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The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were: The next twenty largest employers, , included:

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Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and [[Egg as food|eggs]], cattle, fish, plant nursery items, [[peanut]], cotton, grains such as [[Corn production in the United States|corn]] and [[sorghum]], vegetables, milk, [[soybean]], and peaches. Although known as "[[List of U.S. state nicknames|The Cotton State]]", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in [[Cotton production in the United States|national cotton production]], according to various reports, with [[Texas]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Mississippi]] comprising the top three.

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Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, [[lumber]], and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and [[apparel]]. In addition, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronics|electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, the location of [[NASA]]'s [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Materiel Command|U.S. Army Materiel Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]]. A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are [[Honda Manufacturing of Alabama]], [[Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], [[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]], and [[Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports. Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012. The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the [[Hyundai Elantra]] compact car, the [[Mercedes-Benz GL-Class]] sport utility vehicle and the [[Honda Ridgeline]] sport utility truck. Steel producers [[Outokumpu]], [[Nucor]], [[SSAB]], [[ThyssenKrupp]], and [[U.S. Steel]] have facilities in Alabama and employ more than 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected [[Calvert, Alabama|Calvert]] in [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]] for a 4.65billion combined [[stainless steel|stainless]] and [[carbon steel]] processing facility. ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012. The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by [[ArcelorMittal]] and [[Nippon Steel]] for $1.6billion in March 2013. [[Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional]] submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8billion. In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel. The [[Hunt Refining Company]], a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and [[Moundville, Alabama|Moundville]]. [[JVC|JVC America, Inc.]] operates an [[optical disc]] replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa. The [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company]] operates a large plant in [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] which employs about 1,400 people. It has been in operation since 1929. Construction of an [[Airbus A320 family]] aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by [[Airbus]] CEO [[Fabrice Brégier]] from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600million factory at the [[Brookley Aeroplex]] for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States. It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based [[Hoar Construction]] to oversee construction of the facility.

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According to [[Business Insider]], Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states to visit in 2014. An estimated 26 million tourists visited the state in 2017 and spent $14.3 billion, providing directly or indirectly 186,900 jobs in the state, which includes 362,000 International tourists spending $589 million. The state is home to various attractions, natural features, parks and events that attract visitors from around the globe, notably the annual [[Hangout Music Festival]], held on the public beaches of [[Gulf Shores, Alabama|Gulf Shores]]; the [[Alabama Shakespeare Festival]], one of the ten largest [[Shakespeare festival]] in the world; the [[Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail]], a collection of championship caliber golf courses distributed across the state; casinos such as [[Victoryland]]; amusement parks such as [[Alabama Splash Adventure]]; the [[Riverchase Galleria]], one of the largest shopping centers in the southeast; [[Guntersville Lake]], voted the best lake in Alabama by [[Southern Living]] Magazine readers; and the [[Alabama Museum of Natural History]], the oldest museum in the state. Mobile is known for having the oldest organized [[Mardi Gras in Mobile, Alabama|Mardi Gras]] celebration in the United States, beginning in 1703. It was also host to the first formally organized Mardi Gras parade in the United States in 1830, a tradition that continues to this day. Mardi Gras is an official state holiday in [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] and [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] counties. In 2018, Mobile's [[Mardi Gras in Mobile, Alabama|Mardi Gras parade]] was the state's top event, producing the most tourists with an attendance of 892,811. The top attraction was the [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]] in Huntsville with an attendance of 849,981, followed by the [[Birmingham Zoo]] with 543,090. Of the parks and natural destinations, Alabama's Gulf Coast topped the list with 6,700,000 visitors. Alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments. Movies filmed in Alabama include: [[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]], [[Get Out]], [[42 (film)|42]], [[Selma (film)|Selma]], [[Big Fish]], [[The Final Destination]], [[Due Date]], [[Need For Speed (film)|Need For Speed]] and many more.

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[[UAB Hospital]], [[University of South Alabama|USA Health University Hospital]], [[Huntsville Hospital System|Huntsville Hospital]], and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only [[trauma center|LevelI trauma centers]] in Alabama. UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000. A 2017 study found that Alabama had the least competitive health insurance market in the country, with [[Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama]] having a market share of 84% followed by [[UnitedHealth Group]] at 7%.

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[[Regions Financial Corporation]] and [[BBVA USA]] Bank are the largest banks headquartered in Alabama. Birmingham-based Compass Bancshares was acquired by Spanish-based [[BBVA]] in September 2007 with the headquarters of BBVA USA remaining in Birmingham. In November 2006, Regions Financial acquired [[AmSouth Bancorporation]], which was also headquartered in Birmingham. [[SouthTrust Corporation]], another large bank headquartered in Birmingham, was acquired by [[Wachovia]] in 2004. [[Wells Fargo]] has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $400million data center in Birmingham. Many smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham area, including [[ServisFirst]] and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including [[Harbert Management Corporation]].

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Telecommunications provider [[AT&T Inc.|AT&T]], formerly [[BellSouth]], has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham. Many commercial technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as network access company [[ADTRAN]], computer graphics company [[Intergraph]], and IT infrastructure company [[Avocent]].

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Rust International has grown to include [[Brasfield & Gorrie]], [[BE&K]], [[Hoar Construction]], and [[B.L. Harbert International]], which all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. (Rust International was acquired in 2000 by [[Washington Group International]], which was in turn acquired by San-Francisco based [[URS Corporation]] in 2007.)

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The foundational document for Alabama's government is the [[Alabama Constitution]], which was ratified in 1901. At almost 800 amendments and 310,000 words, it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the [[United States Constitution]]. There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution. Critics argue that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length intentionally codify segregation and racism. Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The [[legislative branch]] is the [[Alabama Legislature]], a [[bicameral]] assembly composed of the [[Alabama House of Representatives]], with 105 members, and the [[Alabama Senate]], with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] currently holds a majority in both houses of the [[Alabama Legislature|Legislature]]. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto). Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle of "[[one man, one vote]]", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses (as the state already included in its constitution but had not implemented.) Further, the court ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems. At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments. The [[executive branch]] is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the [[governor of Alabama]]. Other members of the executive branch include the cabinet, the [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Alabama|lieutenant governor of Alabama]], the [[Attorney General of Alabama]], the [[Alabama Secretary of State]], the [[Alabama State Treasurer]], and the [[State Auditor of Alabama]]. The current governor is [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Kay Ivey]]. The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January.

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The [[Judiciary|judicial branch]] is responsible for interpreting the state's [[Alabama Constitution|Constitution]] and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The [[State supreme court|state's highest court]] is the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]]. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized. The current [[chief justice]] of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican [[Tom Parker (judge)|Tom Parker]]. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate [[appellate court]], the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four [[trial court]]: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts. Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions. Alabama has the highest per capita [[Capital punishment in Alabama|death penalty rate]] in the country. In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does [[Texas]], a state which has a population five times larger. However, executions per capita are significantly higher in Texas. Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases. It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of [[life imprisonment without parole]] (LWOP) that were voted unanimously by juries. This judicial authority was removed in April 2017.

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Taxes are collected by the [[Alabama Department of Revenue]]. Alabama levies a 2, 4, or5 percent [[State income tax|personal income tax]], depending on the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their [[Income tax in the United States|federal income tax]] from their Alabama state tax, even if taking the [[standard deduction]]; those who itemize can also deduct [[Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax|FICA]] (the Social Security and Medicare tax). The state's general sales tax rate is 4%. Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases. For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means a diner in Mobile would pay an 11% tax on a meal. , sales and excise taxes in Alabama account for 51% of all state and local revenue, compared with an average of about 36% nationwide. Alabama is one of seven states that levy a tax on food at the same rate as other goods, and one of two states (the other being neighboring Mississippi) which fully taxes groceries without any offsetting relief for low-income families. (Most states exempt groceries from sales tax or apply a lower tax rate.) Alabama's income tax on poor working families is among the highest in the U.S. Alabama is the only state that levies income tax on a family of four with income as low as $4,600, which is barely one-quarter the federal poverty line. Alabama's threshold is the lowest among the 41 states and the District of Columbia with income taxes. The corporate income tax rate is currently 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country. [[Property tax]] are the lowest in the U.S. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes. Since Alabama's tax structure largely depends on consumer spending, it is subject to high variable budget structure. For example, in 2003, Alabama had an annual budget deficit as high as $670million.

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Alabama has 67 [[county (United States)|counties]]. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission. It also has limited executive authority in the county. Because of the constraints of the [[Alabama Constitution]], which centralizes power in the state legislature, only seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have limited [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning. The state legislature has retained power over local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing [[home rule]] for counties, as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission. Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county. United States Supreme Court decisions in ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'' (1964) required that both houses have districts established on the basis of population, and redistricted after each census, to implement the principle of "one man, one vote". Before that, each county was represented by one state senator, leading to under-representation in the state senate for more urbanized, populous counties. The rural bias of the state legislature, which had also failed to redistrict seats in the state house, affected politics well into the 20th century, failing to recognize the rise of industrial cities and urbanized areas. "The lack of home rule for counties in Alabama has resulted in the proliferation of local legislation permitting counties to do things not authorized by the state constitution. Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times, and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature, applying to only one county or city. A significant part of each legislative session is spent on local legislation, taking away time and attention of legislators from issues of statewide importance." Alabama is an [[alcoholic beverage control state]], meaning the state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. The [[Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board]] controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state. A total of 25 of the 67 counties are "[[Dry county|dry counties]]" which ban the sale of alcohol, and there are many dry municipalities in counties which permit alcohol sales.

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During [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In 1874, the political coalition of white Democrats known as the [[Redeemers]] took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the black vote through violence, fraud and intimidation. After 1890, a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000. The total effects were greater on the black community, as almost all its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law. From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas. As counties were the basis of election districts, the result was a rural minority that dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters of the century, until a series of federal court cases required redistricting in 1972 to meet equal representation. Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the [[civil rights movement]], when whites bureaucratically, and at times violently, resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Governor [[George Wallace]], the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation. Only after passage of the federal [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage, among other civil rights. In many jurisdictions, they continued to be excluded from representation by [[at-large]] electoral systems, which allowed the majority of the population to dominate elections. Some changes at the county level have occurred following court challenges to establish [[single-member districts]] that enable a more diverse representation among county boards. In 2007, the [[Alabama Legislature]] passed, and Republican governor [[Bob Riley]] signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the [[Alabama State Capitol]], which housed Congress of the [[Confederate States of America]]. In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years. , there are a total of 3,326,812 registered voters, with 2,979,576 active, and the others inactive in the state.

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With the [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchisement of Blacks]] in 1901, the state became part of the "[[Solid South]]", a system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state. For nearly a hundred years local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party [[primary election|primary]], with generally only token [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] challengers running in the General Election. Since the mid- to late 20th century, however, white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party. In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office. Members of the nine seats on the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]] and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats. In that general election, the then-incumbent chief justice, [[Ernest C. Hornsby]], refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican [[Perry O. Hooper Sr.]] Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench. In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the [[Political party strength in Alabama|statewide elected executive]] branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the [[Alabama State Board of Education]]. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission was defeated in 2012. Only three Republican lieutenant governors have been elected since the end of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated [[Freedman|freedmen]] who had gained the franchise. The three GOP lieutenant governors are [[Steve Windom]] (1999–2003), [[Kay Ivey]] (2011–2017), and [[Will Ainsworth]] (2019–present).

