Various Fixed Costs Amount Doing Business As (DBA) or Limited Liability Corporation (LLC) license from a service such as LegalZoom.com \$199 Outsourcing development from a portal such as Elance \$3,500 Maintenance and updates from developer after year 1 \$1,000/year Apple Developer license \$99/year Ad on app review sites such as AppVee.com \$2,400/year TOTAL FIRST YEAR \$6,098 Some costs of doing business shown above. Legalzoom.com is one of the less expensive ways to incorporate. Part I - Variable Costs and Contribution Margin The concept of variable costs is essential to predicting profitability. Put quite simply, you do not make any money unless you sell a lot of apps. Therefore, we will spend some effort trying to understand variable costs both conceptually and in a spreadsheet. Year 1 • You think you will sell 700 units of app in Year 1 at \$2/unit. • Apple collects 30% of each sale as commission. • How much will you earn in Year 1? Year 2 • You predict that sales will double in Year 2 (still at \$2/unit). • How much will you earn in Year 2? Year 3 • You predict that Year 3 sales will double over Year 2 sales (still at \$2/unit). • How much will you earn in Year 3? Discussion 1. How much money is brought in through each unit sale before deducting Apple’s commission? 2. How much money does Apple earn on every unit sold? 3. How much money do you earn on every unit sold? The technical term for your share is called the contribution margin. It refers to how much money you earn from the sale after deducting the variable costs. Part II - Now Include Fixed Costs Year 1 (more realistic) • You must pay the developer \$3,500 to develop your app. This includes maintenance and bug fixes for the first year. • You think you will sell 700 units of app in Year 1 at \$2/unit. • Apple collects 30% of each sale as commission. • How much will you earn in Year 1? Year 2 (more realistic) • You must pay the developer \$1,000 to maintain your app. • You predict that sales will double in Year 2 (still at \$2/unit). • How much will you earn in Year 2? Year 3 (more realistic) • You must pay the developer \$1,000 to maintain your app. • You predict that Year 3 sales will double over Year 2 sales (still at \$2/unit). • How much will you earn in Year 3? Discussion 1. How much money is brought in through each unit sale before deducting Apple’s commission? 2. How much money does Apple earn on every unit sold? 3. How much money do you earn on every unit sold (contribution margin)? 4. How much do you have to pay your developer each year even if you don’t sell any units? 5. What are your final earnings at the end of each year after paying Apple and your developer? 6. In which year(s) did you make rather than lose money? Key Takeaways • MIS professionals tend not to program—they serve as intermediaries between the business unit and the programmers. • Outsourcing either onshore or offshore is a popular alternative when a business does not have a dedicated programming staff. • A business has numerous startup costs such as incorporation, advertising, and so forth, which need to be forecast. • Fixed costs are incurred even if no products are sold; whereas variable costs are incurred only when a sale is made. • Contribution margin is the money realized by the business after paying variable costs. Questions and Exercises 1. Give both a selfish and an unselfish reason for why Apple requires all iPhone apps to be sold through its store. 2. Is it better to outsource offshore or onshore? Explain.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/07%3A_Knowledge_with_Information_Systems-_Forecast_Revenues_and_Expenses_for_the_App/7.01%3A_Development_Options_and_Cos.txt

Learning Objectives • Format a spreadsheet to make it more readable and professional in appearance. • Create an assumptions area • Name cells in a spreadsheet • Use spreadsheet names in formulas • Insert rows and columns into a spreadsheet. • Perform a sensitivity analysis • Apply graphic design principles to create professional looking spreadsheets. Apply the C.R.A.P. Principles Notice the spreadsheets on the following page. The “before” spreadsheet is both sloppy and hard to read. The “after” spreadsheet uses contrast in fonts and size to focus attention on important information, and it uses alignment to create strength and clarity. Numbers and their headings are right justified, and the “Measure” category and its heading is left justified. Proximity and repetition of fonts create a professional finished look. The “after” spreadsheet also includes three new columns: Years, Male Over/(Under), and Female earnings as a % of male earnings. These new columns are processed data or information. Information summarizes or describes the data in a meaningful way. This information shows that disparity between male and female earnings both as an absolute value and as a percentage. To create information usually involves a formula. Formulas are written by the user to perform calculations on data. Business formulas tend to be simple, usually involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division. For example Male Over/(Under) subtracts female earnings from male earnings to show the difference between the two. Similarly female earnings as a percentage of male earnings divides female earnings by male earnings. Note that the information revealed by these columns tells us that there is a difference; it does not tell us why. And most information is very much like this. It needs to be interpreted in order to make business decisions, or in this case public policy decisions. The total area of a spreadsheet often exceeds the normal width of printing paper. Address this problem by printing in landscape orientation and by scaling the page to the width of the paper. Formatting a spreadsheet makes an enormous difference as to its professionalism. Proper formatting also makes the data much more readable. Place Estimates in an Assumptions Area We mentioned previously that all forecasting involves making assumptions. These are educated guesses based upon research. However, assumptions may change over time. Ideally, you would like to be able to update your spreadsheet easily as the assumptions change. The easiest and most error free way to perform the updates is to use an assumptions area. An assumptions area contains all of the variables that go into your calculations. It is normally located at the top of the spreadsheet. In a perfectly designed spreadsheet, the assumptions area is the only place that you actually type a number. Every other cell in the spreadsheet is a formula that refers back directly or indirectly to the assumptions area. Consider the Apple Commission located in cell B7. We need to know the commission in order to calculate the contribution margin—how much we make on each sale. We would expect the contribution margin formula in B8 to reference B7. So the formula in B8 might look like this: =B6*(1-B7) However, that formula is not particularly informative. The problem is that Excel does not know the meaning of the numbers in B7 and B8. It does not examine the labels to the left either. If we gave cells B6 and B7 meaningful names, we could calculate contribution margin as: =PricePerUnit*(1-AppleCommission) or equivalently =PricePerUnit-(PricePerUnit*AppleCommission) Note how these names are very similar to the labels. We say very similar because cell names can not contain spaces, whereas labels can. The cell names will be hidden from view but can be used in calculations as shown above. The place where you create the names is in the name box on the toolbar just above cell A1. Simply type the name and hit Enter. You must hit Enter or the name will not stick. Remember cell names can not contain spaces. So “Apple_Commission” is OK and so is “AppleCommission.” However, “Apple Commission” as two words with a space in between will not work. By the way, capitalizing the first letter of each word and eliminating the spaces between words (e.g., PricePerUnit) is called CamelBack notation for obvious reasons. In a well designed spreadsheet the only place that numbers should be updated is in the assumptions area. Every other cell references the assumptions area using formulas. Formulas are Used to Generate Information Our last example showed a formula in the assumptions area. It is rare to have formulas in the assumptions area. Most formulas appear in the spreadsheet proper below the assumptions area. Let us assume that we named B4 as UnitsYear1. Then the formula in B13 is =UnitsYear1. Every formula begins with an equal sign. B14 is a much more interesting example, and one that shows the power of Excel. We are now in Year 2 and need to represent the projected increase in sales. To represent any increase involves taking the prior value (B13) and adding the increase to it. Calculate the increase by multiplying the prior value by the percentage increase. So we get: =B13+B13*YearlyIncrease (700+700*100%) The first B12 is the prior value; the second B12*YearlyIncrease is the amount of the increase. The great thing about this formula is that it can be copied down to the rest of the cells in column B. Simply double click or drag the bottom right corner of B13 and the rest of the column will fill as follows: B15: =B14+B14*YearlyIncrease (1400+1400*100%) B16: =B15+B15*YearlyIncrease (2800+2800*100%) B17: =B16+B16*YearlyIncrease (5600+5600*100%) Excel properly repeats the pattern without any further effort on your part! However, note carefully that this was only possible because we had earlier named B5 as YearlyIncrease. If we do not name B5 then the pattern would look like this: B14: =B13+B13*B5 CORRECT (700+700*100%) B15: =B14+B14*B6 WRONG (1400+1400*\$2.00) B16: =B15+B15*B7 WRONG (3200+3200*30%) B17: =B16+B16*B8 WRONG (5440+5440*\$1.40) Excel improperly repeats the pattern moving every cell down one space each time. That is a problem for B5 in the assumptions area because the next cells down are Price Per Unit (B6=\$2.00), Apple Commission (B7=30%), and Contribution Margin per Unit (B8=\$1.40). These last three have nothing to do with units sold and we get gibberish instead of valuable information. What is even more frightening is that the numbers do not look obviously wrong. So in addition to being more readable, naming cells in the assumptions area also protects us against errors when copying formulas. Above each cell in the assumptions area gets a unique name. For example, B7 is called AppleCommission (with no spaces allowed in the name). Below formulas in the calculation section reference values in the assumptions area by name. For example, the formula in B13 references the YearlyIncrease field. Such formulas may be copied down the column without fear that the formula will improperly change when copied. Perform a Sensitivity Analysis to Hedge Your Bets Any time you make assumptions, you have to allow for the possibility that you might be wrong. Since you are dealing with real money, some of which is probably yours or a relative’s, you need to know the extent of your exposure should things not work out as planned. Therefore, it is a good idea to vary the assumptions and see what outcomes occur. This sophisticated analysis allows you to have an intelligent discussion about possible future scenarios. A good way to conduct a sensitivity analysis is using an Excel data table. A table can represent three variables—column headings, row headings, and the results inside the table. You vary the data in the row and column headings to observe changes inside the table. For example, assume that each cell inside the table contains the profit after Year 5. We can vary the growth rate and price per unit to see the effect on profit. To perform these calculations without the data table would require manually changing growth rate and price per unit assumptions TWENTY times and recording the values after year 5—this is busy work. By contrast, Excel has the built in ability to create a data table. The trickiest part of creating a data table is shown by the highlighted cells in the spreadsheet. You must repeat the value from your calculations on which you wish to perform the analysis. And not only do you have to repeat it, but you must repeat it using a simple formula. So the formula in B23 is: B23: =E18 Note how this cell must form the upper left corner of the data table. Now just fill in the row and column headings. We put various values for growth rate in the column headings and various values for price per unit in the row headings. Next highlight the whole table including the row and column headings and choose What If Analysis > Data Table. The last step is to identify for Excel the first cells where growth rate and price per unit appear in the assumptions area. Then Excel will substitute the values from the row and column headings into the assumptions area, redo ALL the calculations in the spreadsheet and then capture the results in the data table—all behind the scenes! Now it is your job to argue for the ones you think are most favorable and realistic. Key Takeaways • Well designed spreadsheets group input variables into an assumptions area. Ideally, the assumptions area is the only place that numbers are typed. • Formulas may be copied. However, cells that should not change in a formula should be named. • Many information systems projects fail. Your exposure can be analyzed in a sensitivity analysis using a data table. Questions and Exercises 1. Without using the built in data table function, how could you still construct a table that would perform a sensitivity analysis. Make sure that the upper left corner of the data table is a simple formula that copies the value that you want to see varied in the data table. Techniques The following techniques, found in the PowerPoint section of the software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter: Overview Map of Interface • Cell Name-Create • Cell Name-Delete • Format Number • Formula-Copy • Formula-Create • Formula Mode • Insert Column • Insert Row • Move Decimal Point • Sensitivity Analysis L1 Assignment: Forecast Revenues/Expenses Professionals are able to represent what they know intuitively in a properly formatted spreadsheet with an assumptions area. Setup Start Excel and properly title your spreadsheet. Content and Style • Create an assumptions area containing all variables. • Name each number in the assumptions area. • Use those names in calculations in the spreadsheet below. Except for the Year column, EVERY number outside of the Assumptions area must be calculated with formulas. • Follow best practice design techniques in this chapter. • Only the first number in each column gets formatted as CURRENCY (Do not format as ACCOUNTING.) Update the format using the Number Formatting Technique. All other numbers greater than 1,000 should be in Comma style. • Include a copyright symbol with your name at the bottom. • The worksheet gridlines will not appear on the printout. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the workbook electronically. Paper submission: • Print out both the results and formulas. The formulas printout shows the formulas in each column. Reveal the formulas by typing CTRL+ ~ (press the CTRL and ~ keys at the same time). Adjust the column widths to closely crop the formulas by dragging the separator between each column in the gray header area. • Both printouts should use landscape orientation, which you will find under Page Layout > Page Setup > Orientation > Landscape. Each printout should fit on one page. Choose Page Layout > Scale to Fit > Height: 1 page; Width: 1 page. Please save the forecast revenues/costs spreadsheet; you will be updating it later. L2 Assignment: More Expenses and Sensitivity Analysis To make the problem more realistic, we bring in additional fixed costs. To help in decision making, we perform a sensitivity analysis. Setup Re-save your workbook file from the L1 under a new name and then modify it to look as below. This must be a new workbook—do not simply create a new sheet in the same workbook or some of your names will conflict and spoil the data table. Content and Style • Incorporate new costs including Incorporation (\$199), Apple Developer Cost (\$99/year), Advertising (\$2,400/yr.), Developer maintenance cost (\$1,000/yr.). Create an assumptions area containing all variables. • Name each number in the assumptions area. • Use those names in calculations in the spreadsheet below. Except for the Year column, EVERY number outside of the assumptions area must be calculated with formulas. • Follow best practice design techniques in this chapter. • Only the first number in each column gets formatted as CURRENCY. (Do not format as ACCOUNTING.) Update the format using the Number Formatting Technique. All other numbers greater than 1,000 should be in Comma style. • Include a copyright symbol with your name at the bottom. • The worksheet gridlines will not appear on the printout. • Produce a sensitivity analysis table of total profit/(loss) as a function of growth rate and price per unit. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the workbook electronically. Paper submission: • Print out both the results and formulas. The formulas printout shows the formulas in each column. Reveal the formulas by typing CTRL+ ~. Adjust the column widths to closely crop the formulas by dragging the separator between each column in the gray header area. • Both printouts should use landscape orientation, which you will find under Page Layout > Page Setup > Orientation > Landscape. Each printout should fit on one page. Choose Page Layout > Scale to Fit > Height: 1 page; Width: 1 page. Add assumptions and columns as necessary to accommodate additional costs of maintenance, incorporation, and advertising.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/07%3A_Knowledge_with_Information_Systems-_Forecast_Revenues_and_Expenses_for_the_App/7.02%3A_Spreadsheets_to_Estimate_Co.txt

Learning Objectives • Evaluate the cost of borrowed money • Analyze the profitability of a business enterprise • Explain the benefits of placing multiple graphs on the same page. • Use fixed costs and variable costs in a break even analysis • Engage in “What If” data manipulation scenarios to realize business objectives • Conditionally format data meeting predetermined criteria • Choose and successfully employ Excel techniques to solve a complex task Introduction Many businesses need a loan in order to cover startup costs. Many entrepreneurs will turn to family for a loan. However, the danger here is that you are risking not only your family’s money, but also the relationships if the business should go under. On the other hand, small businesses without a prior track record sometimes have trouble securing a bank loan. Fortunately, there are government agencies at both the federal and state levels that help businesses secure grants and loans. Loan payments form part of the fixed costs of a business. Determining the payments on a loan is an important part of forecasting costs. The financial formula that calculates loan payments is fairly complex. However, Excel provides an easier way to calculate loan payments using the payment (PMT) function. The PMT function is one of many built in Excel functions. In this chapter we will examine functions, how they differ from formulas, and how to use them in a spreadsheet. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Functions vs. Formulas In the prior chapter we looked at Excel formulas and how to construct them. In many cases, we want to create our own formulas so we have a clear idea of how the information is constructed. However, in some cases the formula might involve more complex math where the possibility for error is greater. In these cases it is better to use a built in function that has already been tested and debugged. There are also functions that avoid busywork that you could do yourself but would probably prefer not to do. On a small scale this is analogous to the build vs. buy issue. Think of formulas as things that you build whereas functions are things that you “buy.” We put buy in quotes because many functions, including the payment function, are bundled with Excel. That is part of the way that Excel maintains its leadership in the spreadsheet marketplace. Most functions process input to produce a result. Perhaps the most popular function in Excel is the sum (SUM) function, which adds up a long list of numbers. The input for the Sum function are the cells to be added together. The example below shows the sum function compared with the equivalent formula. The formula is obviously very tedious as it involves adding all the numbers. This is expressed as =A4+A5+A6+A7+A8+A9+A10+A11+A12 The sum function accomplishes the same task more simplistically. This is expressed as =SUM(A4:A12) Note that in both cases the result is the same: 1,427. One nice advantage of the sum function is that if we were to add a row in the middle of the list, say between row 7 and row 8, the sum function would automatically expand to accommodate the new row, but the formula would not. The right way (above) and wrong way (below) to add up a column of numbers. Always try to use the sum function when adding numbers from more than two cells. The Payment (PMT) Function Calculates Loan Payments Automatically The payment (PMT) function calculates loan payments automatically. The format of the PMT function is: =PMT(rate,nper,pv) correct for YEARLY payments • Rate is the interest rate, usually expressed as an annual percentage rate (APR). If payments are made once a year then just plug in the APR. However, payments are usually once a month. So you need to divide the rate by 12. • Nper is the number of payment periods. Again, if payments are made once a year then nper is just the number of years of the loan. However, payments are usually once a month. So you need to multiply the nper by 12. • Pv is the present value of the loan, in other words the loan amount today. Adjusting for monthly payments produces this modification of the function: =PMT(rate/12,nper*12,pv) correct for MONTHLY payments By the way, you can use the PMT function to calculate payments on car loans and home mortgages. In case you are curious, the actual mathematical formula that the PMT function translates to looks like this: Payment = pv* apr/12*(1+apr/12)^(nper*12)/((1+apr/12)^(nper*12)-1) Note that it is hard to even follow a complex mathematical formula when it is written in Excel. The payment (PMT) function in action. The wording in this illustration is taken directly from U.S. federal guidelines for loan disclosure. The PMT function is used to calculate the monthly payment—in this case \$101. The function references three other numbers in the same illustration. Years is multiplied by 12 to get the number of payments (nper), APR% is divided by 12 to get the monthly interest rate, Amount Financed is the present value (pv) of the loan—the amount you are borrowing. The Payment (PMT) Function In the United States, the federal government places requirements on the actual wording of a loan. This wording is reflected in the illustration below. The intention is to force lenders to be honest about the terms of the loan and to allow buyers to comparison shop loans. Note especially the finance charge . This number is what people normally understand to be interest on the loan. It is the cost you pay for the privilege of borrowing the money. Now you might be wondering why this number is so high. After all 8% of \$5,000 is only \$400 not \$1,083. The interest compounds or grows because the loan has been stretched out over five years. First time home buyers are often shocked to find that their finance charge actually exceeds the amount of the loan. In other words, over the life of the loan they end up paying around twice the closing price of the home. Home loans have higher finance charges because they are often stretched out over thirty years—which is a lot of time to compound interest. Similarly, if we were to stretch our \$5,000 business loan out over thirty years, the finance charge climbs to \$8,208, which exceeds the amount of the loan. Here the same \$5,000 loan is shown under different loan terms. The second loan increases the interest rate to 20%, but leaves all else unchanged from the original. The third loan increases the term of the loan to thirty years but leaves all else unchanged from the original. The lesson here is to borrow at as low an interest rate as possible and for as short a time as possible. So the bottom line is that you should borrow money for as short a time as possible to avoid large finance charges. By the way, the situation is even worse with credit card loans because the interest rate on credit cards is so much higher—around 20%. Note how at 20% the finance charge climbs to almost \$3,000 over five years. Your goal should be to pay off your credit card in full at the end of each month. If you do not have enough money to do this, then you should try to modify spending habits so that you reach this goal. Key Takeaways • Businesses sometimes need loans to cover startup costs. Ideally, these should be business loans rather than personal loans. • At its heart, a function is simply a stored formula. • Functions are pretested and debugged. They sometimes simplify complex mathematical formulas and/or eliminate busywork. • One disadvantage of functions is that you sometimes lose a sense of how the information was derived. • The PMT function calculates loan payments. Since most loan payments are monthly, the function needs to be modified by dividing the interest rate by 12, but multiplying the number of payment periods by 12. • The United States federal government mandates that loan terms be expressed in a uniform way so that buyers are fully informed of credit terms and can comparison shop. • Because interest is compounded, loans should be taken out for as few years as possible. Compound interest is especially painful at high interest credit card rates. Questions and Exercises 1. Credit card companies sometimes refer to customers who pay off their balance in full each month as deadbeats. Why would they use such a derogatory term for responsible behavior? 2. Do some research and find the terms of a student loan and a car loan. Which has more favorable terms? Explain. Techniques The following techniques, found in the Excel section of the software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter: Conditional Formatting L1 Assignment: Calculate Loan Payments Create a properly formatted spreadsheet that calculates the payments on a business loan. Many businesses need to take out loans to cover startup costs. This exercise allows you to create a loan payment calculator and perform a sensitivity analysis on the terms of the loan. Setup Start Excel and properly title your spreadsheet. Because there are so few numbers the assumptions area and the calculations are combined. Content and Style • Name each number in the As-Is scenario. Use those names in calculations. • Follow best practice design techniques. • Include a copyright symbol with your name at the bottom. • Perform a sensitivity analysis to see how payments change as a function of interest rates and loan amount. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the workbook electronically. Paper submission: • The worksheet grid lines will not appear on the printout. • Print out both the results and formulas. The formulas printout shows the formulas in each column. Reveal the formulas by typing CTRL+ ~. Adjust the column widths to closely crop the formulas by dragging the separator between each column in the gray header area. • Both printouts should use landscape orientation, which may be accessed from Page Layout > Page Setup > Orientation > Landscape. Each printout should fit on one page. Choose Page Layout > Scale to Fit > Height: 1 page; Width: 1 page. L2 Assignment: Include Loan Payments in Forecast Include loan payments in your previous forecast of revenues and costs. To make the problem more realistic we bring in loan payments as an additional fixed cost. To help in decision making we conditionally format the sensitivity analysis. Setup Open your workbook file from the L2 assignment of the prior chapter, re—save it under a different name, and then modify it to look as below. Content and Style • Add an assumption for the Loan Payment. • Add an assumption for the Desired Profit by Year 5. • Name each number in the assumptions area. • Use those names in calculations in the spreadsheet below. • Follow best practice design techniques in this chapter. • Only the first number in each column gets formatted as CURRENCY. (Do not format as ACCOUNTING.) Update the format using the Number Formatting Technique. All other numbers greater than 1,000 should be in Comma style. • Include a copyright symbol with your name at the bottom. • Produce a sensitivity analysis table of total profit/(loss) as a function of growth rate and price per unit. • Conditionally format all profit scenarios that meet or exceed the desired minimum profit by year 5 listed in the assumptions area. Conditional formatting is located on the Home screen in Excel. Follow the prompts. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the workbook electronically. Paper submission: • The worksheet grid lines will not appear on the printout. • Print out both the results and formulas. The formulas printout shows the formulas in each column. Reveal the formulas by typing CTRL+ ~. Adjust the column widths to closely crop the formulas by dragging the separator between each column in the gray header area. • Both printouts should use landscape orientation, which may be accessed from Page Layout > Page Setup > Orientation > Landscape. Each printout should fit on one page. Choose Page Layout > Scale to Fit > Height: 1 page; Width: 1 page. Add assumptions and columns as necessary to accommodate loan payments.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/08%3A_Decision_Support-_Determine_Feasibility_of_a_Business_Loan_for_the_App/8.01%3A_Calculate_the_Terms_of_a_Loan.txt

