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'''Anarchism''' is a [[political philosophy]] and [[Political movement|movement]] that is sceptical of [[authority]] and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of [[hierarchy]]. Anarchism calls for the abolition of the [[State (polity)|state]], which it holds to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. As a historically [[far-left]] movement, it is usually described alongside [[libertarian Marxism]] as the [[libertarian]] wing ([[libertarian socialism]]) of the [[socialist movement]] and has a strong historical association with [[anti-capitalism]] and [[socialism]]. The [[History of anarchism|history of anarchy]] goes back to [[prehistory]], when humans arguably lived in anarchic societies long before the establishment of formal states, [[realm]] or [[empire]]. With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies, [[scepticism]] toward authority also rose, but it was not until the 19th century that a self-conscious political movement emerged. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for [[emancipation]]. Various [[anarchist schools of thought]] formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the [[Spanish Civil War]], whose end marked the end of the [[classical era of anarchism]]. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more. Anarchism employs a [[diversity of tactics]] in order to meet its ideal ends which can be broadly separated into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics. There is significant overlap between the two which are merely descriptive. Revolutionary tactics aim to bring down authority and state, having taken a violent turn in the past. Evolutionary tactics aim to prefigure what an anarchist society would be like. Anarchist thought, criticism and [[Praxis (process)|praxis]] have played a part in diverse areas of human society. Criticisms of anarchism include claims that it is internally inconsistent, violent, or utopian.

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The etymological origin of ''anarchism'' is from the Ancient Greek ''anarkhia'', meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix ''an-'' (i.e. "without") and the word ''arkhos'' (i.e. "leader" or "ruler"). The suffix ''[[-ism]]'' denotes the ideological current that favours [[anarchy]]. ''Anarchism'' appears in English from 1642 as ''anarchisme'' and ''anarchy'' from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the [[French Revolution]] labelled their opponents as ''anarchists'', although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as [[William Godwin]] (1756–1836) and [[Wilhelm Weitling]] (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, but they did not use ''anarchist'' or ''anarchism'' in describing themselves or their beliefs. The first political philosopher to call himself an ''anarchist'' () was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, ''[[libertarianism]]'' has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. On the other hand, some use ''libertarianism'' to refer to [[individualistic]] [[free-market]] philosophy only, referring to [[free-market anarchism]] as ''libertarian anarchism''. While the term ''libertarian'' has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the [[New Left]] and [[libertarian Marxists]] (who do not associate themselves with [[authoritarian socialists]] or a [[vanguard party]]) as well as extreme [[Liberalism|liberals]] (primarily concerned with [[civil liberties]]). Additionally, some anarchists use ''[[libertarian socialist]]'' to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with [[socialism]]. Matthew S. Adams and [[Carl Levy (political scientist)|Carl Levy]] write that ''anarchism'' is used to "describe the [[anti-authoritarian]] wing of the [[socialist movement]]." [[Noam Chomsky]] describes anarchism, alongside libertarian Marxism, as "the libertarian wing of socialism." [[Daniel Guérin]] wrote: [A]narchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State.

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While [[opposition to the state]] is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Hence, it might be true to say that anarchism is a cluster of political philosophies opposing [[authority]] and [[hierarchical organisation]] (including [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]], [[Anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]], the [[State (polity)|state]] and all associated [[institution]]) in the conduct of all [[human relations]] in favour of a society based on [[decentralisation]], [[freedom]] and [[voluntary association]]. However, this definition has the same shortcomings as the definition based on anti-authoritarianism (which is an ''[[a posteriori]]'' conclusion), anti-statism (anarchism is much more than that) and etymology (which is simply a negation of a ruler). Nonetheless, major elements of the definition of anarchism include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy. [[Herbert L. Osgood]] claimed that anarchism is "the extreme antithesis" of [[authoritarian communism]] and [[state socialism]]. [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]] states that "[i]n general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. [...] Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine." According to [[Jeremy Jennings]], "[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas", referring to [[anarcho-capitalism]], "are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is." Jennings adds that "anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community." [[Nicolas Walter]] wrote that "anarchism does derive from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. [...] In a sense, anarchists always remain liberals and socialists, and whenever they reject what is good in either they betray anarchism itself. [...] We are liberals but more so, and socialists but more so." Michael Newman includes anarchism as one of many [[socialist traditions]], especially the more socialist-aligned tradition following Proudhon and [[Mikhail Bakunin]]. [[Brian Morris (anthropologist)|Brian Morriss]] argues that it is "conceptually and historically misleading" to "create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism."