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Many local offices (county commissioners, boards of education, tax assessors, tax collectors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats. Many rural counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly many metropolitan and suburban counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary, although there are exceptions. Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan, [[at-large]] races, and Democrats still retain the narrow majority of those posts. The current split is 35 [[Alabama Democratic Party|Democrats]], 31 [[Alabama Republican Party|Republicans]], and one Independent Fayette. However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over rural and less populated counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties. , the state of Alabama has one female sheriff, in [[Morgan County, Alabama]], and ten African-American sheriffs.

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The state's two [[United States Senate|U.S. senators]] are Republican [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] and Republican [[Tommy Tuberville]]. Shelby was originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1986 and re-elected in 1992, but switched parties immediately following the November 1994 general election. In the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], the state is represented by seven members, six of whom are Republicans: ([[Bradley Byrne]], [[Mike D. Rogers]], [[Robert Aderholt]], [[Morris J. Brooks]], [[Martha Roby]], and [[Gary Palmer (politician)|Gary Palmer]]) and one Democrat: [[Terri Sewell]] who represents the [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] as well as most of the predominantly black portions of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] and [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]].

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Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the purview of the [[Alabama State Board of Education]] as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students. Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007, more than 82 percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National [[No Child Left Behind]] law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama. While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data (2000), Alabama's high school graduation rate (75%) is the fourth lowest in the U.S. (after [[Kentucky]], [[Louisiana]] and [[Mississippi]]). The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees. Generally prohibited in the West at large, [[school corporal punishment]] is not unusual in Alabama, with 27,260 public school students [[paddle (spanking)|paddled]] at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year. The rate of school corporal punishment in Alabama is surpassed by only Mississippi and Arkansas.

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Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are four medical schools (as of fall 2015) ([[University of Alabama School of Medicine]], [[University of South Alabama]] and [[Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine]] and The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine—Auburn Campus), two veterinary colleges ([[Auburn University]] and [[Tuskegee University]]), a dental school ([[University of Alabama School of Dentistry]]), an optometry college ([[University of Alabama at Birmingham]]), two pharmacy schools ([[Auburn University]] and [[Samford University]]), and five law schools ([[University of Alabama School of Law]], [[Birmingham School of Law]], [[Cumberland School of Law]], [[Miles Law School]], and the [[Thomas Goode Jones School of Law]]). Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the [[Alabama Commission on Higher Education]] and the [[Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education]]. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs. The largest single campus is the [[University of Alabama]], located in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]], with 37,665 enrolled for fall 2016. [[Troy University]] was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses ([[Troy, Alabama|Troy]], [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]], [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], and [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]]), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public [[University of North Alabama]] in [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] and the Catholic Church-affiliated [[Spring Hill College]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], both founded in 1830. Accreditation of academic programs is through the [[Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]] (SACS) as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the [[Association for Biblical Higher Education]] (ABHE), the [[Council on Occupational Education]] (COE), and the [[Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools]] (ACICS). According to the 2011 ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'', Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America (University of Alabama at 31, [[Auburn University]] at 36, and [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] at 73). According to the 2012 ''U.S. News & World Report'', Alabama had four [[College and university rankings|tier one]] universities ([[University of Alabama]], [[Auburn University]], [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] and [[University of Alabama in Huntsville]]).

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Major newspapers include ''[[The Birmingham News|Birmingham News]]'', Mobile ''[[Press-Register]]'', and ''[[Montgomery Advertiser]]''. Major television network affiliates in Alabama include: (-) [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] (-) [[WBMA-LD|WGWW]] 40.2 ABC, [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] (-) [[WBMA-LD|WBMA 58]]/[[WABM|WABM 68.2]] ABC, [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] (-) [[WDHN]] 18 ABC, [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] (-) [[WAAY-TV|WAAY]] 31 ABC, [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] (-) [[WEAR-TV|WEAR]] 3 ABC [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola, FL]]/Mobile (-) [[WNCF]] 32 ABC, [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] (-) [[WBMA-LD|WDBB]] 17.2 ABC, [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] (-) [[CBS]] (-) [[WIAT]] 42 CBS, Birmingham (-) [[WTVY (TV)|WTVY]] 4 CBS, Dothan (-) [[WHNT]] 19 CBS, Huntsville (-) [[WKRG]] 5 CBS, Mobile (-) [[WAKA]] 8 CBS, [[Selma, Alabama|Selma]]/Montgomery (-) [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] (-) [[WBRC]] 6 FOX, Birmingham (-) [[WZDX]] 54 FOX, Huntsville (-) [[WALA]] 10 FOX, Mobile (-) [[WCOV-TV|WCOV]] 20 FOX, Montgomery (-) [[WDFX-TV|WDFX]] 34 FOX, [[Ozark, Alabama|Ozark]]/Dothan (-) [[NBC]] (-) [[WVTM]] 13 NBC, Birmingham (-) [[WRGX-LD|WRGX]] 23 NBC, Dothan (-) [[WAFF (TV)|WAFF]] 48 NBC, Huntsville (-) [[WPMI]] 15 NBC, Mobile (-) [[WSFA]] 12 NBC, Montgomery (-) [[PBS]]/[[Alabama Public Television]] (-) WBIQ 10 PBS, Birmingham (-) WIIQ 41 PBS, [[Demopolis, Alabama|Demopolis]] (-) WDIQ 2 PBS, [[Dozier, Alabama|Dozier]] (-) WFIQ 36 PBS, [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] (-) WHIQ 25 PBS, Huntsville (-) WGIQ 43 PBS, [[Louisville, Alabama|Louisville]] (-) WEIQ 42 PBS, Mobile (-) WAIQ 26 PBS, Montgomery (-) WCIQ 7 PBS, [[Mount Cheaha]] (-) [[The CW]] (-) [[WTTO]] 21, Homewood/Birmingham (-) [[WTVY (TV)|WTVY]] 4.3, Dothan (-) [[WHDF]] 15, Florence/Huntsville (-) [[WFNA (TV)|WFNA]] 55, [[Gulf Shores, Alabama|Gulf Shores]]/Mobile/Pensacola, FL (-) [[WDBB]] 17, Tuscaloosa (-) [[WBMM]] 22, [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]]/Montgomery

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College football is extremely popular in Alabama, particularly the [[University of Alabama]] [[Alabama Crimson Tide|Crimson Tide]] and [[Auburn University]] [[Auburn Tigers|Tigers]], rivals in the [[Southeastern Conference]]. In the 2013 season, Alabama averaged over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averaged over 80,000—both numbers among the top twenty in the nation. Bryant–Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a [[seating capacity]] of 101,821, and is the fifth largest stadium in America. Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451. Legion Field is home for the [[UAB Blazers]] football program and the [[Birmingham Bowl]]. It seats 71,594. [[Ladd–Peebles Stadium]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] is the home of the [[University of South Alabama]] football team, and serves as the home of the NCAA [[Senior Bowl]], [[Dollar General Bowl]] (formerly GoDaddy.com Bowl), and Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic; the stadium seats 40,646. In 2009, Bryant–Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the [[Alabama High School Athletic Association]] state football championship games, after previously being held at Legion Field in Birmingham.

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Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including three [[minor league baseball]] teams. (-) Notes The [[Talladega Superspeedway]] motorsports complex hosts a series of [[NASCAR]] events. It has a [[seating capacity]] of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Also, the [[Barber Motorsports Park]] has hosted [[IndyCar Series]] and [[Rolex Sports Car Series]] races. The [[ATP Birmingham]] was a [[World Championship Tennis]] tournament held from 1973 to 1980. Alabama has hosted several professional golf tournaments, such as the 1984 and 1990 [[PGA Championship]] at [[Shoal Creek Golf and Country Club|Shoal Creek]], the [[Barbasol Championship]] ([[PGA Tour]]), the [[Mobile LPGA Tournament of Champions]], [[Airbus LPGA Classic]], and [[Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic]] ([[LPGA Tour]]), and [[The Tradition]] ([[Champions Tour]]).

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Major airports with sustained operations in Alabama include [[Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport]] (BHM), [[Huntsville International Airport]] (HSV), [[Dothan Regional Airport]] (DHN), [[Mobile Regional Airport]] (MOB), [[Montgomery Regional Airport]] (MGM), [[Northwest Alabama Regional Airport]] (MSL) and [[Northeast Alabama Regional Airport]] (GAD).

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For rail transport, [[Amtrak]] schedules the ''[[Crescent (train)|Crescent]]'', a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with station stops at [[Anniston station|Anniston]], [[Birmingham station (Alabama)|Birmingham]], and [[Tuscaloosa station|Tuscaloosa]].

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Alabama has six major interstate routes: [[Interstate 65 in Alabama|Interstate 65]] (I-65) travels north–south roughly through the middle of the state; [[Interstate 20 in Alabama|I-20]]/[[Interstate 59 in Alabama|I-59]] travel from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards [[Atlanta]]; [[Interstate 85 in Alabama|I-85]] originates in Montgomery and travels east-northeast to the Georgia state line, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and [[Interstate 10 in Alabama|I-10]] traverses the southernmost portion of the state, traveling from west to east through Mobile. [[Interstate 22 in Alabama|I-22]] enters the state from [[Mississippi]] and connects Birmingham with [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: [[Interstate 165 (Alabama)|I-165]] in Mobile, [[Interstate 359|I-359]] in Tuscaloosa, [[Interstate 459|I-459]] around Birmingham, [[Interstate 565|I-565]] in Decatur and Huntsville, and [[Interstate 759|I-759]] in Gadsden. A sixth route, [[Interstate 685|I-685]], will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as [[Interstate 422|I-422]]. Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible, [[Interstate 222|I-222]] has been proposed, as well. Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as [[U.S. Route 11 in Alabama|U.S. Route 11]] (US-11), [[U.S. Route 29 in Alabama|US-29]], [[U.S. Route 31 in Alabama|US-31]], [[U.S. Route 43 in Alabama|US-43]], [[U.S. Route 45 in Alabama|US-45]], [[U.S. Route 72 in Alabama|US-72]], [[U.S. Route 78 in Alabama|US-78]], [[U.S. Route 80 in Alabama|US-80]], [[U.S. Route 82 in Alabama|US-82]], [[U.S. Route 84 in Alabama|US-84]], [[U.S. Route 90 in Alabama|US-90]], [[U.S. Route 98 in Alabama|US-98]], [[U.S. Route 231 in Alabama|US-231]], [[U.S. Route 278 in Alabama|US-278]], [[U.S. Route 280 in Alabama|US-280]], [[U.S. Route 331 in Alabama|US-331]], [[U.S. Route 411 in Alabama|US-411]], and [[U.S. Route 431 in Alabama|US-431]]. There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]; Northport/Tuscaloosa Western Bypass in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] and [[Northport, Alabama|Northport]]; Emerald Mountain Expressway in [[Wetumpka, Alabama|Wetumpka]]; and Beach Express in [[Orange Beach, Alabama|Orange Beach]].