Learning Objectives • Distinguish between an industry and company analysis • Analyze an industry using S.W.O.T. and Porter’s five forces model Introduction Before launching a business venture with your capital, or someone else’s, it is a good idea to analyze the overall attractiveness of the industry. An industry analysis makes no reference to your particular company. In other words, how likely to succeed would any new company be in this industry? Are there parts of the industry that are more attractive than others? Loan officers or investors especially, are going to want to see an analysis of the industry. One thing they will look for is growth potential. If you can show that the industry is rapidly growing, you may get funding. From an investor’s point of view, they might simply want to have a dog in the race—even if your company is not necessarily the best dog overall—it may still be the best dog on hand. One can establish growth potential by showing trends over time. For apps this would include showing growth in sales of apps and the platforms on which the apps run—iPhone, iPod, iPad. If your app duplicates functionality found in another device, a turn by turn GPS for example, then you could show growth in the GPS industry. You might also want to show growth of competing platforms and apps such as the Droid. However, you should be honest and straightforward about your statistics. Investors are smart and can see through hype and deception. This chapter will also look at two tools used to perform industry analyses—S.W.O.T. and Michael Porter’s five forces model. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Industry Analysis - SWOT and Porter’s The content of an industry analysis depends on the purpose of the report. There is no one size fits all. However, if the business is seeking funds, investors will at a minimum want to see two things: • Industry analysis: An analysis of the industry in which the company operates. What are the opportunities and threats inherent in the industry? • Company analysis: An analysis of the competitive position of the company within that industry. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the company? There are a number of analysis techniques designed to get at both the industry and company analysis. We will look at just two: The first is very popular in the marketing discipline. It is an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (S.W.O.T.) analysis developed by Albert Humphrey in the 1960s. The strengths and weaknesses compose the company analysis, whereas opportunities and threats compose the industry analysis. Using terms from the SDLC, you can consider the strengths and weaknesses as describing the current state of the company. The proposed future state of the company will be planned taking into account the opportunities and threats. It is conventional to show a S.W.O.T. analysis in a four cell grid. Another very popular analysis tool is Michael Porter’s five forces model. (Porter, M.E. (2008) The Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy, Harvard business Review, January 2008). Porter analyzes an industry by looking at how hard it is to get in the industry (barriers to entry), stay in the industry (threat of substitutes), and the bargaining position of suppliers to and buyers of industry products and services. This helps identify the attractiveness of the industry. You might think of Porter as helping to direct our focus to where the opportunities and threats might be found. The fifth force is the competitive position of industry rivals—their strengths and weaknesses. An analysis of the iPhone app industry using S.W.O.T. analysis (above) and Porter’s five forces model (below). Both models overlap in their analyses. For example, with respect to your iPhone app, you might argue that barriers to entry are very low. There are thousands of iPhone developers and it cost relatively little to develop an iPhone app. The threat of substitutes includes the competing Droid and other smart phones and apps. Suppliers to your industry include Apple, which supplies the iTunes store for distribution and the developers. Apple’s bargaining power is very high since you must list your app on their store and pay their commission. However, the bargaining power of developers is relatively low since they compete in an open auction for your business. The bargaining power of buyers is very strong since they can purchase from you or any of your competitors. The only thing that makes this industry attractive is that it is growing at such a phenomenal rate that there are business opportunities even for weak players. As the industry matures, the weaker players will probably get squeezed out. Key Takeaways • Investors will want to see an analysis of the industry and an analysis of your company’s competitive position in the industry. • S.W.O.T. and Porter’s five forces assist with industry analysis. S.W.O.T. also helps with the company analysis. Questions and Exercises 1. Why would an investor need both an industry and company analysis? Explain.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/09%3A_Industry_Analysis-_Smartphone_Apps/9.01%3A_Big_Picture-_Industry_Analysis.txt

Learning Objectives • Show market growth and opportunities using tables and graphs • Use spreadsheets and graphs to help analyze an industry • Graphically demonstrate market growth and opportunities • Integrate words, numbers, and images in order to create a graph that can serve as the effective basis for making a decision • Describe when each type of graph (line, bar, scatterplot, and pie) should be used • Apply graphic design principles to create spreadsheets and graphs Introduction Graphs are regularly used for presentations in corporate board rooms. The most prevalent use of corporate graphs is to show trends over time, such as sales per quarter. These graphs are especially popular when the trend is on the rise. A problem with graphs that show trends over time is that they show the changes in trend patterns, but they fail to show the reasons for these changes. One solution is to annotate a time series graph to point out the causal event. Sometimes a picture is worth a thousand words. The Oscar winning film, An Inconvenient Truth, warns of the dangers of global warming. The film uses many illustrations and graphs, similar to the ones you will create in this course. Many of them show before and after comparisons. At one moment in the film, Al Gore, dramatically ascends, using an hydraulic lift, to point on a giant screen to high projected levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The message is far clearer than numbers alone would ever show. In the entire history of the earth, the red line (carbon dioxide) spikes disturbingly when man began burning fossil fuels with the advent the industrial revolution. And the situation is quickly getting worse. Watch the movie trailer for An Inconvenient Truth at: http://www.apple.com/trailers/paramount_classics/aninconvenienttruth/ Other business uses of graphs are to show relative amounts visually. This is especially helpful when the numbers are large and hard to relate to. David McCandless has produced a series of fascinating graphs that help to explain trends. You can see some of his work at: http://www.informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations/ Analytical Design There are sound principles for the display of quantitative information. Perhaps the greatest theorist in the quantitative arena is Edward Tufte. He has written a number of books and articles on the subject and draws huge audiences world wide when he speaks. Tufte virtually founded the field of analytical design—the field that studies how best to represent information—especially quantitative information. He has developed a number of principles over the years. However, in his latest book, Beautiful Evidence, Graphics Press, 2006, he organized the principles under six major headings: 1. Show comparisons, contrasts, differences. Comparisons inform and invite reflection by the reader. For example, showing the growth rate of platforms using the Mac iOS vs. other smartphone operating systems helps show if the market is growing or shrinking. 2. Show causality, mechanism, explanation, systematic structure. Sometimes the data clearly suggest a cause or lack of a cause. For example, many predicted a drop in iPhone 4 sales after news that the antenna dropped calls when held in a certain way. But the predicted sales drop was not borne out by the data and the product launch was wildly successful. 3. Show multivariate data. That is show more than one or two variables. The more variables graphed, the greater the chance of providing a clear causal explanation. For example, better to show sales of paid apps and free apps per platform. 4. Completely integrate, words, numbers, images, diagrams. Tufte sometimes calls this “whatever it takes.” Annotate your graph if that helps explain the data. For example on a time series label key events. 5. Thoroughly describe the evidence. Provide a detailed title, indicate the authors and sponsors, document the data sources, show complete measurement scales, point out relevant issues. For example, always show your data sources and list your name as a author. If the data only holds under certain conditions, then state what those are. 6. Analytical presentations ultimately stand or fall depending on the quality, relevance, and integrity of their content. This may be the most important principle of all. If your content is bad then nothing will save it. Try to tell the truth at all costs. Analytical design in action. In the graph above, 96 data points are easily represented showing the market share for smartphone operating systems. From this, one can see the rapid rise of the Android OS. Below only twelve data points are graphed. The data shows that free apps are downloaded far more frequently than paid apps. However, the greatest market for paid apps is on the Apple iPhone and iPod Touch platforms. Both graphs would be improved if their legends were eliminated and the data series were instead labeled directly. Source for both graphs is Admob.com. Graph Design Principles Notice the graphs on the following page. The “after” graph has six design improvements over the first. They deal specifically with formatting the graph to maximize information transfer to the reader. Most of the graph design guidelines come from Edward Tufte’s principles of analytical design. These principles require refining the graph after Excel has applied its default settings. The exercises in this chapter provide instructions on how to carry out these refinements. Though the design of a graph is important, the content is even more crucial to the delivery of information. Graphs can have good design, but if the data or content is flawed, the graph has no purpose. The data on the X and Y axis of a graph should always have some correlation, or some relationship that can be demonstrated. Before—while this graph looks cool, there is no scale. What quantities do the bars represent? After—even though this graph is somewhat dull, it conveys information far more effectively. Matching Graph to Data Type After you establish the integrity and relevance of the content, you will next need to focus on the type of graph you will use to display the information. Most business graphs (bar graphs, line graphs, and pie charts) compare categories on a quantitative dimension. For example, comparing salaries for persons of different education levels. Bar graph. Bar graphs are used to compare discrete categories on a common measure. In other words, the measure is quantitative and the categories are qualitative. For example, compare sales figures (quantitative) in different geographic regions (qualitative). Line graph. Line graphs compare continuous categories on a common measure. They are often seen in business, especially to show trends over time. The time appears on the X axis, and the quantitative data to be measured appears on the Y axis. Examples are sales, stock market trends, or mortgage rates over time. A text box is often placed near these graphs to explain the reasoning behind changes in trends. Pie chart. Much like a bar graph, a pie chart compares discrete categories on a common measure. Unlike a bar graph, a pie chart can only show one series of data. Although pie charts are commonly used in the media, a bar graph is a better way to convey the same information in a way that allows for much easier comparisons between categories. The relative height of bars is easier to compare than pie slices that must be mentally rotated and aligned for comparison. Bar graphs also allow for multiple data series to be compared on the same graph, but pie charts are limited to one data series. Overall, pie charts should be avoided. Scatterplots. Scatterplots do the best job of adhering to Tufte’s principles of showing multivariate data and causal relationships. In a scatterplot, both sets of data are quantitative. The cause (independent variable) appears on the X axis, and the effect (dependent variable) appears on the Y axis. For example, in economics, scatterplots can be used to show trends in price versus demand. Greater demand for a product or service (independent variable) leads to higher price (dependent variable). In spite of their explanatory power, scatterplots are rarely found in business. Bar Graph - Compares categories Line Graph - Shows trends Scatterplot - shows causal relationships Challenger Disaster: A good graph may improve decision making The Space Shuttle Program had its first successful launch in 1981. From the beginning NASA made “caution” a buzzword in the program. As just one example, five separate computers were onboard performing identical tasks. A pre-launch failure of even one computer would delay a launch. The Challenger launch had already been postponed twice due first to a malfunctioning door and then due to high winds. The media ridiculed NASA’s inability to launch on schedule. The night of January 28, President Reagan was scheduled to go on national TV to deliver his State of the Union Address. He was expected to mention the launch of the first civilian into space, a school teacher from Vermont named Christa McAuliffe. The shuttles are launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Normally temperatures at the Cape are very moderate. Even in January the mean temperature is 60° F. However, a blast of Arctic air occasionally extends down to northern Florida. Such was the case on January 28, 1986, the launch date of the Space Shuttle Challenger. Temperatures on the morning of the launch were forecasted to be between 26 and 28° F, far below the prior coldest launch temperature of 53° F. The temperature at launch is significant because it can potentially affect the performance of rubber parts on the shuttle. During the night preceding the launch, there was an eleventh-hour debate on the wisdom of launching between NASA and Morton Thiokol. Thiokol was the contractor for the two solid fuel rocket boosters