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During the prehistoric era of mankind, an established authority did not exist. It was after the creation of towns and cities that institutions of authority were established and anarchistic ideas espoused as a reaction. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, [[philosophical anarchism]] (i.e. the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by [[Taoist]] philosophers [[Zhuang Zhou]] and [[Laozi]]. Alongside [[Stoicism]], Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism. Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]] used the myth of [[Antigone]] to illustrate the conflict between rules set by the state and personal [[autonomy]]. [[Socrates]] questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] dismissed human law (''[[Nomos (sociology)|nomos]]'') and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (''[[physis]]''). [[Stoics]] were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state. During the [[Middle Ages]], there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements in the [[Muslim world]] or in Christian Europe. This kind of tradition later gave birth to [[religious anarchism]]. In the [[Sasanian Empire]], [[Mazdak]] called for an [[egalitarian]] society and the [[abolition of monarchy]], only to be soon executed by Emperor [[Kavad I]]. In [[Basra]], religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Libertarian ideas further emerged during the [[Renaissance]] with the spread of [[humanism]], [[rationalism]] and [[reason]] through Europe. Novelists fictionalised ideal societies that were based on voluntarism rather than coercion. The [[Age of Enlightenment]] further pushed towards anarchism with the optimism for social progress.

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During the [[French Revolution]], partisan groups such as the [[Enragés]] and the saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as [[William Godwin]] espoused [[philosophical anarchism]] in England, morally delegitimising the state, [[Max Stirner]]'s thinking paved the way to [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]'s theory of [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented [[globalization]] occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of [[classical anarchism]] lasted until the end of the [[Spanish Civil War]] and is considered the golden age of anarchism. Drawing from mutualism, [[Mikhail Bakunin]] founded [[collectivist anarchism]] and entered the [[International Workingmen's Association]], a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with [[Karl Marx]] being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the [[Jura Federation]]) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings. After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the [[Marxists]] at the [[1872 Hague Congress]]. Anarchists were treated similarly in the [[Second International]], being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin famously predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the [[St. Imier International]]. Under the influence of [[Peter Kropotkin]], a Russian philosopher and scientist, [[anarcho-communism]] overlapped with collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 [[Paris Commune]], advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs. At the turn of the century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalism movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from countries of the far east, travelling to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, [[Anarchism in Argentina|Argentina]] was a stronghold for [[anarcho-syndicalism]], where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary [[political violence]]. This strategy became known as [[propaganda of the deed]]. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many [[Communards]] to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to exclude them from American immigration, including the [[Immigration Act of 1903]], also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. [[Illegalism]] was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.

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Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the [[Russian Revolution]] in opposition to the [[White movement]]. However, they met harsh suppression after the [[Bolshevik government]] was stabilized. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, notably leading to the [[Kronstadt rebellion]] and [[Nestor Makhno]]'s struggle in the [[Free Territory]]. With the anarchists being crushed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely [[platformism]] and [[synthesis anarchism]]. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the [[Bolsheviks]] in the [[October Revolution]] and the resulting [[Russian Civil War]], many workers and activists turned to [[communist parties]] which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the [[General Confederation of Labour (France)|General Confederation of Labour]] and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] left their organisations and joined the [[Communist International]]. In the Spanish Civil War of 1936, anarchists and syndicalists ([[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|FAI]]) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of [[Spanish anarchism]] led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they [[collectivised]] the land. The [[Soviet Union]] provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight among communists and anarchists at a series of events named [[May Days]] as [[Joseph Stalin]] tried to seize control of the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republicans]].