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The [[Port of Mobile]], Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]] with inland waterway access to the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] by way of the [[Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway]]. The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009. The newly expanded [[container terminal]] at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011. The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico. Water ports of Alabama, listed from north to south:

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In [[Greek mythology]], '''Achilles''' ( ) or '''Achilleus''' (, ) was a hero of the [[Trojan War]], the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and is the central character of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. He was the son of the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]] and [[Peleus]], king of [[Phthia]]. Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince [[Hector]] outside the gates of [[Troy]]. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the ''Iliad'', other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with [[Statius]]' unfinished epic ''[[Achilleid]]'', written in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel, because when his mother [[Thetis]] dipped him in the river [[Styx]] as an infant, she held him by one of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term "[[Achilles' heel]]" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The [[Achilles tendon]] is also named after him due to these legends.

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[[Linear B]] tablets attest to the personal name ''Achilleus'' in the forms ''a-ki-re-u'' and ''a-ki-re-we'', the latter being the [[dative case|dative]] of the former. The name grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (''Achilleía''), attested in [[Attica]] in the fourth century BC ([[Inscriptiones Graecae|IG]] II² 1617) and, in the form ''Achillia'', on a [[Female gladiator#Halicarnassus|stele in Halicarnassus]] as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon". Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of ('''') "distress, pain, sorrow, grief" and ('''') "people, soldiers, nation", resulting in a proto-form ''*Akhí-lāu̯os'' "he who has the people distressed" or "he whose people have distress". The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the ''Iliad'' (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of '''' ("glory", usually in war). Furthermore, ''laós'' has been construed by [[Gregory Nagy]], following [[Leonard Palmer]], to mean "a corps of soldiers", a [[muster (military)|muster]]. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. Another etymology relates the name to a [[Proto-Indo-European]] [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] ''*h₂eḱ-pṓds'' "sharp foot" which first gave an [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] ''*āk̂pediós'', evolving through time into ''*ākhpdeós'' and then ''*akhiddeús''. The shift from ''-dd-'' to ''-ll-'' is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a [[Pre-Greek]] source. The first root part ''*h₂eḱ-'' "sharp, pointed" also gave Greek ἀκή (''akḗ'' "point, silence, healing"), ἀκμή (''akmḗ'' "point, edge, zenith") and ὀξύς (''oxús'' "sharp, pointed, keen, quick, clever"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root ''*h₂egʰ-'' "to be upset, afraid". The whole expression would be comparable to the [[Latin]] ''acupedius'' "swift of foot". Compare also the Latin word family of ''aciēs'' "sharp edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement", ''acus'' "needle, pin, bodkin", and ''acuō'' "to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to arouse" (whence ''acute''). Some [[Literary topos|topical]] [[epitheta]] of Achilles in the ''Iliad'' point to this "swift-footedness", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς (''podárkēs dĩos Achilleús'' "swift-footed divine Achilles") or, even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς (''pódas ōkús Achilleús'' "quick-footed Achilles"). Some researchers deem the name a [[loan word]], possibly from a [[Pre-Greek]] language. Achilles' descent from the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]] and a similarity of his name with those of [[Potamoi|river deities]] such as [[Acheron]] and [[Achelous]] have led to speculations about his being an old [[Greek sea gods|water divinity]] (see below [[Achilles#Worship|Worship]]). [[Robert S. P. Beekes]] has suggested a [[Pre-Greek]] origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of ''-λλ-'' and ''-λ-'' in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l/ in the original language.

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Achilles was the son of the [[Thetis]], a [[nereid]], and [[Peleus]], the king of the [[Myrmidons]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for Thetis's hand in marriage until [[Prometheus]], the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by [[Themis]], goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus. There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the ''[[Argonautica]]'' (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife [[Hera]] alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god [[Nereus]], was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal. According to the ''[[Achilleid]]'', written by [[Statius]] in the 1st century AD, and to [[Lost works|non-surviving previous sources]], when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river [[Styx]]; however, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel (see [[Achilles' heel]], [[Achilles' tendon]]). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the ''Iliad'', Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the [[Paeonian]] hero [[Asteropaeus]], son of [[Pelagon]], challenged Achilles by the river [[Scamander]]. He was ambidextrous, and cast a spear from each hand; one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood". In the few fragmentary poems of the [[Epic Cycle]] which describe the hero's death (i.e. the ''[[Cypria]]'', the ''[[Little Iliad]]'' by [[Lesches]] of Pyrrha, the ''[[Aithiopis]]'' and ''[[Iliou persis]]'' by [[Arctinus of Miletus]]), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel. In the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso. Peleus entrusted Achilles to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], who lived on [[Mount Pelion]], to be reared. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia with his companion [[Patroclus]].

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According to [[Photius]], the sixth book of the ''New History'' by [[Ptolemy Hephaestion]] reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus. When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the [[Damysus (Giant)|Damysus]], who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot.

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Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following: (-) '''Pyrisous''', "saved from the fire", his first name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned by his mother Thetis (-) '''Aeacides''', from his grandfather [[Aeacus]] (-) '''Aemonius''', from Aemonia, a country which afterwards acquired the name of Thessaly (-) '''Aspetos''', "inimitable" or "vast", his name at [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] (-) '''Larissaeus''', from [[Larissa]] (also called Cremaste), a town of Thessaly, which still bears the same name (-) '''Ligyron''', his original name (-) '''Nereius''', from his mother Thetis, one of the [[Nereid]] (-) '''Pelides''', from his father, [[Peleus]] (-) '''Phthius''', from his birthplace, [[Phthia]] (-) '''Podarkes''', “swift-footed”, due to the wings of Arke being attached to his feet.

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Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]]. There, Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamia (mythology)|Deidamia]], whom in the account of Statius he raped, Achilles there fathered two sons, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias) and Oneiros. According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewellery and placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women. While the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.

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According to the ''Iliad'', Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 [[Myrmidons]]. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, [[Eudoros|Eudorus]], Peisander, [[Phoenix (son of Amyntor)|Phoenix]] and Alcimedon.

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When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy. According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' [[lost works|lost play]] about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis (ancient Greece)|Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.

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According to the ''[[Cypria]]'' (the part of the [[Epic Cycle]] that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of [[Aeneas]], sacked neighbouring cities (like [[Pedasus]] and [[Lyrnessus]], where the Greeks capture the queen [[Briseis]]) and killed [[Tenes]], a son of [[Apollo]], as well as Priam's son [[Troilus]] in the sanctuary of [[Apollo]] [[Thymbra]]; however, the romance between Troilus and [[Chryseis]] described in [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' and in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'' is a medieval invention. In [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'', the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King [[Priam]]'s and [[Hecuba]]'s five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a "horse fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister [[Polyxena]], and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo [[Thymbra]]. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the [[First Vatican Mythographer]] claimed, Troy would have been invincible; however, the motif is older and found already in [[Plautus]]' [[Bacchides (play)|''Bacchides'']].

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Homer's ''Iliad'' is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, ''mênis Achilléōs'') is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read: The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by [[Agamemnon]], the commander of the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaean]] forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named [[Chryseis]] as his slave. Her father [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo]], begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet [[Calchas]] correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize [[Briseis]], the daughter of [[Briseus]], be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles [[Homeric prayer|prays]] to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour. As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends [[Odysseus]] and two other chieftains, [[Ajax the Great|Ajax]] and [[Phoenix (son of Amyntor)|Phoenix]]. They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do. The Trojans, led by [[Hector]], subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, [[Patroclus]] leads the [[Myrmidons]] into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from [[Antilochus]], the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades [[Hephaestus]] to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the [[Shield of Achilles]], described in great detail in the poem.

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Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god [[Scamander]], who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by [[Hera]] and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before [[Athena]], in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, [[Deiphobus]], persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion. At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog ([[Sirius]]); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to [[Hesperus]], the evening/western star ([[Venus]]), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until [[Phosphorus (morning star)|Phosphorus]], the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended). With the assistance of the god [[Hermes]] (Argeiphontes), Hector's father [[Priam]] goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of [[Niobe]]'s offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.

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The ''[[Aethiopis]]'' (7th century BC) and a work named ''[[Posthomerica]]'', composed by [[Quintus of Smyrna]] in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the [[Trojan War]]. When [[Penthesilea]], queen of the [[Amazons]] and daughter of [[Ares]], arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her. Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son [[Antilochus]] becomes Achilles' closest companion. When [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], son of the Dawn Goddess [[Eos]] and king of [[Ethiopia (mythology)|Ethiopia]], slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the ''Iliad''s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the [[Epic Cycle|cyclic epic]] ''[[Aethiopis]]'', which was composed after the ''Iliad'', possibly in the 7th century BC. The ''Aethiopis'' is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.

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The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the ''Iliad'', it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations. Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the ''Iliad'' that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from [[classical antiquity]] to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BCE Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek custom of ''paiderasteia'']]. In Plato's ''Symposium'', the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexual]], and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.

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The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. In the oldest version, the ''Iliad'', and as predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought about by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god [[Apollo]] guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. After death, Achilles' bones were mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games were held. He was represented in the ''Aethiopis'' as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the river [[Danube]]. Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, [[Polyxena]]. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. In the ''Odyssey'', Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his [[mound]] at the [[Hellespont]] while they are receiving the dead [[Suitors of Penelope|suitors]] in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. Paris was later killed by [[Philoctetes]] using the enormous bow of [[Heracles]]. In Book 11 of Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. According to some accounts, he had married [[Medea]] in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the [[Elysium|Elysian Fields]] of [[Hades]] – as Hera promised Thetis in [[Apollonius of Rhodes|Apollonius]]' ''[[Argonautica]]'' (3rd century BC).

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Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Ajax the Great|Telamonian Ajax]] (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men's presentations, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to [[Neoptolemus]], the son of Achilles. When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (''Odyssey'' 11.543–566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of [[Phaselis]], Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BCE by [[Alexander the Great]], who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the ''Iliad'' with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] in the 2nd century CE.

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Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and [[Ajax the Great|Ajax]] were playing a [[board game]] (''petteia''). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.