that help propel the shuttle into orbit. The boosters are made in segments that interlock. At the point the segments meet, two rubber O-rings help seal the joint. The prior coldest launch and, indeed, every launch under 66° F had experienced some amount of compromise to the O-rings. However, there were also cases, though few, of O-ring damage at warmer temperatures. Thiokol engineers feared that the rubber would harden in the cold weather, thereby compromising its ability to seal the joint. The engineers were correct but not persuasive. Unable to substantiate their claim with data, the engineers caved under pressure from NASA and signed off on the launch. The Challenger and its seven-member crew were lost 73 seconds after launch when the O-ring failure caused the booster rocket to explode. On the eve of the launch engineers tried to explain the problem with a diagram. Their concern was that escaping hot gases would erode or eat away at the rubber O-ring seal. Sufficient erosion would release a flood of hot gases, sort of like a break in a dam. That was what happened to Challenger and it was catastrophic. There were 24 successful launches prior to Challenger. However, the entire discussion centered around only two previous launches, SRM 15 and SRM 22. SRM stands for Solid Rocket Motor. SRM 15 was a cold weather launch with erosion. SRM 22 was a warm weather launch with blow by (soot but no erosion). Unfortunately, in the debate, erosion and blow by were put on equal footing, leading one engineer to conclude, “We had blow by on the hottest motor and blow by on the coldest motor.” You will note that when the engineers reversed their no launch recommendation, it was not because they had new evidence, but rather because their existing evidence was too limited to be conclusive. The moral of the story is to always look at the entire data set. What does the entire data set show? Damage rarely occurs at warm temperatures, but damage always occurs below 66°F and worsens the colder the temperature. Christa McAuliffe, school teacher, was chosen by President Reagan to be the first civilian in space. Here she is being tested for weightlessness tolerance before the launch. Image reprinted from www.nasa.gov. Tufte recommends showing ALL the data when making a decision—but showing it in a meaningful way relating cause and effect. He feels that the this graph, had it been made, would have stopped the launch. Frigid launch pad on the morning of launch. Image reprinted from NASA Johnson Space Center. Frozen O-ring fails to seal-fire burns through. Image reprinted from NASA Johnson Space Center. Key Takeaways • The more data points you have, the more useful it is to graph the data. Graphs can easily show thousands of data points. • In the same way that there are rules of graphic design, there are also analytical design rules governing how to display information—especially quantitative information. We will only scratch the surface of these rules. • Always choose a graph appropriate for the data. • Presenting data well can make a difference. Better presentation of data might have saved the Space Shuttle Challenger. Questions and Exercises 1. Find a graph in print and evaluate it according to the analytical design principles. Techniques The following techniques, found in the software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter: PowerPoint: Insert Table; Excel: Best practice formatting-Scatterplot L1 Assignment: S. W. O. T. and Porter's As part of your industry analysis create S.W.O.T. and Porter’s five forces analyses of the iPhone industry Setup Start up PowerPoint. Content and Style • Follow all best practice formatting and design techniques. • Use a PowerPoint table for the S.W.O.T. analysis. Merge cells and control text formatting to match the example. • If you choose to use colored backgrounds, make sure that they have sufficient contrast with the text. • Use appropriate PowerPoint smart art for the Porter’s analysis. • Create one slide for each diagram. • No matter how good a diagram, it needs explanation. Save enough room on each slide to include a paragraph that tells the reader what message should we get from the diagram. Draw conclusions—do not just summarize the slide. • Add copyright and your name to each slide. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the PowerPoint file electronically. Paper submission: Please print out the slides. Sample templates for the S.W.O.T. assignment (above) and Porter’s assignment (following). L2 Assignment: Show App Trends As part of your industry analysis create a graph from iPhone app sales data. Setup Download the iPhone App Sales Data and create a time series line graph. Content and Style • Follow all best practice formatting and design techniques. • Adjust scales to match the graph. • Add text boxes, rectangle and arrow where required. • Add copyright and your name under the source. • Do not recreate the word “sample.” Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the Excel workbook electronically. Paper submission: Please print out the graph in landscape orientation. Sample graph for the Show App Trends assignment.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/09%3A_Industry_Analysis-_Smartphone_Apps/9.02%3A_Representing_Industry_Information_Using_Graphs.txt

Learning Objectives • Query sales data to spot meaningful trends • Distinguish between static reports, dynamic reports, and data mining • For a given situation, determine what type of business intelligence report is required to solve the problem Introduction In order to make strategic decisions about which products to feature in our store, we need to carefully analyze the sales and clickstream data. This type of data analysis is one form of business intelligence. If there is one thing plentiful in the world today, it is data. At the heart of every information system is a database that captures transactional data. For example, who bought what, when, for how much, and so forth. It is useful to know about the architecture of the transactional systems so that it is not a complete mystery how the data is captured. However, it is critical to know how to distill and analyze the captured data in order to make managerial decisions. For example, after summarizing thousands of records we might find a product selling particularly well with women in a particular age range living in a particular area. That meaningful information could be actionable in terms of the supply chain and marketing initiatives. If anything in the world today there is perhaps too much data. Distilling that data into meaningful information is a key skill. There are a number of tools available to perform data analysis. These include spreadsheet programs such as Excel and database systems such as Access. Learning to use these tools will enhance your marketability. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Kiva: Summarize Data to Produce Information To illustrate the power of summary data, we will first show how it can be used as a marketing vehicle for a website. Impressive statistics can help encourage repeat business. The same marketing principles operate even for nonprofit organizations. Kiva is a website that lets you make small loans (typically under \$500) to entrepreneurs in developing countries. The field of small loans is called microfinance. Microfinance institutions are an incredibly important resource to help third world citizens rise out of poverty. Surprisingly, the repayment rate of the world’s poor ranges from 95 to 98%, far higher than the loan repayment rate in the United States. Over 80% of Kiva’s loans are made to female entrepreneurs. They invest profits back into the businesses and improve the lives of their families. Kiva works by pooling resources so that for example 50 people could lend \$10 each to total \$500. As part of its marketing effort Kiva maintains fast facts about their activities to date. For example, they report that they have nearly half a million lenders who together have lent \$161 million dollars over the last three years. These fast facts are gathered from the website’s database after scanning millions of records and represent business intelligence. Not only does the information serve a marketing purpose, but it is also an internal scorecard to track the progress of Kiva’s mission and influence decisions. Kiva’s Facts and History page is a business intelligence report. Note the sentence that appears under “Latest Statistics,” which announces that the statistics are updated nightly (between 1 - 3 am). This is typical of business intelligence systems. Searching millions of records puts such a drain on the system that these activities are usually run during off peak hours. What Is Business Intelligence? The Kiva example is a form of business intelligence . Business intelligence (BI) is the delivery of accurate, useful information to the appropriate decision makers within the necessary time frame to support effective decision making. By this definition all the work we have done with Excel would qualify as business intelligence since our deliverables contained accurate and useful information to support effective decision making. However, business intelligence is commonly understood to include distilling and analyzing large data sets such as those found in corporate databases. Extracting and analyzing information stored in databases is the subject of this chapter. It is very likely that at multiple points in your work career you will be asked to engage in just this type of analysis. Business intelligence is part of the big picture information systems architecture. Most systems in existence can be classified either as enterprise systems, collaboration systems, or business intelligence systems. The enterprise systems—taking orders for example—feed their data to the data warehouse, which in turn is queried to support business intelligence. From a managerial standpoint, there are three factors necessary to make an effective decision: 1. Construct a set of goals to work toward. 2. Determine a way to measure whether a chosen path is moving closer or farther from those goals. 3. Present information on those measures to decision makers in a timely fashion For example, let’s say our goals are to develop a clothing business that produces high quality products while lowering costs. We further determine that we will measure product quality by the percentage of products rejected by inspectors at each station. (Think about those inspector 99 tags that you find in pockets of your new clothes. The clothes you are wearing are the ones accepted by the inspector.) A relatively high rejection rate is a red flag to management requiring further analysis. Is this an overzealous inspector? Is there any pattern to the rejected products? Does one station in the factory tend to produce more rejects than the others? We also need to see performance over time. Is product quality improving or getting progressively worse? Let’s say that our analysis determines that the high rejection rate comes from just one factory in Southeast Asia. We report the problem to management. They dispatch a team to review the plant. The review discovers child labor, abusive conditions, and very low morale at the plant. The horrible conditions are quickly reversed and the rejection rate returns to average. Business Intelligence: Analysis of App Sales Data The business intelligence portion of the information systems architecture. Note that business intelligence systems typically operate off of a data warehouse—a repository of data for the corporation. Each enterprise system contains one or more databases. The contents of those databases is routinely copied into the data warehouse to enable the BI analysis. The process of copying is called extract, transform, and load (ETL). Business Intelligence Process We will look at three types of business intelligence—static reports, dynamic reports, and data mining. Static reports are by far the most common form of business intelligence. Most businesses have summarized standard reports already laid out and printed to assist in managerial decision making. For example, universities use enrollment reports to gauge which departments might need to hire more faculty. Credit card companies will request reports of persons with high credit scores to target credit card promotions. Similarly, the companies might target college students with good future earning potential. Marketers might look at sales figures for different stores and regions to determine where there are opportunities to run a sales promotion. Dynamic reports look similar to static reports but online and interactive. A manager curious as to where a certain summary number on his dashboard comes from can drill down to expose the detail that contributed to that number. In essence it is a fact finding tour where information discovered in each step gives clues on where to search next for information. For example, if sales in North America are down, then drill down to discover a problem in the Midwest region. Then drill down farther to discover a problem in the Cleveland, Ohio plant. Data mining uses computer programs and statistical analyses to search for unexpected patterns, correlations, trends, and clustering in the data. In essence, it is fishing through the data to see if there are patterns of interest. One often cited example of data mining was the discovery that beer and diapers are frequently purchased on the same trip to the grocery store. Upon further inquiry marketers discovered that Dad picks up some beer on his trip to the grocery store to buy diapers. Marketers can use this information to place the two items in close proximity in the store. The business intelligence process for dynamic reports is depicted here. The top half of the diagram shows how data finds it way into the data warehouse through the extract, transform, and load process. The dynamic report begins with an executive dashboard providing a high level view of the business. The dashed red arrows represent drilling down to find a reason for a pattern in the data. In this example, a downturn in North American sales is traced all the way back to a Cleveland, Ohio plant. Key Takeaways • Business intelligence is a way of uncovering trends and patterns in corporate data that might have strategic or operational significance. • Most corporations already have the data that they need for business intelligence. However analyzing the data, presenting the results, and then following through on where the data leads, separates the winners from the losers in a competitive environment. • Static reports, dynamic reports, and data mining are three different forms of business intelligence. Questions and Exercises 1. Managers are often most interested in exceptions—data that does not fit pre-established expectations. Describe how business intelligence can aid in this process. 2. Why do lower level managers require higher level detail in their information? 3. In what ways does fantasy football rely on business intelligence?