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At the end of [[World War II]], the anarchist movement was severely weakened. However, the 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of [[Marxism–Leninism]] and tensions built by the [[Cold War]]. During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the [[Anti-nuclear movement|anti-nuclear]], [[Environmental movement|environmental]] and [[peace movement]], the [[counterculture of the 1960s]] and the [[New Left]]. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative [[anti-capitalist reform]]. Anarchism became associated with [[punk subculture]] as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]]. The established [[feminist]] tendencies of [[anarcha-feminism]] returned with vigour during the [[second wave of feminism]]. [[Black anarchism]] began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a [[Eurocentric]] demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America. Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within [[anti-capitalist]], [[anti-war]] and [[anti-globalisation]] movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[Group of Eight]] and the [[World Economic Forum]]. During the protests, ''ad hoc'' leaderless anonymous cadres known as [[black bloc]] engaged in [[riot]], [[property destruction]] and violent confrontations with the [[police]]. Other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include [[affinity group]], [[security culture]] and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the [[1999 Seattle WTO conference]]. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatistas]] in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as [[Rojava]], a ''de facto'' [[Permanent autonomous zone|autonomous region]] in northern Syria.

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Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, [[social anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism]], owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises [[negative liberty]] in opposing restraints upon the free individual while the social current emphasises [[positive liberty]] in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and [[social ownership]]. In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents ([[anarcha-feminism]], [[green anarchism]] and [[post-anarchism]]) developed thereafter. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies [[philosophical anarchism]] which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a [[minimal state]], but it argues that citizens have no [[moral obligation]] to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since [[ethics]] have a central role in anarchist philosophy. Anarchism's emphasis on [[anti-capitalism]], [[egalitarianism]] and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from [[anarcho-capitalism]] and other types of [[economic libertarian]]. Anarchism is usually placed on the [[far-left]] of the [[political spectrum]]. Much of its [[Anarchist economics|economics]] and [[Anarchist law|legal philosophy]] reflect [[anti-authoritarian]], [[anti-statist]], [[libertarian]] and [[Radical politics|radical]] interpretations of [[left-wing]] and [[socialist]] politics such as [[Collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[Anarcho-communism|communism]], [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]], among other [[libertarian socialist]] economic theories. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against [[sectarianism]] within the anarchist milieu was [[anarchism without adjectives]], a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political [[nihilism]] has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities, but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of uniform principles such as individual and local autonomy, mutual aid, network organisation, communal democracy, justified authority and decentralisation.

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Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] and [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]]. They were followed by the major currents of [[social anarchism]] ([[Collectivist anarchism|collectivist]], [[Anarcho-communism|communist]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalist]]). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society. Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]. Its aims include [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], [[Free association (Marxism and anarchism)|free association]], voluntary [[contract]], [[federation]] and [[monetary reform]] of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In ''[[What Is Property?]]'' (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property." Collectivist anarchism is a [[revolutionary socialist]] form of anarchism commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]]. Collectivist anarchists advocate [[collective ownership]] of the [[means of production]] which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside [[Marxism]], but it rejected the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist [[stateless society]]. [[Anarcho-communism]] is a theory of anarchism that advocates a [[communist society]] with [[common ownership]] of the means of production, [[direct democracy]] and a [[Horizontalidad|horizontal]] network of [[voluntary association]], [[workers' council]] and [[worker cooperative]], with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "[[From each according to his ability, to each according to his need]]." Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the [[French Revolution]], but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the [[First International]]. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of [[Peter Kropotkin]], whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views [[labour syndicate]] as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are [[direct action]], workers' [[solidarity]] and [[workers' self-management]]. Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the [[individual]] and their [[Will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include [[William Godwin]], [[Max Stirner]] and [[Henry David Thoreau]]. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]].

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Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the [[anti-globalisation movement]], whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and [[syncretic]], combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. The [[anti-capitalist]] tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes [[black bloc]] demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. However, its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as [[anthropology]] and [[history]] to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Various anarchist groups, tendencies and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple "anarchisms" (rather than a singular "anarchism") in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to [[anarcha-feminists]] than [[anarcho-communists]]. Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism." However, anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of [[equal liberty]] is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy.