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The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in [[Troad]], was venerated by [[Thessalians]], but also by [[Persians|Persian]] expeditionary forces, as well as by [[Alexander the Great]] and the Roman emperor [[Caracalla]]. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of [[Astypalaea]] in the [[Sporades]], in [[Sparta]] which had a sanctuary, in [[Elis]] and in Achilles' homeland [[Thessaly]], as well as in the [[Magna Graecia]] cities of [[Taranto|Tarentum]], [[Locri]] and [[Crotone|Croton]], accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero. The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BCE [[Polyxena sarcophagus]], which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles. [[Strabo]] (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad: The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the [[Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea|Greeks]] that had [[Second Greek colonisation|settled]] on the northern coast of the [[Pontus Euxinus]], today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the [[Miletus|Milesian]] colony of [[Olbia (archaeological site)|Olbia]] as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|Snake Island]] ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] Зміїний, ''Zmiinyi'', near [[Kiliya]], [[Ukraine]]). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the [[Greek colonies]] on the [[Black Sea]] ([[graffiti]] and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being [[votive offering]], from Olbia, the area of [[Berezan Island]] and the [[Tauric Chersonese]]) attest the existence of a [[heroic cult]] of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory [[stelae]] from Olbia refer to an ''Achilles Pontárchēs'' (Ποντάρχης, roughly "lord of the Sea," or "of the [[Pontus Euxinus]]"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with [[Olympian gods]] such as the local [[Apollo]] Prostates, [[Hermes]] Agoraeus, or [[Poseidon]]. [[Pliny the Elder]] (23–79 AD) in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' mentions a "port of the Achæi" and an "island of Achilles", famous for the tomb of that "man" (), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the [[Dnieper-Bug Estuary]]; furthermore, at 125 [[Roman mile]] from this island, he places a peninsula "which stretches forth in the shape of a sword" obliquely, called ''Dromos Achilleos'' (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, ''Achilléōs drómos'' "[[Racecourse of Achilles|the Race-course of Achilles]]") and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic [[Spit (landform)|spit]], called today ''Tendra'' (or ''Kosa Tendra'' and ''Kosa Djarilgatch''), situated between the mouth of the [[Dnieper]] and [[Karkinit Bay]], but which is hardly 125 [[Roman mile]] (c. 185 km) away from the [[Dnieper-Bug estuary]], as Pliny states. (To the "Race-course" he gives a length of 80 miles, c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. 70 km today.)

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In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as ''Achillea'' and introduces two further names for it: ''Leuce'' or ''Macaron'' (from Greek [νῆσος] μακαρῶν "island of the blest"). The "present day" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of ''Achillea'' or ''Leuce'' with today's Snake Island. Pliny's contemporary [[Pomponius Mela]] (c. 43 AD) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named ''Achillea'', situated between the [[Borysthenes]] and the [[Danube|Ister]], adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC [[Black-glazed Ware|black-glazed]] [[lekythos]] inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: "Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke." In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration. The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on ''Leuce'' seems to go back to an account from the lost epic ''[[Aethiopis]]'' according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical (''Leúkē Nêsos'' "White Island"). Already in the fifth century BC, [[Pindar]] had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a "bright island" (φαεννά νᾶσος, ''phaenná nâsos'') of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite [[Island of the Blest]] together with other heroes such as his father [[Peleus]] and [[Cadmus]]. Well known is the connection of these mythological [[Fortunate Isles]] (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, ''makárôn nêsoi'') or the Homeric [[Elysium]] with the stream [[Oceanus]] which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]], speaking of "Achilles lord of Scythia" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the [[Aethiopia]] prince [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother [[Eos]] after his death. The ''[[Periplus Ponti Euxini|Periplus of the Euxine Sea]]'' (c. 130 AD) gives the following details:

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The Greek geographer [[Dionysius Periegetes]], who likely lived during the first century CE, wrote that the island was called ''Leuce'' "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue". Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the [[Delphi]] [[Pythia]] sent a lord of [[Crotone|Croton]] to be cured of a chest wound. [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] attributes the healing to waters (''aquae'') on the island. A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. [[Herodotus]], [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Strabo]] reported on the existence of a town ''Achílleion'' (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from [[Mytilene]] in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the [[Troad]]. Later attestations point to an ''Achílleion'' in [[Messenia]] (according to [[Stephanus Byzantinus]]) and an ''Achílleios'' (Ἀχίλλειος) in [[Laconia]]. [[Nicolae Densuşianu]] recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of [[Aquileia]] and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called [[Chilia Veche|Chilia]] (presumably from an older ''Achileii''), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law. The kings of [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, [[Neoptolemus]]. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epirote princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at [[Achilleion (Troad)#Tomb of Achilles|Achilleion]] while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor [[Caracalla]], while on his way to war against [[Parthia]], emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.

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The [[tragedy|Greek tragedian]] [[Aeschylus]] wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title ''Achilleis'' by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of [[Hector]] and eventual death when an arrow shot by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] and guided by [[Apollo]] punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the ''Achilleis'' and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the ''Achilleis'' trilogy, ''The Myrmidons'', focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's ''Symposium'', Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to avenge him. The tragedian [[Sophocles]] also wrote ''The Lovers of Achilles'', a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive. Towards the end of the 5th century BCE, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; [[Euripides]] refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in ''[[Hecuba (play)|Hecuba]]'', ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]'', and ''[[Iphigenia in Aulis]]''.

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The philosopher [[Zeno of Elea]] centred one of [[Zeno's paradoxes|his paradoxes]] on an imaginary footrace between "[[Epithets in Homer#Individuals|swift-footed]]" [[Achilles and the tortoise|Achilles and a tortoise]], by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.

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In ''[[Hippias Minor]]'', a dialogue attributed to [[Plato]], an arrogant man named Hippias argues with [[Socrates]]. The two get into a discussion about lying. They decide that a person who is intentionally false must be "better" than a person who is unintentionally false, on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject about which they are lying. Socrates uses various analogies, discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his point. The two also reference Homer extensively. Socrates and Hippias agree that [[Odysseus]], who concocted a number of lies throughout the ''Odyssey'' and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle, was false intentionally. Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods. Hippias believes that Achilles was a generally honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own benefit. The two argue over whether it's better to lie on purpose or on accident. Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the point: someone who does wrong on purpose is a better person than someone who does wrong unintentionally.

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The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. [[Virgil]] refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while [[Horace]] portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as [[Catullus]], [[Propertius]], and [[Ovid]], represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as [[Dictys Cretensis]] and [[Dares Phrygius]] and in [[Benoît de Sainte-Maure]]'s ''[[Roman de Troie]]'' and [[Guido delle Colonne]]'s ''[[Historia destructionis Troiae]]'', which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the [[Matter of Troy]] until the 17th century. Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler [[Leo the Deacon]], not as [[Hellenes|Hellene]], but as [[Scythians|Scythian]], while according to the Byzantine author [[John Malalas]], his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as [[Bulgars]].

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(-) Achilles appears in Dante's ''[[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]'' (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in [[Hell]]'s second circle, that of lust. (-) Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'' (1602). (-) The French dramatist [[Thomas Corneille]] wrote a tragedy ''La Mort d'Achille'' (1673). (-) Achilles is the subject of the poem ''Achilleis'' (1799), a fragment by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]. (-) In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet [[Stanisław Wyspiański]] published a national drama, based on Polish history, named ''Achilles''. (-) In 1921, [[Edward Shanks]] published ''The Island of Youth and Other Poems'', concerned among others with Achilles. (-) The 1983 novel ''[[Cassandra (novel)|Kassandra]]'' by [[Christa Wolf]] also treats the death of Achilles. (-) Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s novel ''[[The Firebrand (Bradley novel)|The Firebrand]]'' (1987). (-) Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in [[Colleen McCullough]]'s novel ''[[The Song of Troy]]'' (1998). (-) ''[[The Death of Achilles]]'' (''Смерть Ахиллеса'', 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer [[Boris Akunin]] that alludes to various figures and motifs from the ''Iliad''. (-) The character Achilles in ''[[Ender's Shadow]]'' (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude. (-) Achilles is one of the main characters in [[Dan Simmons]]'s novels ''[[Ilium (novel)|Ilium]]'' (2003) and ''[[Olympos (novel)|Olympos]]'' (2005). (-) Achilles is a major supporting character in [[David Gemmell]]'s ''[[David Gemmell#Troy series|Troy]]'' series of books (2005–2007). (-) Achilles is the main character in [[David Malouf]]'s novel ''[[Ransom (Malouf novel)|Ransom]]'' (2009). (-) The [[ghost]] of Achilles appears in [[Rick Riordan]]'s ''[[The Last Olympian]]'' (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects. (-) Achilles is a main character in [[Terence Hawkins]]' 2009 novel ''[[The Rage of Achilles]]''. (-) Achilles is a major character in [[Madeline Miller]]'s debut novel, ''[[The Song of Achilles]]'' (2011), which won the 2012 [[Orange Prize for Fiction]]. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the ''[[Iliad]]''. (-) Achilles appears in the light novel series ''[[Fate/Apocrypha]]'' (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red. (-) Achilles is a main character in [[Pat Barker]]'s 2018 novel ''[[The Silence of the Girls]]'', much of which is narrated by his slave [[Briseis]].

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(-) ''Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes'' is a subject treated in paintings by [[Anthony van Dyck]] (before 1618; [[Museo del Prado]], Madrid) and [[Nicolas Poussin]] (c. 1652; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]) among others. (-) [[Peter Paul Rubens]] has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: ''Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx'', ''Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron'', ''Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes'', ''The wrath of Achilles'', ''The death of Hector'', ''Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus'', ''The death of Achilles'' ([[Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen]], Rotterdam), and ''Briseis restored to Achilles'' ([[Detroit Institute of Arts]]; all c. 1630–1635) (-) Pieter van Lint, "Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (-) ''Dying Achilles'' is a sculpture created by [[Christophe Veyrier]] (c. 1683; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London). (-) ''The Rage of Achilles'' is a fresco by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza). (-) [[Eugène Delacroix]] painted a version of ''The Education of Achilles'' for the ceiling of the Paris [[Palais Bourbon]] (1833–1847), one of the seats of the [[French Parliament]]. (-) created a statue group ''Achilles and Penthesilea'' (1895; Vienna). (-) ''Achilleus'' (1908) is a [[lithography]] by [[Max Slevogt]].

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Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres. (-) Operas titled ''Deidamia'' were composed by [[Francesco Cavalli]] (1644) and [[George Frideric Handel]] (1739). (-) ''[[Achille et Polyxène]]'' (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] and finished by [[Pascal Collasse]]. (-) ''[[Achille et Déidamie]]'' (Paris 1735) is an opera composed by [[André Campra]]. (-) ''[[Achilles (opera)|Achilles]]'' (London 1733) is a [[ballad opera]], written by [[John Gay]], parodied by [[Thomas Arne]] as ''Achilles in petticoats'' in 1773. (-) ''[[Achille in Sciro]]'' is a [[libretto]] by [[Metastasio]], composed by [[Domenico Sarro]] for the inauguration of the [[Teatro di San Carlo]] (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from [[Antonio Caldara]] (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by [[Leonardo Leo]] (Turin 1739), [[Niccolò Jommelli]] (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), [[Giuseppe Sarti]] (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), [[Johann Adolph Hasse]] (Naples 1759), [[Giovanni Paisiello]] (St. Petersburg 1772), [[Giuseppe Gazzaniga]] (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as ''Il Trionfo della gloria''. (-) ''Achille'' (Vienna 1801) is an opera by [[Ferdinando Paër]] on a libretto by [[Giovanni de Gamerra]]. (-) ''Achille à Scyros'' (Paris 1804) is a [[ballet]] by [[Pierre Gardel]], composed by [[Luigi Cherubini]]. (-) ''Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja'' ("Achilles, or Troy Destroyed", Bonn 1885) is an [[oratorio]] by the German composer [[Max Bruch]]. (-) ''Achilles auf Skyros'' (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist [[Egon Wellesz]]. (-) ''Achilles' Wrath'' is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin. (-) ''[[Achilles Last Stand]]'' a track on the 1976 [[Led Zeppelin]] album ''[[Presence (album)|Presence]]''. (-) ''Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts'' is the first song on the 1992 [[Manowar]] album ''[[The Triumph of Steel]]''. (-) ''Achilles Come Down'' is a song on the 2017 [[Gang of Youths]] album ''[[Go Farther in Lightness]]''.