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/10%3A_Business_Intelligence-_Analysis_of_App_Sales_Data/10.01%3A_Business_Intelligence.txt

Learning Objectives • Determine which tables and fields in a database are needed to complete a query • Explain how data is captured in our Class App store • Explain how the Class App store data can be used for business intelligence Introduction In all of the forms of BI described above, you must actually store data to analyze. Organizations store their data in databases connected to their production systems. Here are some examples: • Banking transaction systems store data in databases containing information about customers, accounts, and transactions against those accounts. • University enrollment systems store data in databases containing information about students, faculty, courses, and enrollment in those courses. • Cell phone billing systems store data in databases containing information about customers, rate plans, and calls made. • Credit card billing systems store data in databases containing information about customers, credit plans, and items charged. • Supermarket checkout systems store data in databases containing information about customers, products, and buying habits of their customers. The loyalty card that you have swiped at the checkout ties all your purchases back to your name. What do these databases actually look like? They consist of tables of data that are related to each other. This is called a relational database. Each table must have a unique identifier that is called a primary key. The database is organized into parent and child tables to avoid duplicating data. Data common to each child is stored in the parent table. Diagrammatically a parent table points to its child tables. Each parent record can have zero or more child records. To logically link the tables together simply repeat the primary key as a foreign key in each corresponding record of the child table. To get information in and out of a relational database requires a relational database management system (RDBMS) such as Microsoft Access. The goal of the system is to facilitate transactions while safe guarding the integrity of the data. The theory behind database design is one of the most elegant areas in all of information systems. If you continue in information systems, you will see it in detail. However, for our purposes all we need to know is that data is typically stored in multiple files even if the report that we get is contained in a single file. Why? The simple answer is that we want to avoid duplicate data by storing information common to each child in the parent table. Why do we care? Because duplicate data opens up the possibility that one of the duplicates will be different in an important way. For example you would not want your bank balance to be sometimes one number, sometimes another depending on which record happens to be called up by the database. The data from the Class App store is stored in a relational database consisting of two tables—an APP table and a SALES table. The primary key of the APP table is App name. The primary key of the SALES table is the combination of Timestamp and App name. App name in the SALES table is also a foreign key linking each sale with its corresponding App. Architecture of Class App Store The Class App store created for this course has at its heart a simple database. Nonetheless, that database supports some fairly sophisticated functionality. The beauty of the Class App store is that it was created almost entirely without writing code, by using Google Sites and Google Docs. The database consists of two tables—an App table and a Sales table. The App table captures registration information about each app. The Sales table captures sales information—who bought what and when. Conceptually the tables are linked by what is called a one to many relationship. One app has many sales. Every database has one to many links of this sort. The relationships are formed by the primary key to foreign key correspondence. Once the architecture is established the next step is to get data in and out of the database. Data is entered into a database using forms. For the App table, use the Register App form. For the Sales table, use the Purchase App form. Data is extracted from the database using reports. The listing of apps on the Class App store home page is a report. When the reports involve summary data, we would characterize that as meaningful information. For example, listing the best selling apps and the top rated apps qualifies as information. The number of apps purchased by each student is also information—it reveals how many students have completed the assignment. And there are a variety of reports that can come out of even a simple database such as this. For example, a report might list the best selling apps for men who are freshmen. One can be quite specific as to the information extracted for analysis. Architecture of the Class App store. Even this simple database requires two forms and four reports. Group and Summarize Data We will analyze the sales data for our own app store to find trends in buying patterns for the class. Distilling that data and finding meaningful patterns is a form of business intelligence. The important concepts here are to group and summarize data, and then to order and compare groups. For example, showing a list of the best selling apps. Creating this list requires counting total sales for each app and then listing those totals in descending order. To do this in real time requires sending a query to the store typically written in a language called Structured Query Language (SQL). This is how we were able to get the store to display tables of best selling and top rated apps. The query looks similar to this: select App, count(Timestamp) group by App order by count(Timestamp) desc, App asc Translation: select the app name and count the number of records (timestamps) for that app. Produce a subtotal (group by) for each App name. Then order the subtotals in descending order. If two apps have the same subtotal, then order them alphabetically. However, SQL is beyond the scope of this course. What is within the scope of the course is to download and analyze the data in a spreadsheet. Database data can be downloaded and then analyzed using Excel pivot tables. A pivot table is a visual query tool that allows you to answer sophisticated questions without writing any SQL code. Data is sorted by timestamp above left and by app above right. However, neither sorting produces useful information. Left we download and then group, summarize and sort the data by sales in descending order to reveal the top selling apps. This is meaningful information. “Count of Email” means that we are counting the number of email addresses registered for each app. We count emails since they are unique whereas names might not be. This analysis is performed using an Excel pivot table on the downloaded data. Multi-Table Databases The problem with one table databases is that we are limited to querying the data that happens to be in that table. For example, there is no way to see which developers bought their own apps. The sales data here shows only the buyer not the seller. The seller data is stored in a different table. What we need is a way to join information between the two tables. While joining information between tables is possible to do with a spreadsheet (using the Vlookup operation), it is rather difficult and is error prone. The best practice way to accomplish a join is using a database system such as Microsoft Access. The magic of database systems is that they are able to make data that lives in separate tables appear to reside in the same table. Once the data appears to reside in a single table, then all of the query techniques that apply to one table databases become tools for analysis. The APP table above and the SALES table below. A relational database is able to integrate information between the two tables. Data Warehouse As with many subjects in the course, it is more complicated than that. It would be relatively rare to pull business intelligence data from a live database. The drain on the system might slow down the entire business and thereby frustrate customers. Instead, corporations typically copy data from their databases into a repository called a data warehouse. The warehouse can then be queried repeatedly without affecting the production system. Periodically, perhaps once a day, data is copied from the company’s many databases to a very large database called the data warehouse. The process of copying the data is called extract, transform, and load (ETL). • Extract — Copies data from one or more databases systems. • Transform — Cleans the data so that related records in different databases appear in a consistent format. • Load — Inserts the cleansed data into the data warehouse. Why go to all this trouble? One of the main reasons is that analyzing the data on the production system would slow it down considerably leading to poor customer service. Another reason to copy the data is so that multiple databases can be merged into a single data warehouse. It is the data warehouse that is analyzed to produce management reports. Note the role of the data warehouse as the central repository for all the business intelligence data. Latency is the amount of time between the occurrence of a transaction and the loading of that transaction’s information into the business intelligence system. In other words it is the amount of time that passes before a manager has a distilled report in hand analyzing the operation. Some mangers are content to get a monthly update, others need daily or even hourly updates. It depends on the nature of the job. Ironically, lower level managers tend to need more up to the minute data. This is because they control the systems in real time. Upper level managers, by contrast, tend to focus on the big picture over a larger time horizon. Key Takeaways • Multiple corporate databases feed into a large data warehouse that is used for querying the data. • The greatest sin in database design is allowing duplicate data. Duplicate data has the potential to become inconsistent—sometimes one value, sometimes another. • The higher up a manager is in the organization, the less detail he or she needs to see in the data. In fact, detail only becomes important to an upper manager when it is needed to explain an unexpected trend. Questions and Exercises 1. The transform step in the ETL process can be quite involved. Research and find an example of data that needs to be cleaned. 2. Explain why databases beyond one table require relationships among the tables. Techniques The following techniques, found in the Excel section of the software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter: Pivot Table L1 Assignment: Sales Data Analysis How do you increase sales of your app in the store? In order to answer that question you need to examine your competitive position in the store. Your competitive position is defined by comparisons with other apps selling in the same category. So if you designed a music app, then you should compare with other music apps. There are a number of dimensions along which you can examine your competitive position: market share, unique visitors, conversion rate, personal sales, or cross selling. Setup To complete this assignment, you will need two files from your professor. The first is the sales file from the class store. The second is the content drilldown report from Google Analytics. Then create a new blank Excel spreadsheet with the column headings shown in the example. You need to include a row for every app that sold in your category. So if your category is music and there are ten music apps in the store, then you need to have ten rows including your own. Your row should be boldfaced. Content and Style Number and answer all of the following questions in the space below your spreadsheet. (Use merge cells and text wrap to make sure that your answers do not exceed the width of your spreadsheet. • Market share: Of all the sales in your category, what percentage does your app account for? How does that compare with the competition? • Unique visitors: How many unique visitors came to your page in the store? How does that compare to the competition? What could you do to encourage more visits? • Conversion rate: Of all the visitors to your page, what percentage actually bought your app? This is called the conversion rate. How does your conversion rate compare with the competition? What could you do to improve your conversion rate? • Personal sales: The sales records reveal who bought your app. Some of those sales may be the result of you personally promoting the app to others in the class. What percentage of your sales are the result of personal selling? How many people did you try to sell that did not buy your app? What is your closing rate? • Cross Selling: Of the people that bought your app, what other apps did they buy? What apps cross sell well with your app? Perhaps you could promote your app on those pages and vice versa. To find this answer you need to import the sales table into Microsoft Access and then run both of the queries listed below. It is so worth it; the output is really interesting. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the Excel file electronically Paper submission: Please print out the Excel file in landscape view using fit to page. How to Find the Cross Selling Information Begin by importing the sales data into a blank database in MS Access. Under the External Data tab select Excel and follow the screen prompts. The worksheet should come in as the RawData table or whatever name your professor calls it. Now you will create two queries to run against the table. The first query, PurchasedTogether, creates a new row for each combination bought by a customer. For example, (WickedCrazyApp, CoolMusicApp), (BogusFlowerApp, IntenseAwesomeApp) and so forth. The logic of this query is to find all records from both tables where the emails match but the apps purchased do not. To create this query go to Create > Query Design and add the RawData table twice in the query design process. The second version of the table is called RawData_1. Drag a connector from one email field to the other to join the Email fields from both tables. (The example shown is simplified, showing only two fields.) Fill out the grid at the bottom to match the example. Run the query by clicking the red exclamation point. The second query, PurchasedTogetherTotals, counts how many times each combination appears. The logic of this query is to count combinations no matter who bought them. We have further limited the results to those counts greater than 4, but you can change this number as need be. To create this query you must add the PurchasedTogether query in the query design process. In other words you are doing a query of a query! Add the Total row to the grid by clicking the Σ, then fill out the rest of the grid as shown. Run the query and you have your cross selling data! PurchasedTogether creates a new row for each combination bought by a customer. PurchasedTogetherTotals counts how many times each combination appears no matter who bought it.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/10%3A_Business_Intelligence-_Analysis_of_App_Sales_Data/10.02%3A_Databases.txt