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Anarchists' tactics take various forms, but in general, they serve two major goals, namely to first oppose [[the Establishment]] and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace [[nonviolence]], reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two. Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.

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During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed [[terrorism]] as [[propaganda of the deed]]. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in [[revolution]]. Many anarchists, especially the [[Galleanists]], believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further [[judicial]] power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions. Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been perplexing and controversial. On one hand, [[anarcho-pacifists]] point out the unity of means and ends. On the other hand, other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of [[sabotage]] or even acts of terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a [[tyrant]] and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its [[oppression]] by any means possible. [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], who were proponents of limited use of violence, argued that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a [[necessary evil]]. Anarchists took an active role in [[strike action]], although they tended to be antipathetic to formal [[syndicalism]], seeing it as [[Reformism|reformist]]. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the [[State (polity)|state]] and [[capitalism]]. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced [[naturism]] and [[nudism]]. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on [[friendship]] and were involved in the [[news media]].

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In the current era, Italian anarchist [[Alfredo Bonanno]], a proponent of [[insurrectionary anarchism]], has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group [[The Invisible Committee]] advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included. Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as [[Anarchism in Canada|Canada]], [[Anarchism in Greece|Greece]] and [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]]. Militant [[black bloc]] protest groups are known for clashing with the police. However, anarchists not only clash with state operators; they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking [[anti-fascist action]] and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.

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Anarchists commonly employ [[direct action]]. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust [[hierarchy]], or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as [[horizontalism]]. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various [[grassroots]] movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the ''big-A anarchism'' of the classical era, the newly coined term ''small-a anarchism'' signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to [[classical anarchists]] such as [[Peter Kropotkin]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize. The decision-making process of small anarchist [[affinity group]] plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially [[Wildcat strike action|wildcat strikes]] as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate. As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, but anarchists have gone [[online]] in the [[World Wide Web]] to spread their message. However, anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance. Anarchists organize themselves to [[Squatting|squat]] and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called [[Temporary Autonomous Zone]] (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry and [[surrealism]] are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a [[carnivalesque]] atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.

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As anarchism is a [[philosophy]] that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]]. The compatibility of [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]], [[Anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]] and [[Anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and communism|communism]], [[collectivism]], [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]] and [[trade unionism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[God|divine authority]], [[enlightened self-interest]], [[Veganarchism|veganism]], or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as [[civilisation]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[anarcho-primitivism]]) and the [[Anarchism and statist democracy|democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.

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As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, anarchism is obliged to address, analyse and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy because of the dynamics that gender roles traditionally impose. Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists, but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. However, sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]], who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was [[free love]]. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support [[polyamory]] and [[queer anarchism]]. Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States. However, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term) and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on [[suffrage]], but they were nonetheless supportive of one another. During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the [[second wave of feminism]], radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the [[third wave of feminism]], sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a [[post-structuralist]] critique of sexual normality. However, some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.

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The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of [[Mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]]. Anarchist writers such as [[William Godwin]] (''[[Political Justice]]'') and [[Max Stirner]] ("[[The False Principle of Our Education]]") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges. In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker [[Francisco Ferrer]] established the [[Escuela Moderna]] in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster [[class consciousness]] among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of [[Modern School (United States)|modern schools]] around the world. Christian anarchist [[Leo Tolstoy]], who published the essay ''Education and Culture'', also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free." In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the [[Summerhill School]] in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion. Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality will lead children to morally good conclusions. However, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism. Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers ([[Colin Ward]], [[Herbert Read]] and [[Paul Goodman]]) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in [[consumerism]] as part of a consumer society. Contemporary anarchists such as Ward have further argued that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality. While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England and the Paideia School in Spain.

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Anarchism

Objection to the [[State (polity)|state]] and its institutions is a ''[[sine qua non]]'' of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is [[Open government|open]] or [[Transparency (behavior)|transparent]], as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the [[ruling class]] is distinct from the rest of society. Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. [[Robert Paul Wolff]] believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." [[A. John Simmons]] and [[Leslie Green (philosopher)|Leslie Green]], who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.