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In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series: (-) The 1924 film ''[[Helena (1924 film)|Helena]]'' by [[Carlo Aldini]] (-) The 1954 film ''[[Ulysses (1954 film)|Ulysses]]'' by [[Piero Lulli]] (-) The 1956 film ''[[Helen of Troy (film)|Helen of Troy]]'' by [[Stanley Baker]] (-) The 1961 film ''[[The Trojan Horse (film)|The Trojan Horse]]'' by [[Arturo Dominici]] (-) The 1962 film ''[[The Fury of Achilles]]'' by [[Gordon Mitchell]] (-) The 1997 television miniseries ''[[The Odyssey (miniseries)|The Odyssey]]'' by Richard Trewett (-) The 2003 television miniseries ''[[Helen of Troy (miniseries)|Helen of Troy]]'' by Joe Montana (-) The 2004 film ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'' by [[Brad Pitt]] (-) The 2018 TV series ''[[Troy: Fall of a City]]'' by [[David Gyasi]]

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In 1890, [[Elisabeth of Bavaria]], Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in [[Corfu]]. The building is named the [[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]], after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the [[Trojan War]], with particular focus on Achilles.

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(-) The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine [[Royal Navy]] warships since 1744 – both as and with the French spelling . A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. (-) was a which served with the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] in World War II. It became famous for its part in the [[Battle of the River Plate]], alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS ''Achilles'' also served at Guadalcanal 1942–1943 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the [[Indian Navy]] in 1948, but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand. (-) A species of lizard, ''[[List of Anolis lizards|Anolis achilles]]'', which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.

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'''Abraham Lincoln''' (; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American statesman and lawyer who served as the 16th [[president of the United States]] from 1861 until [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination]] in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the [[American Civil War]], the country's greatest moral, cultural, constitutional, and political crisis. He succeeded in preserving the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolishing]] [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], bolstering the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]], and modernizing the [[Economy of the United States|U.S. economy]]. Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin and was raised on the [[American frontier|frontier]] primarily in [[Indiana]]. He was self-educated and became a lawyer, [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]] leader, [[Illinois]] state [[Illinois House of Representatives|legislator]], and U.S. Congressman [[List of United States Representatives from Illinois|from Illinois]]. In 1849, he returned to his law practice but became vexed by the opening of additional lands to [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] as a result of the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]]. He reentered politics in 1854, becoming a leader in the new [[history of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], and he reached a national audience in the [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|1858 debates]] against [[Stephen Douglas]]. Lincoln ran for President [[1860 United States presidential election|in 1860]], sweeping the [[Northern United States|North]] in victory. Pro-slavery elements in the [[Southern United States|South]] equated his success with the North's rejection of their right to practice slavery, and southern states began [[Secession|seceding from the union]]. To secure its independence, the new [[Confederate States of America|Confederate States]] [[Battle of Fort Sumter|fired on Fort Sumter]], a U.S. fort in the South, and Lincoln called up forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]. As the leader of moderate Republicans, Lincoln had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents on both sides. [[War Democrat]] rallied a large faction of former opponents into his moderate camp, but they were countered by [[Radical Republicans]], who demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. Anti-war Democrats (called "[[Copperhead (politics)|Copperheads]]") despised him, and irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements plotted his assassination. Lincoln managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, by carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the U.S. people. His [[Gettysburg Address]] became a historic clarion call for [[nationalism]], [[republicanism]], [[Civil and political rights|equal rights]], [[liberty]], and [[democracy]]. Lincoln scrutinized the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals and the [[Union blockade|naval blockade]] of the South's trade. He suspended ''[[habeas corpus]]'', and he averted British intervention by defusing the [[Trent Affair|''Trent'' Affair]]. He engineered the end to slavery with his [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and his order that the Army protect and recruit former slaves. He also encouraged [[Border States (American Civil War)|border states]] to outlaw slavery, and promoted the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which outlawed slavery across the country.

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Lincoln managed his own successful [[1864 United States presidential election|re-election campaign]]. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just days after the war's end at [[Battle of Appomattox Court House|Appomattox]], Lincoln was attending a play at [[Ford's Theatre]] with his wife [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary]] when [[assassination of Abraham Lincoln|he was assassinated]] by Confederate sympathizer [[John Wilkes Booth]]. Lincoln is remembered as the [[martyr]] hero of the United States and he is consistently [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States#Scholar survey results|ranked]] as one of the greatest presidents in American history.

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Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, the second child of [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Lincoln|Nancy Hanks Lincoln]], in a log cabin on [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|Sinking Spring Farm]] near [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]]. He was a descendant of [[Samuel Lincoln]], an Englishman who migrated from [[Hingham, Norfolk]], to its namesake, [[Hingham, Massachusetts]], in 1638. The family then migrated west, passing through [[New Jersey]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]]. Lincoln's paternal grandparents, his namesake [[Abraham Lincoln (captain)|Captain Abraham Lincoln]] and wife Bathsheba (née Herring), moved the family from Virginia to [[Jefferson County, Kentucky]]. The captain was killed in an [[Northwest Indian War|Indian raid]] in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack. Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and [[Tennessee]] before the family settled in [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], in the early 1800s. The [[Nancy Hanks Lincoln heritage|heritage of Lincoln's mother Nancy]] remains unclear, but it is widely assumed that she was the daughter of Lucy Hanks. Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to [[Elizabethtown, Kentucky]]. They had three children: [[Sarah Lincoln Grigsby|Sarah]], Abraham, and Thomas, who died an infant. Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky before losing all but of his land in court disputes over [[Title (property)|property titles]]. In 1816, the family moved to [[Indiana]] where the land surveys and titles were more reliable. Indiana was a [[Slave states and free states|"free" (non-slaveholding)]] territory, and they settled in an "unbroken forest" in Hurricane Township, [[History of Perry County, Indiana|Perry County, Indiana]]. In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery", but mainly due to land title difficulties. In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. At various times, he owned farms, livestock and town lots, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, and served on county patrols. Thomas and Nancy were members of a [[Separate Baptists]] church, which forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery. Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas in 1827 obtained [[clear title]] to in Indiana, an area which became the [[Little Pigeon Creek Community]].

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On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln succumbed to [[milk sickness]], leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household including her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Nancy's 19-year-old orphan cousin, Dennis Hanks. Ten years later, on January 20, 1828, Sarah died while giving birth to a [[stillborn]] son, devastating Lincoln. On December 2, 1819, Thomas married [[Sarah Bush Lincoln|Sarah Bush Johnston]], a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own. Abraham became close to his stepmother, and called her "Mother". Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with farm life. His family even said he was lazy, for all his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc". His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved to read.

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Lincoln was mostly self-educated, except for some schooling from itinerant teachers of less than 12 months aggregate. He persisted as an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning. Family, neighbors, and schoolmates recalled that his reading included the [[King James Version|King James Bible]], [[Aesop's Fables]], [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'', [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', and ''[[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin]]''. As a teen, Lincoln took responsibility for chores, and customarily gave his father all earnings from work outside the home until he was 21. Lincoln was tall, strong, and athletic, and became adept at using an ax. He was an active wrestler during his youth and trained in the rough [[Catch wrestling|catch-as-catch-can]] style (also known as catch wrestling). He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21. He gained a reputation for strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove Boys". In March 1830, fearing another milk sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family, including Abraham, moved west to Illinois, a free state, and settled in [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon County]]. Abraham then became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part due to his father's lack of education. In 1831, as Thomas and other family prepared to move to a [[Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site|new homestead]] in [[Coles County, Illinois]], Abraham struck out on his own. He made his home in [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]], for six years. Lincoln and some friends took goods by [[flatboat]] to [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], where he was first exposed to slavery.

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Lincoln's first romantic interest was [[Ann Rutledge]], whom he met when he moved to New Salem. By 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died on August 25, 1835, most likely of [[typhoid fever]]. In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem. Owens arrived that November and he courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she never replied. In 1839, Lincoln met [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]], and the following year they became engaged. She was the daughter of [[Robert Smith Todd]], a wealthy lawyer and businessman in [[Lexington, Kentucky]]. A wedding set for January 1, 1841 was canceled at Lincoln's request, but they reconciled and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's sister. While anxiously preparing for the nuptials, he was asked where he was going and replied, "To hell, I suppose." In 1844, the couple bought [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|a house]] in Springfield near his law office. Mary kept house with the help of a hired servant and a relative. Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father of four sons, though his work regularly kept him away from home. The oldest, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], was born in 1843 and was the only child to live to maturity. [[Edward Baker Lincoln]] (Eddie), born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of tuberculosis. Lincoln's third son, [[William Wallace Lincoln|"Willie" Lincoln]] was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the [[White House]] on February 20, 1862. The youngest, [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas "Tad" Lincoln]], was born on April 4, 1853, and survived his father but died of heart failure at age 18 on July 16, 1871. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children" and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own. In fact, Lincoln's law partner [[William H. Herndon]] would grow irritated when Lincoln would bring his children to the law office. Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his work to notice his children's behavior. Herndon recounted, "I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut. Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done." The deaths of their sons, Eddie and Willie, had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln suffered from "[[history of depression|melancholy]]", a condition now thought to be [[major depressive disorder|clinical depression]]. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert committed her for a time to an asylum in 1875.

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In 1832, Lincoln joined with a partner, [[Denton Offutt]], in the purchase of a general store on credit in New Salem. Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he entered politics, running for the [[Illinois General Assembly]], advocating navigational improvements on the [[Sangamon River]]. He could draw crowds as a [[raconteur]], but he lacked the requisite formal education, powerful friends, and money, and lost the election. Lincoln briefly interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the [[Illinois Militia]] during the [[Black Hawk War]]. In his first campaign speech after returning, he observed a supporter in the crowd under attack, grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers", and tossed him. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct. Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, but continued his voracious reading, and decided to become a lawyer. He taught himself the law, with [[William Blackstone|Blackstone]]'s ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England|Commentaries]]'', saying later of the effort, "I studied with nobody."

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Lincoln's second state house campaign in 1834, this time as a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]], was a success over a powerful Whig opponent. Then followed his four terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]] for [[Sangamon County]]. He championed construction of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]], and later was a Canal Commissioner. He voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males, but adopted a "free soil" stance opposing both slavery and [[abolitionism in the United States|abolition]]. In 1837 he declared, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils." He echoed [[Henry Clay]]'s support for the [[American Colonization Society]] which advocated a program of abolition in conjunction with settling freed slaves in [[Liberia]]. [[Admission to the bar in the United States|Admitted]] to the Illinois bar in 1836, he moved to Springfield and began to practice law under [[John T. Stuart]], Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered several years with [[Stephen T. Logan]], and in 1844 began [[Lincoln-Herndon Law Offices State Historic Site|his practice]] with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], "a studious young man".