Learning Objectives • Present evidence for your conclusions • Determine when to use PowerPoint as a report writer rather than a presentation tool • Describe the conditions under which PowerPoint fails to communicate well Introduction When applying for a business loan or seeking investors, you will have to present your project. You are likely to fare better if you follow accepted standards of business presentations. One of those standards is the schematic report. You are probably already familiar with the use of PowerPoint to create presentations for an audience. Such presentations will be covered in more detail in the next chapter. However, in this chapter we look at PowerPoint as a report generation tool. In business, PowerPoint has been gaining traction as a page layout tool to generate reports. These reports use smaller fonts, mix text and graphics, and are designed primarily to be read rather than projected on the screen. Businesses use different names for this type of report including decks, reading decks, and schematic reports. Used in this way, PowerPoint becomes equivalent to a poor man’s desktop publishing package—but with the added advantage that the report also fits neatly on the screen. However, it is difficult for an audience to read a font smaller than 24 point onscreen. Small font presentations (around 11 point) raise the obvious question as to why the presentation should be projected at all. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Focus on Evidence Rarely can you prove anything in business. The best you can do is give evidence for your position. Your audience will decide whether your evidence is compelling. And if it is not compelling, well then you have learned something for next time. In most business presentations, you will need to get across information that inspires your audience to take action. Design is not a substitute for good content, but the combination of the two produces excellent results. The table below demonstrates a method of critical thinking. The method shows how to organize an argument in order to support a claim. Note that every point is supported by hard evidence. This format can be used both in papers and presentations: Table 11.1 Paragraph Thought Process Sample Words Claim or thesis Here’s what I believe based on points A, B, and C. I believe we should allocate\$50K to investigate sustainable business practices because of cost savings, employee morale, and community support. Evidence of A: examples and credible sources Here’s why I believe A. Cost savings through reduced energy usage. Evidence for B: examples and credible sources Here’s why I believe B. Improved employee morale by working for socially responsible company. Evidence for C: examples and credible sources Here’s why I believe C. Community support for green practices. Summary As I have shown, my belief _____ is reinforced by points A, B, and C. In summary, cost savings, employee morale, and community support, encourages allocation of \$50K to investigate sustainable business practices. PowerPoint as a Report Writer Traditionally students are taught to write reports using a word processor such as Microsoft Word. The emphasis in the reports is on grammar and composition. However, much of corporate America has been moving in a different direction. The primary means of formal communication in corporations is with PowerPoint. PowerPoint was developed as a presentation graphics package. PowerPoint presentations are designed to supplement a live presenter. For this reason, the fonts used tend to be large (around 24 point) and the words few (less than fifty per page) so that the audience can read them. The bullet points also serve as a cue for the presenter in lieu of note cards. To put this in perspective, a single page of a word processed document could have 500 words or ten times as many words as a slide. The words would be set using a smaller font—usually 10 or 11 point. With relatively few words to express oneself, every word should be carefully chosen. Unfortunately, very often we see the opposite—presentations hastily assembled at the last minute. However, there is a growing movement to create presentations that can stand with or without the presenter. This requires using smaller fonts and adding far more text. The small text creates a presentation that can no longer be read easily by the audience. What should be a presentation turns into an eye test. To compensate, many times audience members are each provided with a copy of the presentation. So while they may not be able to read the screen, they can follow along. Hopefully the copy provided to the audience contains one slide per page. Unfortunately, sometimes in an effort to save paper, the presenter will use a PowerPoint handout with three slides per page and a space for the audience to write notes. This simply transfers the eye test to paper. The term used in corporate America to describe a PowerPoint presentation is a deck. The term has obvious ties to a deck of cards. And like a deck of cards, one can easily reorganize a deck to customize the presentation for a new audience. The term deck is used whether the slides are primarily designed for a presentation or primarily designed to be read. However, to be clear about which we mean, we will use the term schematic report to describe a deck intended to be read rather than projected. Distributing handouts to the audience is only helpful if the slides are readable. Here they are not, nor would they be readable projected on the screen. The only way to make this presentation readable is to print one slide per page. How to Overcome the Cons PowerPoint has four advantages over Word. First, it does help keep everyone on the same “page.” A PowerPoint “page” fits conveniently on one screen—a Word page would not. Second, PowerPoint allows for easy integration of text and graphics. Text boxes and images stay put and resize intuitively without creating awkward page breaks. You can similarly integrate text and images in Word—but it is less intuitive. Third, PowerPoint themes allow the presentation to take on a slick and unified look, almost like a brochure. Each theme has a number of layouts associated with it so that each slide can be structured to accommodate the material for that slide while still having the same look as the rest of the presentation. Fourth, because each slide tends to encapsulate a complete idea, it is fairly easy to reorganize the deck to customize it for a new audience. There is even a slide sorter view to help with this task. PowerPoint also has some disadvantages as a report writer, as compared with Word. First, without text flow the presenter is tempted to fit each idea, no matter how complex, onto a single slide. Lack of text flow can lead to over abbreviation of complex concepts—sometimes with disastrous results. Second, PowerPoint resizes text automatically to fit on the slide. As you add words to a slide, the font shrinks in size so that all the text will fit. If the subsequent slide has fewer words, the text will be larger; if it has more words, the text will be smaller. Auto text resize leads to awkward differences in text size among slides—which does not look professional. To expand on the text resize point a little bit more, consider that memos and other office documents are normally set in around 11 point type. PowerPoint slides usually opt for at least 24 point type. The no man’s land between 11 point and 24 point might be around 16 to 18 point. This looks like the font of a children’s book, which is not professional. The example below shows the body text at both 12 point and 18 point. Both PowerPoint disadvantages—auto text resize, and one idea per slide—can be overcome. Some PowerPoint templates, such as Pitchbook, suppress text resize. With the font locked at 11 point, the writer can avoid a no man’s land 16 or 18 point font. Overcoming the text flow problem is harder. Our recommendation is that the writer create all content in Microsoft Word and then flow the content into PowerPoint. In fact that is how we created the slides below. 11 point (above) is good for a written report. 16 point (following) looks like the font in a children’s book. Does PowerPoint Corrupt Us? There is a third, more controversial, disadvantage of PowerPoint. Edward Tufte argues that PowerPoint encourages the pitching of ideas rather than dispassionate reflection. He cautions that when we pitch out, we corrupt within. In other words, if we tend to use a medium designed to sell ideas, rather than discuss them, we might lose our own objectivity to the detriment of our message—and our organization. Certainly there is some evidence for Tufte’s position. A quick look at the built in PowerPoint templates, reveals a decidedly marketing orientation. For example, there is a built in Pitchbook template, but there does not appear to be a built in “weigh all angles” template. Tufte terms the tendency to market and simplify ideas the cognitive style of PowerPoint. He is especially troubled by the use of bullets rather than complete sentences and paragraphs to convey information. Such presentations he argues should not circulate alone as though they are documents. He provides a compelling example of the dangers of PowerPoint reports with the Columbia Space Shuttle disaster. On February 1, 2003, the Columbia Space Shuttle disintegrated and burned up on reentry, when its heat shield was compromised by a foam hit 16 days earlier. The official presidential report faulted the way that the potential danger had been poorly communicated by Boeing using bulleted lists rather than paragraphs and complete sentences. Tufte goes on further to claim that for on screen presentations, PowerPoint should only be used as a slide projector to project images. Words should be supplied by the speaker. There is some truth to the slide projector position as we shall see in the next section. Having said that, however, perhaps Tufte’s remarks should be taken as a caution, rather than a condemnation of the PowerPoint medium. Having fewer words makes it more challenging to communicate, but does not preclude effective communication. Columbia Disaster On February 1, 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated upon re-entry to the earth’s atmosphere. All seven astronauts on board perished. The cause of the accident was a piece of hard foam insulation the size of a small briefcase and about the same weight as a basketball, which broke off the external fuel tank, slamming into the wing at 500 miles per hour during liftoff sixteen days earlier. The impact would be the equivalent of a 100 pound weight dropped from 200 feet in the air. NASA knew about the foam hit the day after liftoff. They asked the fuel tank manufacturer, Boeing, to analyze the foam hit. Boeing developed a computer program called Crater to analyze the effects of foam hits. The program was calibrated using the history of foam hits on previous flights. To be safe, Crater was programmed to over predict damage. As it happens, foam hits on prior launches were a regular occurrence. However, most of the foam pieces were tiny and put only minor chinks in the ceramic heat shield tiles. However, this piece of foam was much bigger. Nonetheless, NASA’s reading of the report back from Boeing was that there was no danger to Columbia. They took no further action. Unfortunately, the report back from Boeing took the form of a poorly designed PowerPoint deck. Edward Tufte presents a compelling case that one of the contributing factors in the Columbia Space Shuttle accident was this deck. The key slide from that deck appears on the following page. Tufte argues that PowerPoint encourages the type of sloppy writing that appears on the key slide. As you read the “Before” slide, it will appear that there is very little danger to Columbia. The title of the slide, “Review of Test Date Indicates Conservatism for Tile Penetration,” gives a false sense of reassurance. In fact, they are talking about the Crater program being conservative, not the projected damage to Columbia. Tufte feels that an author writing in complete sentences and paragraphs in a report would be less likely to be misunderstood. Maybe. However, we would argue that the real culprit is bad writing. Bad writing is bad writing whatever the medium of expression. To us, it appears that the authors of the slide were trying to sell the virtues of the Crater program rather than acknowledge its limitations. Selling has a place at the beginning of a presentation to engage the audience interest. However, selling should never be mixed with content. To make our point, we rewrote the key slide to remove the selling, express clearly what it really provides evidence for, and what it should have concluded. We believe that our rewrite would not have been similarly misunderstood.Tufte, Edward, The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint, Graphics Press, May 2003. The original Boeing slide (above) and the authors’ rewrite to clarify the material below. Lead off with your conclusion and then give evidence. Key Takeaways • Reports should use a font size around 11 point. • Disadvantages of PowerPoint include oversimplification of ideas, inconsistent font sizes, and a tendency to pitch rather than discuss ideas. Questions and Exercises 1. Does the abbreviated style of PowerPoint require even better writing? Explain.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/11%3A_Writing_the_Business_Case-_Design_a_Report_for_the_App/11.01%3A_Pros_and_Cons_of_PowerPoint.txt

Learning Objectives • Create a schematic report used in business communications • Make a business case to have investors or a bank provide development funds for your iPhone app • Integrate deliverables produced earlier in the course to help make the business case Report vs. Presentation A schematic report minimally contains the following elements. 1. Title page with author. 2. Executive summary: A summary analysis of the report with the key facts, issues, and conclusions. An executive should be able to get the gist of your entire report just by reading the executive summary. 3. Table of contents—with page numbers identifying section and second level headings only. 4. Introduction. 5. Body: that includes the analysis and recommendations (most of your report). To provide continuity the evidence should point back to the main argument. 6. Conclusion. The report may also include a letter of transmittal, references, and appendices. If a schematic report contains too much detail to be projected, what can you use for your presentation? The solution is to create two decks—a schematic report intended to be read and an accompanying presentation intended to be projected. The task is not as hard as it might seem. Schematic reports tend to be heavy on graphics. All of those graphics can be copied from the schematic report to the presentation report. Within the presentation, those graphics should be enlarged, perhaps to fill the entire screen. Key summary points can similarly be lifted from the schematic report while leaving the bulk of the text behind. The speaker will provide the gist of the text during the presentation. The two decks can even run in the same order so that the audience can follow along in the written report. Hopefully, Microsoft will one day modify PowerPoint so that it produces the presentation automatically from the schematic. Here is how it might work. The writer tags text and graphics from the schematic report that are intended for the presentation. PowerPoint automatically enlarges the tagged graphics to fill the screen. The tagged text is similarly enlarged to at least 24 point, then placed in a text box overlaying the illustration—like subtitles in a foreign movie. When the slide loads it could even begin with the slide from the schematic, which then morphs to become the presentation slide. Until Microsoft provides the transformation utility, we will have to create the presentation from the schematic ourselves. The easiest way to do this is by beginning with the schematic and then stripping it down to the graphics and key text, then enlarging those and arranging them on the screen. Page from schematic report (above), which matches the presentation slide (below). The key sentence from the schematic slide becomes the title of the presentation slide. The artwork is enlarged. Note that even the text in the artwork has been enlarged. Writing an Executive Summary Every schematic report leads off with an executive summary. An executive summary usually occupies one page and summarizes the key facts, issues, and conclusions of the report. A manager should be able to garner enough information from the executive summaryThere are many definitions of an executive summary—some are highly specific. We have chosen to go with one of the more general definitions modified from: smallbusinessdictionary.com to make a decision. The rest of the report is effectively backup if there are questions that arise from the executive summary. Many times a senior level manager will not even read past the executive summary. Rather they will assign one or more junior level managers to follow up on a subsection of the report. Looked at this way, the executive summary is obviously something that you want to spend a lot of time crafting—not a reluctant chore at the end of the process. The key to writing an executive summary is to get quickly to the point. We can actually tie the parts of the executive summary back to terms with which we are already familiar: • Key facts—what is the current state? What are enablers that will help with the proposed solution? • Issues—what are the barriers that would impede the proposed solution? • Conclusions—what is the report specifically recommending? What course of action should the reader take? One of the most common mistakes is to treat the executive summary as an introduction to the report. You will have an opportunity later to write a gentle introduction to the report, but not in the executive summary. Because our reports are relatively short, you probably will reference most sections in the executive summary. However, in a larger report, there may be entire foundation or due diligence sections not covered in the executive summary. That’s OK. You still need to do the due diligence to make your case. When deciding what to include simply ask yourself, would a manager need to know this to make a decision? An executive summary should highlight the key facts, issues, and conclusions of the report. The example above is pretty good, but it is missing the issues—what barriers are present that would prevent the proposed solution? Key Takeaways • You should prepare both a written report and a PowerPoint presentation rather than projecting the written report. • The most important part of your report may be the executive summary as that may be the only page a busy manager will read. Questions and Exercises 1. Write an executive summary of your decision process in choosing your university.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/11%3A_Writing_the_Business_Case-_Design_a_Report_for_the_App/11.02%3A_Schematic_Report.txt