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Anarchism

The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the [[New Apocalyptics]] and the [[neo-romanticism]] movement. In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk. Anarchists such as [[Leo Tolstoy]] and [[Herbert Read]] argued that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life. Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book ''Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas'', Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism." Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists ([[Peter Kropotkin]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Gustav Landauer]] and [[Camillo Berneri]]) and publications such as ''[[Anarchy (magazine)|Anarchy]]'' wrote about matters pertaining to the arts. Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. The 19th-century [[neo-impressionist]] movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism. In ''Les chataigniers a Osny'' by anarchist painter [[Camille Pissarro]], the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.

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The most common critique of anarchism is that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government." Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing. [[Colin Ward]] responds that major anarchist thinkers advocated [[Anarchist federalism|federalism]]. Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala also believed that humans could not self-govern and included it in his list of arguments against anarchism. Fiala's other critiques were that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, i.e. at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state can not be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory. While it advocates for no-one to ''archiei'', if accepted by the many, then anarchism would turn into the ruling political theory. In this line of criticism also comes the self-contradiction that anarchism calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong. Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as [[A. John Simmons]]' ''Moral Principles and Political Obligations''. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay arguing against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson claims that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate. In ''The Problem of Political Authority'', [[Michael Huemer]] defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."

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Another criticism is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority as first articulated in an 1886 article for the ''[[North American Review]]'' by Frances L. Ferguson. [[Joseph Raz]] argues that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticized for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering. [[Friedrich Engels]], considered to be one of the principal founders of [[Marxism]], criticized anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary. Academic [[John Molyneux (academic)|John Molyneux]] writes in his book ''Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism'' that "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists argue that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining.

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'''Autism''' is a [[developmental disorder]] characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents often notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some autistic children experience [[Regressive autism|regression]] in their communication and social skills after reaching [[developmental milestones]] at a normal pace. Autism is associated with a combination of [[Heritability of autism|genetic]] and [[environmental factors]]. Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections, such as [[rubella]], toxins including [[valproic acid]], alcohol, [[cocaine]], [[pesticides]], [[lead]], and [[air pollution]], [[fetal growth restriction]], and [[autoimmune disease]]. [[Controversies in autism|Controversies]] surround other proposed environmental [[Causes of autism|causes]]; for example, the [[MMR vaccine and autism|vaccine hypothesis]], which has been disproven. Autism affects information processing in the brain and how [[nerve cell]] and their [[synapse]] connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood. The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-5), combines forms of the condition, including [[Asperger syndrome]] and [[pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS) into the diagnosis of [[autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD). No treatment has been proven to cure ASD, but several interventions have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve the ability of people with ASD to function and participate independently in the community. Behavioral, psychological, education, and/or skill-building interventions may be used to assist people with ASD to learn life skills necessary for living independently, as well as other social, communication, and language skills. Therapy also aims to reduce challenging behaviors and build upon strengths. Some autistic adults are unable to live independently. An [[Societal and cultural aspects of autism|autistic culture]] has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be [[Autism rights movement|accepted as a difference]] to be accommodated instead of cured. Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people . In the 2000s, the number of people with autism worldwide was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people. In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD , from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States. It is diagnosed four-to-five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased dramatically since the 1960s, which may be partly due to changes in diagnostic practice. The question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.

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Autism

Autism is a highly variable, [[neurodevelopmental disorder]] whose symptoms first appear during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without [[Remission (medicine)|remission]]. Autistic people may be severely impaired in some respects but average, or even superior, in others. Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form. It is distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication, and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.

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Autism

Social deficits distinguish autism and the related [[autism spectrum disorder]] (ASD; see [[#Classification|Classification]]) from other developmental disorders. Autistic people have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic [[Temple Grandin]] described her inability to understand the [[social communication]] of [[neurotypical]], or people with typical [[neural development]], as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars". Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic [[toddler]] differ more strikingly from [[social norms]]; for example, they have less [[eye contact]] and [[turn-taking]], and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate [[nonverbal autism|nonverbal]], and take turns with others. However, they do form [[Attachment (psychology)|attachments]] to their primary caregivers. Most autistic children display moderately less [[Attachment in children#Secure attachment|attachment security]] than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less pronounced autistic traits. Older children and adults with ASD [[Face perception#In individuals with autism spectrum disorder|perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition]] although this may be partly due to a [[alexithymia|lower ability to define a person's own emotions]]. Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that autistic children prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply. There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and meltdowns.