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True to his record, Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 to be "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay". Their party favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund [[internal improvements]] including railroads, and urbanization. In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for [[Illinois's 7th congressional district|Illinois' 7th district seat]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]; he was defeated by [[John J. Hardin]] though he prevailed with the party in limiting Hardin to one term. Lincoln not only pulled off his strategy of gaining the nomination in 1846, but also won election. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but as dutiful as any, participated in almost all votes and made speeches that toed the party line. He was assigned to the [[United States House Committee on Post Office and Post Roads|Committee on Post Office and Post Roads]] and the [[United States House Committee on Expenditures in the War Department|Committee on Expenditures in the War Department]]. Lincoln teamed with [[Joshua R. Giddings]] on a bill to abolish slavery in the [[Washington, District of Columbia|District of Columbia]] with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He dropped the bill when it eluded Whig support.

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On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke against the [[Mexican–American War]], which he imputed to President [[James K. Polk]]'s desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood". He supported the [[Wilmot Proviso]], a failed proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico. Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his [[Spot Resolutions]]. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico, and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our soil". Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil. The resolution was ignored in both Congress and the national papers, and it cost Lincoln political support in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln". Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers. Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House. Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, he supported General [[Zachary Taylor]] for the Whig nomination in the [[1848 United States presidential election|1848 presidential election]]. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed Commissioner of the [[General Land Office]]. The administration offered to appoint him secretary or governor of the [[Oregon Territory]] as consolation. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.

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In his Springfield practice Lincoln handled "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer". Twice a year he appeared for 10 consecutive weeks in county seats in the midstate county courts; this continued for 16 years. Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him. He later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a [[Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company|landmark case]] involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849, he received [[Abraham Lincoln's patent|a patent for a flotation device]] for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent. Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases; he was sole counsel in 51 cases, of which 31 were decided in his favor. From 1853 to 1860, one of his largest clients was the [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. His legal reputation gave rise to the nickname "Honest Abe". Lincoln argued in an 1858 criminal trial, defending [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by [[judicial notice]] to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a ''[[Farmers' Almanac]]'' showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted. Leading up to his presidential campaign, Lincoln elevated his profile in an 1859 murder case, with his defense of Simeon Quinn "Peachy" Harrison who was a third cousin; Harrison was also the grandson of Lincoln's political opponent, [[Peter Cartwright (revivalist)|Rev. Peter Cartwright]]. Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who, as he lay dying of his wounds, confessed to Cartwright that he had provoked Harrison. Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to exclude Cartwright's testimony about the confession as inadmissible [[hearsay]]. Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a [[dying declaration]] and was not subject to the hearsay rule. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling and admitted the testimony into evidence, resulting in Harrison's acquittal.

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The debate over the status of slavery in the territories failed to alleviate tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North, with the failure of the [[Compromise of 1850]], a legislative package designed to address the issue. In his 1852 eulogy for Clay, Lincoln highlighted the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to "both extremes" on the slavery issue. As the slavery debate in the [[Nebraska Territory|Nebraska]] and [[Kansas Territory|Kansas]] territories became particularly acrimonious, Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed [[Popular sovereignty in the United States#Emergence of the term "popular sovereignty" and its pejorative connotation|popular sovereignty]] as a compromise; the measure would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The legislation alarmed many Northerners, who sought to prevent the resulting spread of slavery, but Douglas's [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] narrowly passed Congress in May 1854. Lincoln did not comment on the act until months later in his "[[Abraham Lincoln's Peoria speech|Peoria Speech]]" in October 1854. Lincoln then declared his opposition to slavery which he repeated en route to the presidency. He said the Kansas Act had a "''declared'' indifference, but as I must think, a covert ''real'' zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ..." Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life. Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting on the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist...I do no more than oppose the ''extension'' of slavery." The new [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] was formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery, drawing from the antislavery wing of the Whig Party, and combining [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty]], and antislavery [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] members, Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties, fearing that the new party would become a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist [[Know Nothing]] movement. In 1854 Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat. The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and in the aftermath, Lincoln sought election to the United States Senate. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, he was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for [[Lyman Trumbull]]. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, [[Joel Aldrich Matteson]].

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[[Bleeding Kansas|Violent political confrontations in Kansas]] continued, and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the [[United States elections, 1856|1856 elections]] approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the [[Bloomington Convention]], which formally established the [[Illinois Republican Party]]. The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the [[Lincoln's Lost Speech|final speech]] of the convention supporting the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union. At the June [[1856 Republican National Convention]], though Lincoln received support to run as vice president, [[John C. Frémont]] and [[William Dayton]] comprised the ticket, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Secretary of State [[James Buchanan]] and the Know-Nothings nominated former Whig President [[Millard Fillmore]]. Buchanan prevailed, while Republican [[William Henry Bissell]] won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois.

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[[Dred Scott]] was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a free territory under the Missouri Compromise. After Scott was returned to the slave state he petitioned a federal court for his freedom. His petition was denied in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' (1857). Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]] in the decision wrote that blacks were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that ''Dred Scott'' would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North. Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the [[Slave Power]]. He argued the decision was at variance with the Declaration of Independence; he said that while the founding fathers did not believe all men equal in every respect, they believed all men were equal "in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".

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In 1858 Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S. Senate, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor. Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas from his opposition to the [[Lecompton Constitution]] and admission of Kansas as a [[slave state]]. Many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition. Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal. After his nomination he delivered his [[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|House Divided Speech]], with the biblical reference [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 3:25, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created a stark image of the danger of disunion. The stage was then set for the election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas. When informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated, "[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party ... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won." The Senate campaign featured seven [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|debates]] between the Lincoln and Douglas. These were the most famous political debates in American history; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew crowds in the thousands. The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that Douglas’ "Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the Founding Fathers' premise that [[all men are created equal]]. Douglas emphasized his [[Freeport Doctrine]], that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists. Lincoln's argument assumed a moral tone, as he claimed Douglas represented a conspiracy to promote slavery. Douglas's argument was more legal, claiming that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court in the ''Dred Scott'' decision. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. Lincoln's articulation of the issues gave him a national political presence. In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the ''Illinois Staats-Anzeiger'', a German-language newspaper that was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but the German-language paper mobilized Republican support. In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate, rivaled by [[William H. Seward]], [[Salmon P. Chase]], [[Edward Bates]], and [[Simon Cameron]]. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast, and was unsure whether to seek the office. In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the nomination if offered, and in the following months several local papers endorsed his candidacy.

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Traveling untiringly Lincoln made about fifty speeches. By their quality and simplicity he quickly became the champion of the Republican party. However, unlike his overwhelming support in the mid-west his support in the east was not as great, where he sometimes encountered a lack of appreciation and in some quarters was met with much indifference. Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, at that time wrote up an unflattering account of Lincoln's compromising position on slavery and his reluctance to challenge the court's Dred-Scott ruling, which was promptly used against him by his political rivals. On February 27, 1860, powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a [[Cooper Union speech|speech at Cooper Union]], in which he argued that the [[List of national founders|Founding Fathers]] had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong". Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly. But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership that brought him into contention. Journalist [[Noah Brooks]] reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience." Historian [[David Herbert Donald]] described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery". In response to an inquiry about his ambitions, Lincoln said, "The taste ''is'' in my mouth a little."

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On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]], [[Norman B. Judd|Norman Judd]], [[Leonard Swett]], and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement. Exploiting his embellished frontier legend (clearing land and splitting fence rails), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate". In 1860, Lincoln described himself: "I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes." Michael Martinez wrote about the effective imaging of Lincoln by his campaign. At times he was presented as the plain-talking "Rail Splitter" and at other times he was "Honest Abe", unpolished but trustworthy. On May 18, at the [[1860 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase. A former Democrat, [[Hannibal Hamlin]] of Maine, was nominated for vice president to [[Ticket balance|balance the ticket]]. Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for internal improvements and the tariff. Pennsylvania put him over the top, led by the state's iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support. Lincoln's managers had focused on this delegation while honoring Lincoln's dictate to "Make no contracts that will bind me". As the Slave Power tightened its grip on the national government, most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. When Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats, delegates from eleven slave states walked out of the [[1860 Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]]; they opposed Douglas's position on popular sovereignty, and selected incumbent Vice President [[John C. Breckinridge]] as their candidate. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]] and nominated [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South. Prior to the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization, the [[Wide Awakes]], which it used to generate popular support throughout the country to spearhead voter registration drives, thinking that new voters and young voters tended to embrace new parties. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for Lincoln.

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As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches, relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. Republican speakers focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the power of "free labor", which allowed a common farm boy to work his way to the top by his own efforts. The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a ''Chicago Tribune'' writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000–200,000 copies. Though he did not give public appearances, many sought to visit him and write him. In the runup to the election he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of attention. He also hired [[John George Nicolay]] as his personal secretary, who would remain in that role during the presidency. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president. He was the first Republican president and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states, an omen of the impending Civil War. Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. His victory in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]] was decisive: Lincoln had 180 votes to 123 for his opponents.

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The South was outraged by Lincoln's election, and in response secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the [[Confederate States of America]], and adopted a constitution. The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. The Confederacy selected [[Jefferson Davis]] as its provisional president on February 9, 1861. Attempts at compromise followed but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed [[Crittenden Compromise]] as contrary to the Party's platform of free-soil in the [[Territories of the United States|territories]]. Lincoln said, "I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right." Lincoln tacitly supported the [[Corwin Amendment]] to the Constitution, which passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the states when Lincoln took office. That doomed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution. En route to his inauguration, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North. He gave a particularly emotional [[Abraham Lincoln's farewell address|farewell address]] upon leaving Springfield; he would never again return to Springfield alive. The president-elect evaded suspected [[Baltimore Plot|assassins in Baltimore]]. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard. Lincoln directed [[Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address|his inaugural address]] to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern states:

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Lincoln cited his plans for banning the expansion of slavery as the key source of conflict between North and South, stating "One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute." The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature." The failure of the [[Peace Conference of 1861]] signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated. In his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], Lincoln looked back on the situation at the time and said: "Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came."

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[[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Robert Anderson]], commander of the Union's [[Fort Sumter]] in Charleston, South Carolina, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops [[Battle of Fort Sumter|at Fort Sumter]] and began the fight. Historian [[Allan Nevins]] argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and overlooking Southern Unionist opposition to an invasion. [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war. Donald concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that." On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send a total of [[President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers|75,000 volunteer troops]] to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, remained intact despite the seceding states. This call forced states to choose sides. Virginia seceded and was rewarded with the designation of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] as the Confederate capital, despite its exposure to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed over the following two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral. The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the [[Mason-Dixon line]] to defend the nation. As States sent Union regiments south, on April 19, Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links [[Baltimore riot of 1861|attacked Union troops]] who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by arresting [[Maryland in the American Civil War#Imposition of martial law|local Maryland]] officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of ''[[Habeas corpus in the United States#Suspension during the Civil War|habeas corpus]]'' where needed for the security of troops trying to reach Washington. [[John Merryman]], one Maryland official hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of ''habeas corpus.'' In June Taney, ruling only for the lower circuit court in [[ex parte Merryman]], issued the writ which he felt could only be suspended by Congress. Lincoln persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas.