Learning Objectives • Design a memorable PowerPoint presentation • Manipulate images and text to create a compelling business case presentation • Accurately characterize and use Presentation Zen principles Introduction PowerPoint presentations have become the standard method of presenting information in corporate America. This program is not only used in corporations; however, even professional sports teams and the military use PowerPoint to convey information internally. Yet, there are still those who claim that PowerPoint is one of the least effective forms of communication for many reasons: • Most presenters use slides with words only and yet very few words fit on a slide. • Presenters tend to cram an entire idea—no matter how complex—onto a single slide. • Most presentations are thrown together with limited preparation, and the goal of most presentations is to summarize and sell ideas rather than to engage the audience in serious discourse. • Slides are only displayed one at a time. Therefore, the audience has the difficult task of trying to remember what information appeared on previous slides. • Presenters tend to read their slides. • Presenters tend to look at the screen when reading the slides thereby avoiding eye contact with the audience. The result are presentations that are visually bland, intellectually insulting, and easily forgettable. During your college career, you will use PowerPoint for almost every class in which you or a group has to do a presentation. In this chapter, you will learn how to make those presentations great. Presentations should explain material clearly and concisely while also prompting the audience to take a certain course of action. A PowerPoint presentation should be a complement to your schematic report. In fact, you should be able to generate the PowerPoint presentation fairly quickly from your schematic report. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Presentation Content You need to determine the purpose of the presentation and possible circumstances or contexts in which the presentation might be given. This is a time to showcase your ideas and highlight all of the great things about your project. Be concise and powerful. This may be the most crucial deliverable of the project—especially if given to higher-ups who will have only skimmed the actual report. Think of your presentation as an illustrated version of the executive summary of your schematic report. If you look at it that way, you have already done the work! Each idea from your executive summary should correspond to a slide. Pull ideas out of your executive summary and illustrate them with exhibits from inside the report. Each illustration should be accompanied by a sentence. The sentence can come from the executive summary or from the relevant slide in the report. You may even find that in the process, you end up revising and improving your executive summary. Not every slide needs to be illustrated, and not every illustration needs to be included. A slide with a single sentence and no illustration may actually have great visual impact by contrast with the rest of the report. Furthermore, some of your illustrations may simply set up foundation knowledge or due diligence and need not make it to the presentation. To finish up, create slides that bookend your presentation with an agenda up front and a summary at the end. Follow the old adage, tell them what you are going to tell them, then tell them, then tell them what you told them. Here are some additional tips: 1. Master the content. 90% of the words that come out of your mouth will not be on the slide. You want the audience to look at you not the slide. Furthermore, if you know your content, you can look at the audience. If necessary, have note cards that you could refer to in an emergency. 2. Try to avoid handing out miniatures of your slides. Slides created using the method above will be virtually meaningless without the presenter. Hand out the schematic report or even just the executive summary instead. Depicting the process of moving from an executive summary to a PowerPoint presentation. Each sentence in your executive summary can form a slide heading (use your judgement). Then pull the images from your schematic report and enlarge them. Slide Design - Themes PowerPoint comes with many different themes to apply to your slides. In general, try to choose either a very light or a very dark colored background. Anything in between will wash out in a bright room. Themes cannot save a text heavy slide. It is still a boring slide and the speaker may feel obligated to read it to the audience. Many students turn to a dark background theme with the hope that it will convey more professionalism. However, as you can see, it doesn’t solve the problem of a boring slide. A better option is to move most of the words to your schematic report and instead make your point in a dramatic visual fashion. Visual slides take much longer to create but could differentiate your presentation from every other boring PowerPoint presentation making yours more persuasive. Slide Design - Principles You want your presentation to be professional and engaging. To get there you will need the C.R.A.P. principles you have already learned. You will also need stylistic enhancements that come under the heading of Presentation Zen. Finally a little (and we do mean little) multimedia—embedded video or subtle use of animation serves to spice up a presentation. The C.R.A.P. graphic design principles apply to slide design as well. Contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity help organize information on your slide, focus attention, and create an overall professional look and feel. Highly visual presentations with very few words are popularized by Garr Reynolds in his book, Presentation Zen. Reynolds advocates restraint, simplicity, and naturalness. The idea is that the slides naturally support your presentation rather than serving as a narrative. You are supposed to know your material. Presentation Zen slides are characterized by very large illustrations—often full page bleeds—and usually just one sentence of text. This is called the picture superiority effect—basically that pictures are more memorable than words. Three other Presentation Zen principles are to aim for a high signal to noise ratio, make good use of empty space, and align images using the rule of thirds. These will be covered next. Presentation Zen in action. Above a text heavy slide cannot be saved no matter which PowerPoint theme is applied. Below the key message of the slide is illustrated by a full page bleed of a picture of the damaged tiles of a previous shuttle flight. We also enlarge and crop the foam picture. Text is set in white on a black fill for contrast. Which slide do you find more interesting, and memorable? Images reprinted from NASA. High Signal to Noise Ratio: Inform, Don’t Decorate Every item on your slide should be there for a reason. You are trying to inform the reader and transfer information. You should not aim to decorate your slide with meaningless fluff. In technical terms you want a strong communication signal and very weak distracting noise in your slide. This is called a high signal to noise ratio. Normally, words, numbers, and graphs are your communications signal—the information you are trying to convey. Pictures can also be part of that signal if they are used judiciously—otherwise they become part of the noise. Our preference is for the top slide. With no distracting illustrations the audience can focus on the content. However, the illustration in the middle slide is calm enough so as to be acceptable. The bottom slide is just too busy—it has too much noise. Use of Empty Space: White Space Is Good! Resist the temptation to fill every available space on your slide with words or images. White space is good! White space is pleasing to the eye and can represent balance and harmony. However, too much white space might convey that you don’t have very much to say about a particular topic, or that it is not important. Again, it’s all about balance. The top slide makes good use of white space to let the image breathe. The bottom slide tries to use up all of the white space and in the process horribly distorts the slide. If it looks cartoonish, then don’t do it. Rule of Thirds One of the advantages of using a full page bleed is that the picture is often larger than the slide. This gives you the option of positioning and cropping the picture for maximum visual impact. For many years professional photographers have used the rule of thirds to compose a picture, and you can too. Simply divide the slide horizontally and vertically in thirds using the guides (see technique). The place where the lines meet are called “power points.” No lie. Try to place your subject whether words or images at the power points for maximum visual impact. This full page bleed was positioned and cropped so that the key illustrations and text would appear on the “power points” of the slide. The power points are determined by the rule of thirds. Fills for Text Blocks The problem with a full page bleed is that the text may be unreadable on top of the image depending on the image. One easy solution is to place the text on top of a fill. The fill may be solid (opaque) or semi-transparent if you would like the picture to show through. In either case, the fill allows you to add dimensionality to your document in much the same way that magazines layer text and graphics on their covers. The easiest way to create this effect is to create a layout on the master slide. Reposition the title so that it completely covers a strip at the top or bottom of the slide. Then right-click and format the text box adding a fill and adjusting the text color as necessary. To ensure consistency among slides, turn OFF the auto—fit text. Instead simply set the font size to 24 point. On individual slides you may have to arrange layers so that the text box sits on top rather than below the graphic. The same slide shown with black background text above and a 60% semi-transparent screen below. Presentation Zen Resources Check out the YouTube video below to see Garr himself present, and learn the essence of Presentation Zen. Watch Garr Reynolds present: www.youtube.com/watch?v=DZ2vtQCESpk Garr’s presentation tips on his website: http://www.garrreynolds.com/Presentation/slides.html Garr’s blog: Nancy Duarte, a colleague of Garr Reynolds, has written an excellent book called Slide:ology, which emphasizes similar design themes. Nancy’s firm, Duarte Design, created the multimedia presentation used by Al Gore in the movie, An Inconvenient Truth. Free Pictures Free pictures (and some for a fee) may be found at the following links. Please remember to cite sources. In addition, as a taxpayer, you may use pictures found on most government sites as long as you properly cite them. Key Takeaways • Used properly PowerPoint can be an effective means of communication. However, most of the time it is used improperly, thereby creating extreme boredom. • Think of your presentation as an illustrated version of your executive summary. By definition, your executive summary contains the key facts, issues, and conclusions of your report. • Bookend your presentation with an agenda and a summary with conclusions. • A PowerPoint theme will not save your presentation if the content is dull. • C.R.A.P., Presentation Zen, and a little animation will serve to liven up your presentation and give it a professional look. • Presentation Zen is characterized by many large illustrations, relatively little text, high signal to noise ratios, and effective use of white space. • The rule of thirds helps to position text and images on a slide. • You may need to modify your slide master to create an effective Presentation Zen design. Questions and Exercises 1. In what way do the Presentation Zen concepts help focus attention and preserve only the essential elements? Explain. L3 Assignment: Professional Presentation Development Develop professional presentation skills that you can use on the job as well as in your other classes. Setup Create a new PowerPoint presentation that complements your schematic report. Content and Style • Create an organized, clear, and polished presentation. • Follow all C.R.A.P. and Presentation Zen principles. • Create a title slide with your name and the date. • Create an agenda slide at the beginning and a summary and conclusions slide at the end. • The body of the presentation should consist of Presentation Zen slides—pictures with very few words. • Use the Office theme (plain white background). • Use full page bleeds for the visuals whenever possible. • Use a contrasting fill or semi transparent screen for text boxes. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the document electronically. Paper submission: Print handouts with two slides per page. Sample student presentation made from an executive summary. Sentences from the executive summary form the slide headings. Note the graphics are the same as from the schematic report—only enlarged.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/12%3A_Presenting_the_Business_Case-_Design_a_Presentation_for_the_App/12.01%3A_Designing_Presentations.txt

• 13.1: Cover Letters, Resumes, Interviews There are at least two situations in which you will need to provide a cover letter and resume. One is when applying for a job. However, when you apply for a business loan you may also be asked for a resume. After all the bank wants to gauge whether or not you have the experience and talent to make the business a success. 13: Establishing Credentials- Networking and Placement Learning Objectives • Manipulate type and alignment to reproduce a cover letter • Use design principles to reproduce a resume • Identify critical elements in cover letters, resumes, and responses to interview questions • Distinguish between traditional and behavioral based interview questions • Following design and content principles, create your own resume, cover letter, and responses to interview questions • Choose and successfully employ MS-Word techniques to solve a complex task Introduction There are at least two situations in which you will need to provide a cover letter and resume. One is when applying for a job. However, when you apply for a business loan you may also be asked for a resume. After all the bank wants to gauge whether or not you have the experience and talent to make the business a success. Your job is to summarize, highlight, and organize your experiences and skills so that it is easy for an employer or loan officer to see what you have to offer. There are guidelines available to help you format your resume and cover letter in an organized and effective manner. Even the most impressive professional experiences can come across poorly if they are displayed on an unorganized resume. Most of this chapter is written from the perspective of a job search. We have done this so that you will be able to reference the chapter upon graduation to look for a job. However, the same lessons are equally useful in applying for a loan for the purposes of our iPhone assignment. Initially, employers spend an average of less than one minute looking over a resume, so you need to sell yourself well by having a resume that stands apart from the rest. A resume is your first impression to a potential employer. During a job search, it is the most important tool you can use to get your foot in the door for an interview with a desired employer. This chapter will provide valuable guidelines to help you create a well-designed and organized resume and cover letter. Where Are We in the Life Cycle? Many information systems projects are conceived of in a life cycle that progresses in stages from analysis to implementation. The diagram below shows the stages that we touch in the current chapter: Creating a Cover Letter When sending a resume to an employer, it is often appropriate to include a cover letter. The purpose of a cover letter is to introduce yourself, explain your reason for contacting the employer, and to sell yourself as a desirable candidate for employment. Introduction A cover letter may be your first contact to an employer, or it could be a follow up from a previous meeting. If it is a follow up, remind the employer about your interaction to help him or her recall the original meeting. Reason for Contact A cover letter should explain your reason for contacting an employer. There are two types of cover letters: letters of inquiry and letters of application. A letter of inquiry is written when you want more information regarding potential job openings. A letter of application is written when you know specifically which position you would like to obtain and to inform an employer of your qualifications for employment. In both types of letters, you should include information that you already know about the employer and/or position and why you are interested in working for the company. This shows your interest and demonstrates that you have taken the time to research the company. Sell Yourself A cover letter should be used to sell yourself more effectively to a potential employer. In a resume, you have limited space to outline yourself and your experiences. In a cover letter, you have much more space to highlight your skills and what you can contribute to the company. You can use the letter to expand upon your best qualities or most important experiences or achievements. You can also emphasize information that directly relates to the position for which you are applying, furthering your chances for consideration. It also allows you to demonstrate your written communication skills. Writing and Printing a Cover Letter Cover letters should be personalized and should be prepared individually with each job application. They should be addressed to a specific person, not just a company or department. You can find employee addresses in directories on the company website or through a personal inquiry. CareerSearch®, is a web-based employer research system, and the VAULT Online Career Library are two other ways to research companies and find contact information. Cover letters should be no more than one page long and should be produced on the same paper as your resume and reference sheet. Also, be sure to double check grammar and spelling to avoid unprofessional