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About a third to a half of autistic people do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of [[babbling]], unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words ([[echolalia]]) or [[Pronoun reversal|reverse pronouns]]. [[Joint attention]] seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD. For example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object, and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience. Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language. In a pair of studies, high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.

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Autism

Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows. (-) [[Stereotypy|Stereotyped behaviors]]: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking. (-) [[Compulsive behavior]]: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or hand washing. (-) Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted. (-) [[Ritual#Psychology|Ritualistic behavior]]: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors. (-) Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game. (-) [[Self-injury]]: Behaviors such as eye-poking, [[Dermatillomania|skin-picking]], hand-biting and head-banging. No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.

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Autism

Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family. An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from [[splinter skill]] such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious [[Savant syndrome|autistic savants]]. Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population. [[Sensory system|Sensory]] abnormalities are found in over 90% of autistic people, and are considered core features by some, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements). An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include [[Hypotonia|poor muscle tone]], [[Apraxia|poor motor planning]], and [[toe walking]]; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper. Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur. There is tentative evidence that [[gender dysphoria]] occurs more frequently in autistic people. [[Gastrointestinal diseases|Gastrointestinal problems]] are one of the most commonly [[comorbidity|associated medical disorders]] in autistic people. These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes. Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of [[stress (psychological)|stress]]. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with [[Down syndrome]] in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.

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Autism

It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur. Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare [[mutation]] with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and [[epigenetic]] factors which do not change [[DNA]] sequencing but are heritable and influence [[gene expression]]. Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents. Studies of twins suggest that [[heritability]] is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population. However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) mutation or to a single [[chromosome abnormality]], and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD. Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous [[structural variation]]—such as [[Deletion (genetics)|deletions]], [[Gene duplication|duplications]] or [[Chromosomal inversion|inversions]] in genetic material during [[meiosis]]. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome. Autism may be underdiagnosed in women and girls due to an assumption that it is primarily a male condition, but genetic phenomena such as [[Genomic imprinting|imprinting]] and [[X linkage]] have the ability to raise the frequency and severity of conditions in males, and theories have been put forward for a genetic reason why males are diagnosed more often, such as the [[imprinted brain hypothesis]] and the [[extreme male brain theory]]. Maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. [[Intrauterine growth restriction]] is associated with ASD, in both term and preterm infants. Maternal inflammatory and [[autoimmune disease]] may damage fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system. Exposure to [[air pollution]] during pregnancy, especially [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] and particulates, may increase the risk of autism. [[Environmental factor]] that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods, [[infectious disease]], [[solvent]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCBs]], [[phthalate]] and [[phenols]] used in plastic products, [[pesticide]], [[brominated flame retardant]], [[Ethanol|alcohol]], smoking, [[illicit drug]], [[vaccine]], and [[prenatal stress]]. Some, such as the MMR vaccine, have been completely disproven.

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Autism

Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming [[Vaccine controversy#Vaccine overload|vaccine "overload"]], a [[Thiomersal controversy|vaccine preservative]], or the [[MMR vaccine and autism|MMR vaccine]] for causing autism. The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud". Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of [[childhood immunizations]], [[MMR vaccine and autism#Disease outbreaks|outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases]] in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.

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Autism

Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the [[pathophysiology]] of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the [[neuropsychological]] linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies. There is evidence that [[gut–brain axis]] abnormalities may be involved. A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, [[gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal]] inflammation, malfunction of the [[autonomic nervous system]], [[gut flora]] alterations, and food [[metabolite]] may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. A 2016 review concludes that [[enteric nervous system]] abnormalities might play a role in neurological disorders such as autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine to spread to the brain. Several lines of evidence point to [[Synapse|synaptic]] dysfunction as a cause of autism. Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with [[cell adhesion]]. Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes. All known [[teratogen]] (agents that cause [[birth defect]]) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from [[Human fertilization|conception]], and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.