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Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as [[commander-in-chief]] by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended ''habeas corpus'', and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict. It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success, and that any compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery. The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Confiscation Act of 1861|Confiscation Act]] that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery. In August 1861, General John C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, without consulting Washington, issued a martial edict freeing slaves of the rebels. Lincoln canceled the illegal proclamation as politically motivated and lacking military necessity. As a result, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000. Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy. He relied on his combative Secretary of State [[William Seward]] while working closely with [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] chairman [[Charles Sumner]]. In the 1861 [[Trent Affair]] which threatened war with Great Britain, the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the ''Trent'', on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer [[James G. Randall]] dissected Lincoln's successful techniques: Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming into the War Department. He tracked all phases of the effort, consulting with governors, and selecting generals based on their success, their state, and their party. In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced [[United States Secretary of War|War Secretary]] Simon Cameron with [[Edwin Stanton]]. Stanton centralized the War Department's activities, auditing and canceling contracts, saving the federal government $17,000,000. Stanton was a staunch Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who gravitated toward the Radical Republican faction. He worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together", say Thomas and Hyman.

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Lincoln's war strategy embraced two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well-defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory. Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet in the afternoon. Occasionally Mary prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard. For his edification Lincoln relied upon a book by his chief of staff General [[Henry Halleck]] entitled ''Elements of Military Art and Science''; Halleck was a disciple of the European strategist [[Antoine-Henri Jomini]]. Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the [[Mississippi River]]. Lincoln saw the importance of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.

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After the Union rout at [[First Battle of Bull Run|Bull Run]] and [[Winfield Scott]]'s retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General [[George B. McClellan]] general-in-chief. McClellan then took months to plan his Virginia [[Peninsula Campaign]]. McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's reservation of troops for the capitol. In 1862 Lincoln removed McClellan for the general's continued inaction. He elevated Henry Halleck in July and appointed [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope satisfied Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north, thus protecting Washington from counterattack. But Pope was then soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington. Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington. Two days after McClellan's return to command, General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s forces crossed the [[Potomac River]] into Maryland, leading to the [[Battle of Antietam]]. That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history; it facilitated Lincoln's [[Emancipation Proclamation]] in January. McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's withdrawing army, while General [[Don Carlos Buell]] likewise refused orders to move the [[Army of the Ohio]] against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with [[William Rosecrans]]; and after the [[1862 and 1863 United States House of Representatives elections|1862 midterm elections]] he replaced McClellan with [[Ambrose Burnside]]. The appointments were both politically neutral and adroit on Lincoln's part. Burnside, against presidential advice, launched an offensive across the [[Rappahannock River]] and was [[Battle of Fredericksburg|defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg]] in December. Desertions during 1863 came in the thousands and only increased after Fredericksburg, so Lincoln replaced Burnside with [[Joseph Hooker]]. In the 1862 midterm elections the Republicans suffered severe losses due to rising inflation, high taxes, rumors of corruption, suspension of ''habeas corpus'', [[Conscription|military draft law]], and fears that freed slaves would come North and undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation gained votes for Republicans in rural New England and the upper Midwest, but cost votes in the Irish and German strongholds and in the lower Midwest, where many Southerners had lived for generations. In the spring of 1863 Lincoln was sufficiently optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to think the end of the war could be near; the plans included attacks by Hooker on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston. Hooker was routed by Lee at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May, then resigned and was replaced by [[George Meade]]. Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and beat him in the [[Gettysburg Campaign]], but then failed to follow up despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time, Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting the far western rebel states.

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The Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865 delegated the issue to the individual states. Lincoln argued that slavery would be rendered obsolete if its expansion into new territories were prevented. He sought to persuade the states to agree to [[compensated emancipation|compensation]] for emancipating their slaves in return for their acceptance of abolition. Lincoln rejected Fremont's two emancipation attempts in August 1861, as well as one by Major General [[David Hunter]] in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and would upset loyal border states. In June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory, which Lincoln signed. In July, the [[Confiscation Act of 1862]] was enacted, providing court procedures to free the slaves of those convicted of aiding the rebellion; Lincoln approved the bill despite his belief that it was unconstitutional. He felt such action could be taken only within the war powers of the commander-in-chief, which he planned to exercise. Lincoln at this time reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. Privately, Lincoln concluded that the Confederacy's slave base had to be eliminated. Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification; Republican editor [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''New York Tribune'' agreed. In a letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln said that while he personally wished all men could be free, regardless of that, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union: The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and effective January 1, 1863, affirmed the freedom of slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas under such control. Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." He spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters by warning of the threat that freed slaves posed to northern whites. With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south liberated three million slaves. Enlisting former slaves became official policy. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Tennessee military governor [[Andrew Johnson]] encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once". By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General [[Lorenzo Thomas]] had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley. The Proclamation included Lincoln's earlier plans for [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] for newly freed slaves, though that undertaking ultimately failed.

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Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end, and the future of democracy would be assured, that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Defying his prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.

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[[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant's]] victories at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] and in the [[Vicksburg campaign]] impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man. He fights." With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could advance in multiple theaters, while also including black troops. Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to supreme commander. Grant then assumed command of Meade's army. Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in 1864. He arranged for an intermediary to inquire into Grant's political intentions, and once assured that he had none, Lincoln promoted Grant to the newly revived rank of Lieutenant General, a rank which had been unoccupied since [[George Washington]]. Authorization for such a promotion "with the advice and consent of the Senate" was provided by a new bill which Lincoln signed the same day he submitted Grant's name to the Senate. His nomination was confirmed by the Senate on March 2, 1864. Grant in 1864 waged the bloody [[Overland Campaign]], which exacted heavy losses on both sides. When Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, the persistent general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." Grant's army moved steadily south. Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at [[City Point, Virginia]], to confer with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North. Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability. He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction (which was considerable) for its own sake. Lincoln's engagement became distinctly personal on one occasion in 1864 when Confederate general [[Jubal Early]] [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raided Washington, D.C.]]. Legend has it that while Lincoln watched from an exposed position, Union Captain (and future [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court Justice]]) [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!" As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President [[Alexander H. Stephens|Stephens]] led a group meeting with Lincoln, Seward, and others at [[Hampton Roads Conference|Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal; his objective to end the fighting was not realized. On April 1, 1865, Grant nearly encircled Petersburg in a siege. The Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|Appomattox]], officially ending the war.

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Lincoln ran for reelection in 1864, while uniting the main Republican factions, along with [[War Democrats]] [[Edwin M. Stanton]] and Andrew Johnson. Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers—greatly expanded from peacetime—to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace him. At its convention, the Republicans selected Johnson as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new [[National Union Party (United States)|Union Party]]. Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat. Lincoln confidentially pledged in writing that if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House; Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. The pledge read as follows: The Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called the war a "failure"; but their candidate, McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Meanwhile, Lincoln emboldened Grant with more troops and Republican party support. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and [[David Farragut]]'s capture of Mobile ended defeatism. The Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. The National Union Party was united by Lincoln's support for emancipation. State Republican parties stressed the [[perfidy]] of the Copperheads. On November 8, Lincoln carried all but three states, including 78 percent of Union soldiers. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the war casualties to be God's will. Historian [[Mark Noll]] places the speech "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;" it is inscribed in the [[Lincoln Memorial]]. Lincoln said:

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Reconstruction preceded the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy." Lincoln was determined to find meaning in the war in its aftermath, and did not want to continue to outcast the southern states. His main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation as one. Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under Rep. [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. [[Benjamin Wade]], who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His [[Ten percent plan|Amnesty Proclamation]] of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they were willing to sign an oath of allegiance. As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and [[Frederick Steele]] as military governors. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, and only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the 1864 [[Wade–Davis Bill]], which Lincoln vetoed. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Lincoln's appointments were designed to harness both moderates and Radicals. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the Radicals' choice, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold his emancipation and paper money policies. After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment. He declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter" and by December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress. This first attempt fell short of the required two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. Passage became part of the Republican/Unionist platform, and after a House debate the second attempt passed on January 31, 1865. With ratification, it became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] on December 6, 1865. Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumner's [[Freedmen's Bureau]] bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists.

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Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly how Reconstruction would have proceeded had Lincoln lived. Biographers James G. Randall and [[Richard Current]], according to David Lincove, argue that: [[Eric Foner]] argues that:

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Lincoln's experience with Indians followed the death of his grandfather Abraham at their hands, in the presence of his father and uncles. Lincoln claimed Indians were antagonistic toward his father, Thomas Lincoln, and his young family. Although Lincoln was a veteran of the Black Hawk War, which was fought in Wisconsin and Illinois in 1832, he saw no significant action. During his presidency, Lincoln's policy toward Indians was driven by politics. He used the Indian Bureau as a source of patronage, making appointments to his loyal followers in Minnesota and Wisconsin. He faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraphs, from Indian attacks. On August 17, 1862, the [[Dakota War of 1862|Dakota uprising]] in Minnesota, supported by the [[Yankton Sioux Tribe|Yankton Indians]], killed hundreds of white settlers, forced 30,000 from their homes, and deeply alarmed the Lincoln administration. Some believed it was a conspiracy by the Confederacy to launch a war on the Northwestern front. Lincoln sent General John Pope, the former head of the Army of Virginia, to Minnesota as commander of the new [[Department of the Northwest]]. Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war sent by railroad to put down the Dakota Uprising. When the Confederates protested forcing Confederate prisoners to fight Indians, Lincoln revoked the policy. Pope fought against the Indians mercilessly, even advocating their extinction. He ordered Indian farms and food supplies be destroyed, and Indian warriors be killed. Aiding Pope, Minnesota Congressman Col. [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry H. Sibley]] led militiamen and regular troops to defeat the Dakota at [[Battle of Wood Lake|Wood Lake]]. By October 9, Pope considered the uprising to be ended; hostilities ceased on December 26. An unusual military court was set up to prosecute captured natives, with Lincoln effectively acting as the route of appeal. Lincoln personally reviewed each of 303 execution warrants for [[Sioux#Santee (Isáŋyathi or Eastern Dakota)|Santee Dakota]] convicted of killing innocent farmers; he commuted the sentences of all but 39 (one was later reprieved). Lincoln sought to be lenient, but still send a message. He also faced significant public pressure, including threats of mob justice should any of the Dakota be spared. Former Governor of Minnesota [[Alexander Ramsey]] told Lincoln, in 1864, that he would have gotten more presidential election support had he executed all 303 of the Indians. Lincoln responded, "I could not afford to hang men for votes."