errors, and use an organized and neat letter format. Creating a Resume A resume is an employer’s first impression of a potential employee. Before you start creating a resume, you will need to gather information concerning your skills and experiences and decide on a career goal. Content As you gain career experiences, you will need to update your resume. You may also want to tweak your resume for specific positions for which you are applying to include your knowledge and skills pertaining to that particular job. Though each copy of your resume that you hand out may differ slightly, most resumes need to have the same basic content. Contact Information A resume should contain your personal contact information so an employer can reach you for an interview. It should be displayed prominently toward the top of your resume and should include your name, address, phone number, a personal website (if you have one) and an e-mail address. Be sure that you use a professional e-mail address. Objective Including an objective on a resume is optional. If you decide not to include an objective, be sure to state this information in your cover letter. An objective should be clear, concise, and should state what you can do for an organization rather than what it can do for you. It should also be updated for each position or employer. Education In this section, list all academic information in reverse chronological order with the most recent listed first, including each school you have attended, graduation or expected graduation date, degree(s) earned and major(s), and your GPA (if it is over a 3.0). Work Experiences Work experience should also be listed in reverse chronological order and can include any volunteer positions, internships, co-ops, field or practicum experiences, and major class projects. For each listing, include the employer name and location, position title, dates of employment, and at least two points explaining your responsibilities. Relevant Courses You may list courses that apply directly to your career goals, but list the full course title rather than the abbreviation. Activities/Associations This section should include your extracurricular activities and interests. List any professional organizations, student organizations, athletic teams, or other clubs to which you belong. You may also include any honors or awards you have received or any professional workshops you have attended. Interviewing Guidelines Most people are familiar with traditional interviews and can anticipate what type of questions they will be asked in the interview process. Many companies are now using behavioral interview questions in order to discover an applicant’s skills and capabilities. Traditional Interviews In a traditional interview, applicants are asked about themselves and their experiences found on their resume. Possible questions include: • “Please tell me a little about yourself.” • “What are your strengths and weaknesses?” • “Why do you think you are the best candidate for this position?” Behavioral Interviews In a behavioral interview, the skills and characteristics desired for the chosen employee have already been decided, and the questions that will be asked will be based on those qualifications and will require interviewees to give specific examples of past experiences and how they have handled those situations. This helps the employer see how candidates are likely to perform in similar situations likely to occur in the new position. These questions may be interspersed in conversation or they may be in a set list of questions to be answered. An example question may be, “Describe a difficult problem that you tried to solve. How did you identify the problem and solve it?” What Employees Look for During an Interview Employers most commonly look for the following skill sets during an interview: • Problem solving • Leadership and teamwork • Dealing with ambiguity and conflict • Listening and communication skills • Showing creativity, assertiveness, and decisiveness • Demonstrating initiative, and determination How to Prepare for an Interview Before an interview, you can prepare by planning to answer possible questions that may be asked. Since no two interviews are alike, it is wise to prepare for both behavioral and traditional interview questions. By reading the position’s description, you can often get a sense of what types of questions will be asked and which of your skills you should be prepared to discuss. Also, be sure to review your resume before an interview to remind yourself of experiences you can talk about with the employer. Answering Behavior-Based Questions Employers who ask behavior-based questions want interviewees to describe specific projects, situations, or experiences that can apply to the open position. Before answering a behavior-based question, make sure you understand the question and do not be afraid to ask for clarification if something is vague or unclear. In each response, the interviewer is looking for three main things: • Problem or situation — describe the context of the situation • Action — explain what you did • Result — show the outcome or solution PAR Examples By including a problem or situation description, your actions, and a solution in your answer, you can respond to interview questions on PAR. Your responses will help the interviewer understand how you behaved in a certain scenario and determine if you would be a good fit for the open position. Below are two examples of complete and well-structured responses to behavioral interviews questions: “Please tell me about a time that you worked in a team where the work was not being shared among the members. How did you react to the situation?” P: I was working on a team with four others on a project in my Management capstone course. Our roles in the assignment were delegated by our group leader, and one member of our team wasn’t doing her portion of the work. Our group leader even confronted her during a group meeting, but she just shrugged and said she was trying, but I could tell she was embarrassed to talk about it. A: After our meeting, I suggested that she and I meet for coffee. I asked her how she felt about the project and how her section was coming along. She explained that she wasn’t confident about doing the research task she was given because she didn’t know how to use many of the resources that were required by our professor. She said she felt badly but was embarrassed to be singled out in front of the whole group. I told her that we could have a general discussion about the project tasks in the next group meeting so she wouldn’t be singled out. During that meeting, I suggested that everyone share their general strengths instead of weaknesses and encouraged everyone to participate. It turned out that her strength was editing and formatting, and the person formally responsible for that portion of the project had a knack for research, so they switched tasks. R: Because they were both more comfortable with their new responsibilities, they were happier and more productive. I learned from that experience that laziness isn’t always the reason that people don’t participate, and it’s important to find out what motivates people in order to help create a productive and cohesive team. “We don’t always agree with a professor’s evaluation of us. Tell me about a time when you disagreed with a particular professor’s evaluation. How did you handle the situation?” P: It was my third year here at the university. I was taking a speech class that required us to give five minute speeches in front of the class every other week. For my first speech, we were asked to evaluate our favorite Super Bowl commercial and explain why we felt it marketed so well to its audience. I was nervous during my presentation, but felt I covered everything I needed and that it went well. Afterward the presentation, the professor gave me a C+. I set up a meeting to speak with her the next day during office hours. A: She explained to me that I didn’t follow the necessary format for my presentation. She also mentioned that I could have made better eye contact and engaged my audience more. At this point, I felt since this was my first speech class that my approach and preparation for my speeches may not be working. I needed to make some adjustments to my presentation technique, and I started attending weekly help sessions with one of her teaching assistants. In addition to those sections, I asked my professor for some additional feedback prior to each presentation. R: I received an A on the very next presentation and every presentation afterward. I learned from this class that you always have to be open to adjusting your learning style as you take different classes during your time at the university. Key Takeaways • Interviews may be either traditional or behavioral. A traditional interview normally uses open ended questions that ask you to reflect on your abilities. A behavioral interview asks you to recall how you performed in specific situations. Many businesses are moving towards behavioral interviews on the theory that past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior. • Answer behavior based questions using the problem, action, result (PAR) method. • In a world where all resumes look about the same, applying graphic design principles can help your resume and cover letter stand out. Questions and Exercises 1. To what extent do online job posting services such as Monster.com let you preserve the formatting in your resume? Investigate two services and provide results. Techniques The following techniques, found in the Word section of the software reference, may be useful in completing the assignments for this chapter: Increase/Decrease Indent • Line spacing • Margins • Ruler • Tab-left • Tab-right • Text-align • Text-bullet • Text-format L1 Assignment: Cover Letter Design This exercise also helps you become more familiar with Word and how to format professional documents. At some point you will apply for a job. You will have to prepare a resume (the L2 exercise). However, for the personal touch often a cover letter is written to accompany the resume. Setup Download the file Cover Letter Before.doc from the class web site and save it to your folder. Start MS Word and open the file. Format the given cover letter so that it looks like the “After” example. Use the techniques on the following pages. Content and Style Recreate the After example so that your format and alignment is similar to the example. • Heading and spacing should be the same as the “After” cover letter. • Fill in any missing elements. • Add the greeting to the letter. • Add your name at the bottom and use a script font for your “signature.” In real life you would print out and sign the letter. • Be sure to use the current date to begin your letter. Deliverables Electronic Submission: Submit the “After” cover letter version electronically. Paper submission: Print the “After”document directly out of Word. L1 Assignment: Resume Design This exercise helps make sure that your resume goes in the “good” pile. Your resume is the number form of communication that you have to apply for a job. It has to be perfect to help present yourself well. Most resumes are viewed for less than a minute by recruiters. Setup Download the file Resume Before.doc and save it to your folder. Start MS Word and open the file. Format the given resume so that it looks like the “After” example. Use the techniques on the following pages. Content and Style Recreate the “After” example making sure that your alignment and spacing is similar to the example. Each heading level and text should be formatted CONSISTENTLY. • Add your name and your email address at the top of the page in place of Joe Bobcat’s. • To start: Set the margins to narrow. Then highlight the entire document (Ctrl + A) and place Left Tab Stops at 3/8″, 4/8″, and 5/8″ and a Right Tab stop at 7.5″. Each time you press the Tab key, the content will move to the next Tab stop. • Follow these guidelines for fonts. • Name: Choose a sans-serif font and make it very large. • Body text: Choose a serif font. • Category headings: Same sans-serif font as your name, 2 points larger than body text size, bold. • School/company name: Same sans-serif font as your name, body text size. • Position: Same sans-serif font, body text size, italicized. • Body Text: 10 pt or larger text size, Serif font. • Make sure there is one blank line between categories and after each employer section. • Make sure your e-mail address does not become hyperlinked (blue and underlined). If it does become hyperlinked, right click on your e-mail address and select Delete Hyperlink. Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the “After” resume version electronically. It should be only one page. Paper submission: Create a printout of your “After” resume. It should be only one page. L1 Assignment: Resume, Cover Letter, and Interview Customize a cover letter, resume, and answer interview questions to prepare for life outside of college. When you’re out looking for a job, you’ll need a resume (maybe several versions) and likely an individual cover letter for each position for which you apply. It is important that you always keep an updated version of your resume, constantly adding to it each time you get a new job, master a new skill, or anything else that could have an impact on your future career. You will also answer sample behavioral based interview questions in this assignment. Setup Create your resume and cover letter in two separate Word documents. Content and Style Create a resume and cover letter tailored to your ideal job or internship and answer behavior-based interview questions. You should have your contact information, school details, and work experience on your resume. The other categories that you choose to include are based on your experiences and career goals. You will be graded on both your content and formatting. An additional Word document should be submitted with answers to two behavioral-based questions, which will be graded on your clear and concise use of the PAR method. • The most important characteristic of your documents is professionalism. Spelling and grammar must be perfect, so make sure you proofread, and have someone else proofread for you. • Make sure to follow the formatting guidelines from the L1 and L2, although your content will obviously vary from the examples. • Your resume does not have to be in the same exact layout as the L2, but it should follow all of the guidelines in this chapter. • You can add and remove categories as your resume content demands. • You must create your own content for the cover letter. DO NOT COPY THE EXAMPLE IN THE L1. Create your own content in both the resume and cover letter. • If you only have one address, center align it on the resume • The cover letter should be addressed to a person. If you don’t know one, make up a name. • Make sure your e-mail address does not become hyperlinked (blue and underlined). If it does become hyperlinked right click on your e-mail address and select Delete Hyperlink. • Please answer any two of the following questions in a separate Word document. Follow the PAR method, and be sure to use your own experiences in your answers. • Tell me about a skill or technique you learned in school and how you have put that to use in real life. • How did you make the decision to attend your college or university? • Tell me about a time when a project was changed after you had already done a significant amount of work. How did you react? • From a student’s perspective, what is your definition of good performance? What do you do to perform up to that standard? • Describe a time you made a risky decision. What happened? Deliverables Electronic submission: Submit the resume, cover letter (“signed”), and interview answer documents –totaling three separate documents, electronically. Paper submission: Create a printout of your resume, cover letter, and interview answer document, and sign your cover letter with black or blue ink. 15.01: Dropbox Dropbox, Adobe Kuler Colors, Google Gmail, Sites, and Docs 19.01: Additional Font Categories There are several font categories in addition to serif and sans serif fonts that may be utilized. In earlier chapters, we discussed the difference between serif and sans serif fonts. However, as you might imagine, the story is far more complex than that. There are many more specific font categories. These categories are based on fonts that share certain characteristics. We consider five basic font classifications though there are more. To create contrast, mix fonts from different classifications. Never mix two fonts from the same category—it will look like a mistake. The classifications are adapted from Robin Williams and are shown here enlarged to highlight the differences. 19.02: Combining Fonts and Effects Combining fonts and effects can also be used to create different looks for fonts. Normally, this is done to create contrast and visual interest. The rule for combining fonts is very simple—you may combine fonts in a document as long as each font comes from a different category. For example any of the combinations on the opposing page will work. Want even more drama? Contrasting techniques may also be used in combination for dramatic effect. See examples on opposite page. Examples of Combining Fonts Examples of Combining Contrasting Techniques

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Information_Systems/Business_Information_Systems_-_Design_an_App_for_That/13%3A_Establishing_Credentials-_Networking_and_Placement/13.01%3A_Cover_Letters_Resumes_Interviews.txt