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Autism

[[Medical diagnosis|Diagnosis]] is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Under the [[DSM-5]], autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or [[Idiosyncrasy#Psychiatry and psychology|idiosyncratic language]], and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome]], [[intellectual disability]] or global developmental delay. [[ICD-10]] uses essentially the same definition. Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the [[Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised]] (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the [[Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule]] (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The [[Childhood Autism Rating Scale]] (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used. A [[pediatrician]] commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated [[medical conditions]]. A pediatric [[neuropsychologist]] is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A [[differential diagnosis]] for ASD at this stage might also consider [[intellectual disability]], [[hearing impairment]], and a [[specific language impairment]] such as [[Landau–Kleffner syndrome]]. The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]]. [[Clinical genetics]] evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and [[fragile X]] testing. A [[Genotype-first approach|genotype-first]] model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations. As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics. [[Metabolic]] and [[neuroimaging]] tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.

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ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Signs of autism may be more challenging for clinicians to detect in females. Autistic females have been shown to engage in masking more frequently than autistic males. Masking may include making oneself perform normative facial expressions and eye contact. A notable percentage of autistic females may be misdiagnosed, diagnosed after a considerable delay, or not diagnosed at all. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the [[visually impaired]], partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or [[blindism]].

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Autism

Autism is one of the five [[pervasive developmental disorder]] (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance. Of the five PDD forms, [[Asperger syndrome]] is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; [[Rett syndrome]] and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; [[PDD not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS; also called ''atypical autism'') is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in [[language development]]. The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the ''autism spectrum disorders'' (ASD) or sometimes the ''autistic disorders'', whereas autism itself is often called ''autistic disorder'', ''childhood autism'', or ''infantile autism''. In this article, ''autism'' refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, ''autism'', ''ASD'', and ''PDD'' are often used interchangeably. ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism [[phenotype]], which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like [[Phenotypic trait|traits]], such as avoiding eye contact. Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of [[psychiatry]], [[psychology]], [[neurology]] and [[pediatrics]]. Newer technologies such as [[fMRI]] and [[diffusion tensor imaging]] can help identify biologically relevant [[phenotype]] (observable traits) that can be viewed on [[brain scan]], to help further [[neurogenetic]] studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the [[fusiform face area]] of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.

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Autism

Autism has long been thought to cover a wide [[Spectrum disorder|spectrum]], ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, [[developmentally disabled]], and prone to frequent repetitive behavior such as hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, [[pedantic]] communication. Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary.

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About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. According to an article, failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome". (-) No response to name (or [[eye contact|eye-to-eye gaze]]) by 6 months. (-) No [[babbling]] by 12 months. (-) No [[Gesture|gesturing]] (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months. (-) No single words by 16 months. (-) No two-word (spontaneous, not just [[echolalia|echolalic]]) phrases by 24 months. (-) Loss of any language or social skills, at any age. The [[United States Preventive Services Task Force]] in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concern. The Japanese practice is to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective. Screening tools include the [[Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor, the [[Checklist for Autism in Toddlers]] (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low [[Sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] (many false-negatives) but good [[Specificity (tests)|specificity]] (few false-positives). It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture. Although [[genetic screening]] for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and [[dysmorphic feature]].

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While infection with [[rubella]] during [[pregnancy]] causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism, [[rubella vaccine|vaccination against rubella]] can prevent many of those cases.

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Autism

The main goals when treating autistic children are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment. Services should be carried out by [[Professional practice of behavior analysis|behavior analysts]], [[special education]] teachers, [[speech–language pathology|speech pathologists]], and licensed [[psychologists]]. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about [[efficacy]]. However, the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years. Although many [[psychosocial]] interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of [[systematic review]] of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained [[special education]] programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, communication, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. While medications have not been found to help with core symptoms, they may be used for associated symptoms, such as irritability, inattention, or repetitive behavior patterns.