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In the selection and use of his cabinet, Lincoln employed the strengths of his opponents in a manner that emboldened his presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process, "We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet. We needed to hold our own people together. I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men. Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services." Goodwin described the group in her biography as a ''[[Team of Rivals]]''. Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of a presidency focused on executing laws while deferring to Congress' responsibility for legislating. Lincoln vetoed only four bills, particularly the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh Reconstruction program. The [[1862 Homestead Act]] made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]] provided government grants for [[List of agricultural universities and colleges|agricultural colleges]] in each state. The [[Pacific Railway Acts]] of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' [[First Transcontinental Railroad]], which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s. There were two measures passed to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a [[Income tax in the United States|Federal income tax]]. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third [[Morrill Tariff]], following the first enacted by Buchanan. He also signed the [[Revenue Act of 1861]], creating the first U.S. income tax—a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ($ in current dollar terms). The [[Revenue Act of 1862]] adopted rates that increased with income. Lincoln presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in other areas. The [[National Banking Act]] created the system of national banks. The US issued paper currency for the first time, known as [[Greenback (1860s money)|greenbacks]]—printed in green on the reverse side. In 1862, Congress created the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]]. In response to rumors of a renewed draft, the editors of the ''[[New York World]]'' and the ''[[The Journal of Commerce|Journal of Commerce]]'' published a false draft proclamation that created an opportunity for the editors and others to corner the gold market. Lincoln attacked the media for such behavior, and ordered a military seizure of the two papers which lasted for two days. Lincoln is largely responsible for the [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving holiday]]. Thanksgiving had become a regional holiday in New England in the 17th century. It had been sporadically proclaimed by the federal government on irregular dates. The prior proclamation had been during [[James Madison]]'s presidency 50 years earlier. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving. In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as [[Yosemite National Park]].

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Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known." Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]] was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. [[Samuel Freeman Miller]] supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced. Democrat [[Stephen Johnson Field]], a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, became Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.

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Lincoln appointed 27 judges to the [[United States district courts]] but no judges to the [[United States circuit court]] during his time in office.

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[[West Virginia]] was admitted to the Union on June 20, 1863. [[Nevada]], which became the third state in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.

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[[John Wilkes Booth]] was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service. After attending an April 11, 1865 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, Booth hatched a plot to assassinate the President. When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at [[Ford's Theatre]]. Lincoln and his wife attended the play ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' on the evening of April 14, just five days after the Union victory at the [[Battle of Appomattox Courthouse]]. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play. At 10:15 pm, Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest Major [[Henry Rathbone]] momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped. After being attended by [[Charles Leale|Doctor Charles Leale]] and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to [[Petersen House]]. After remaining in a [[coma]] for eight hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages." Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers. President Johnson was sworn in the next morning. Two weeks later, Booth was tracked to a farm in Virginia, and refusing to surrender, he was mortally shot by Sergeant [[Boston Corbett]] and died on April 26. Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive, so Corbett was initially arrested for court martial. After a brief interview, Stanton declared him a patriot and dismissed the charge.

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The late President lay in state, first in the East Room of the White House, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his son Willie traveled for three weeks on the ''Lincoln Special'' [[Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln#Funeral train|funeral train]]. The train followed a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands. Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief. Poet [[Walt Whitman]] composed "[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]" to eulogize him, one of [[Walt Whitman and Abraham Lincoln|four poems he wrote about Lincoln]]. African Americans were especially moved; they had lost 'their [[Moses]]'. In a larger sense, the reaction was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war. Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death.

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As a young man, Lincoln was a [[religious skepticism|religious skeptic]]. He was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoting and praising it. He was private about his position on organized religion and respected the beliefs of others. He never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. Through his entire public career, Lincoln had a proneness for quoting Scripture. His three most famous speeches—[[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|the House Divided Speech]], [[Gettysburg Address|the Gettysburg Address]], and [[Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address|his second inaugural]]—each contain direct allusions to Providence and quotes from Scripture. In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the [[The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated|Doctrine of Necessity]], a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power. With the death of his son Edward in 1850 he more frequently expressed a dependence on God. He never joined a church, although he frequently attended [[First Presbyterian Church (Springfield, Illinois)|First Presbyterian Church]] with his wife beginning in 1852. In the 1850s, Lincoln asserted his belief in "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence. The death of son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace. After Willie's death, he questioned the divine necessity of the war's severity. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun, He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."

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Lincoln did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and by 1865 was expressing those beliefs in major speeches. By the end of the war, he increasingly appealed to the Almighty for solace and to explain events, writing on April 4, 1864, to a newspaper editor in Kentucky: I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it. Whither it is tending seems plain. If God now wills the removal of a great wrong, and wills also that we of the North as well as you of the South, shall pay fairly for our complicity in that wrong, impartial history will find therein new cause to attest and revere the justice and goodness of God.This spirituality can best be seen in his second inaugural address, considered by some scholars as the greatest such address in American history, and by Lincoln himself as his own greatest speech, or one of them at the very least. Lincoln explains therein the cause, purpose, and result of the war was God's will. Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs and might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]]. On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the [[Holy Land]].

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Lincoln is believed to have had [[depression (mood)|depression]], [[smallpox]], and [[malaria]]. He took [[blue mass]] pills, which contained [[mercury (element)|mercury]], to treat [[constipation]]. It is unknown to what extent he may have suffered from [[mercury poisoning]]. Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on [[list of photographs of Abraham Lincoln|photographs of Lincoln]] appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting. It is also suspected that he might have had a rare genetic disease such as [[Marfan syndrome]] or [[multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B]].

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Lincoln's redefinition of ''[[Republicanism in the United States|republican values]]'' has been stressed by historians such as [[John Patrick Diggins]], [[Harry V. Jaffa]], [[Vernon Burton]], Eric Foner, and Herman J. Belz. Lincoln called the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]—which emphasized freedom and equality for all—the "[[sheet anchor]]" of republicanism beginning in the 1850s. He did this at a time when the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], which "tolerated slavery", was the focus of most political discourse. Diggins notes, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself" in the 1860 Cooper Union speech. Instead of focusing on the legality of an argument, he focused on the moral basis of republicanism. His position on war was founded on a legal argument regarding the Constitution as essentially a contract among the states, and all parties must agree to pull out of the contract. Furthermore, it was a national duty to ensure the republic stands in every state. Many soldiers and religious leaders from the north, though, felt the fight for liberty and freedom of slaves was ordained by their moral and religious beliefs. As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to [[Jacksonian democrats]]. [[William C. Harris (historian)|William C. Harris]] found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism." James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform." Randall concludes that "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders."

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In Lincoln's first inaugural address, he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints. He said "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people." The successful reunification of the states had consequences for how people viewed the country. The term "the United States" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural ("these United States"), and other times in the singular. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.

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In [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents]] conducted since 1948, the top three presidents are Lincoln, Washington, and [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], although the order varies. Between 1999 and 2011, Lincoln, [[John F. Kennedy]], and [[Ronald Reagan]] have been the top-ranked presidents in eight surveys, according to Gallup. A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after George Washington. Lincoln's assassination left him a national martyr. He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability. Historians have said he was "a [[classical liberal]]" in the 19th-century sense. [[Allen C. Guelzo]] states that Lincoln was a "classical liberal democrat—an enemy of artificial hierarchy, a friend to trade and business as ennobling and enabling, and an American counterpart to Mill, Cobden, and Bright", whose portrait Lincoln hung in his White House office. Schwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the [[Progressive Era]] (1900–1920s), when he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes, even among white Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the [[National Mall]] in Washington, D.C. Union nationalism, as envisioned by Lincoln, "helped lead America to the nationalism of [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Woodrow Wilson]], and Franklin Delano Roosevelt." In the [[New Deal]] era, liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the [[self-made man]] or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the [[welfare state]]. Sociologist [[Barry Schwartz (sociologist)|Barry Schwartz]] argues that in the 1930s and 1940s the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life." During the [[Great Depression]], he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?" However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness." He suggested that [[postmodernism]] and [[multiculturalism]] have diluted greatness as a concept.

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In the [[Cold War]] years, Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by [[Communist regime]]. By the late 1960s, some African-American intellectuals, led by [[Lerone Bennett Jr.]], rejected Lincoln's role as the Great Emancipator. Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a [[white supremacist]] in 1968. He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks. Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality, and proposed sending freed slaves to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day; and that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible. The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln the emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation. By the 1970s, Lincoln had become a hero to [[Conservatism in the United States|political conservatives]], apart from [[neo-Confederates]] such as [[Mel Bradford]] who denounced his treatment of the white South, for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of [[Lockean]] and [[Burkean]] principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers. Lincoln became a favorite exemplar for liberal intellectuals across the world. Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century. On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of [[negative capability]], defined by the poet [[John Keats]] and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason". In the 21st century, President [[Barack Obama]] named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using the [[Lincoln Bible]] for his inaugural ceremonies. Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.

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Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of [[United States currency]], the [[Penny (United States coin)|penny]] and the [[United States five-dollar bill|$5 bill]]. His likeness also appears on many [[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps#Abraham Lincoln|postage stamps]]. While he is usually portrayed bearded, he didn't grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]]. He was the first of 16 presidents to do so. He has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital]] of Nebraska. The [[United States Navy]] is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name. Lincoln Memorial is one of the most visited monuments in the nation's capital, and is one of the top five visited [[National Park Service]] sites in the country. Ford's Theatre, among the top sites in Washington, D.C., is across the street from Petersen House (where he died). Memorials in Springfield, Illinois include [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]], Lincoln's home, as well as [[Lincoln Tomb|his tomb]]. A portrait carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on [[Mount Rushmore]], which receives about 3 million visitors a year.

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'''Aristotle''' (; ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek [[philosopher]] and [[polymath]] during the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] in [[Ancient Greece]]. Taught by [[Plato]], he was the founder of the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]], the [[Peripatetic school]] of philosophy, and the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] tradition. His writings cover many subjects including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[biology]], [[zoology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], [[ethics]], [[aesthetics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], [[theatre]], [[music]], [[rhetoric]], [[psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[economics]], [[politics]], [[meteorology]], [[History of geology|geology]] and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual [[lexicon]], as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]] in [[Northern Greece]]. His father, [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined [[Plato's Academy]] in [[Athens]] and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of [[Philip II of Macedon]], tutored [[Alexander the Great]] beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on [[papyrus]] [[scrolls]]. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around [[Corpus Aristotelicum|a third of his original output has survived]], none of it intended for publication. Aristotle's views on [[Aristotelian physics|physical science]] profoundly shaped [[medieval philosophy|medieval scholarship]]. Their influence extended from [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]] into the [[Renaissance]], and were not replaced systematically until [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and theories such as [[classical mechanics]] were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in [[Aristotle's biology|his biology]], such as on the [[Hectocotylus|hectocotyl (reproductive) arm]] of the [[octopus]], were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] and [[John Buridan]]. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century. He influenced [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)]] during the [[Middle Ages]], as well as [[Christian theology]], especially the [[Neoplatonism]] of the [[Early Church]] and the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like [[Thomas Aquinas]] as simply "The Philosopher". His [[Aristotelian ethics|ethics]], though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]]. Aristotle has been called "the father of logic", "the father of biology", "the father of political science", the "father of zoology", "the father of scientific method", "the father of [[rhetoric]]", and "the father of meteorology".

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