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Educational interventions often used include [[applied behavior analysis]] (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, [[speech and language therapy]], [[social skills]] therapy, and [[occupational therapy]] and cognitive behavioral interventions in adults without intellectual disability to reduce depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit. The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI)—a treatment procedure incorporating over thirty hours per week of the [[Discrete trial training|structured type of ABA]] that is carried out with very young children—is currently low, and more vigorous research designs with larger sample sizes are needed. Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include [[Discrete trial training|structured]] and [[Pivotal response treatment|naturalistic]] ABA interventions, and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP). One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves. Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment. [[Discrete trial training|Early, intensive ABA therapy]] has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and adaptive functioning in preschool children; it is also well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group. Similarly, a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a more [[Pivotal response treatment|naturalistic form of ABA]] combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results. The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.

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Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails. They may also be used for associated health problems, such as [[ADHD]] or [[anxiety disorder|anxiety]]. More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed [[psychoactive drug]] or [[anticonvulsant]], with the most common drug classes being [[antidepressant]], [[stimulant]], and [[antipsychotic]]. The [[atypical antipsychotic]] drugs [[risperidone]] and [[aripiprazole]] are [[FDA]]-approved for treating associated aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. However, their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and people with autism may respond atypically. Side effects, for example, may include weight gain, tiredness, drooling, and aggression. [[SSRI]] antidepressants, such as [[fluoxetine]] and [[fluvoxamine]], have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication [[methylphenidate]] is beneficial for some children with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function, suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.

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Although many [[Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities|alternative therapies and interventions]] are available, few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches have little empirical support in [[Quality of life|quality-of-life]] contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. The preference that children with autism have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on [[casein-free diet]], as a consequence of the low intake of [[calcium]] and [[vitamin D]]; however, suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with lack of exercise and [[gastrointestinal disease|gastrointestinal disorders]]. In 2005, botched [[chelation therapy]] killed a five-year-old child with autism. Chelation is not recommended for people with ASD since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits. Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is [[CEASE therapy]], a mixture of [[homeopathy]], supplements, and 'vaccine detoxing'. Although popularly used as an [[complementary and alternative medicine|alternative treatment]] for people with autism, as of 2018 there is no good evidence to recommend a [[gluten-free, casein-free diet|gluten- and casein-free diet]] as a standard treatment. A 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of children with autism, such as those with known [[food intolerance]] or [[food allergy|allergies]], or with food intolerance markers. The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet in children with ASD (4 in total). All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet versus normal diet with a control group (2 double-blind randomized controlled trials, 1 double-blind crossover trial, 1 single-blind trial). In two of the studies, whose duration was 12 and 24 months, a significant improvement in ASD symptoms (efficacy rate 50%) was identified. In the other two studies, whose duration was 3 months, no significant effect was observed. The authors concluded that a longer duration of the diet may be necessary to achieve the improvement of the ASD symptoms. Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet, small sample size, the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a [[placebo]] effect. In the subset of people who have [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity|gluten sensitivity]] there is limited evidence that suggests that a [[gluten-free diet]] may improve some autistic behaviors. Results of a systematic review on interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults found emerging evidence to support [[mindfulness]]-based interventions for improving mental health. This includes decreasing stress, anxiety, ruminating thoughts, anger, and aggression. There is tentative evidence that [[music therapy]] may improve social interactions, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication skills. There has been early research looking at [[Hyperbaric medicine|hyperbaric treatment]] in children with autism. Studies on pet therapy have shown positive effects.

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There is no known cure. The degree of symptoms can decrease, occasionally to the extent that people lose their diagnosis of ASD; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often this outcome happens; reported rates in unselected samples have ranged from 3% to 25%. Most autistic children acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years. Many autistic children lack [[social support]], future employment opportunities or [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]]. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age. Few high-quality studies address long-term [[prognosis]]. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring language before age six, having an [[IQ]] above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; [[independent living]] is unlikely with severe autism. Many autistic people face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood. Compared to the general population autistic people are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had a job. About half of people in their 20s with autism are not employed. People with autism tend to face increased stress levels related to psychosocial factors, such as stigma, which may increase the rates of mental health issues in the autistic population.

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As of 2007, [[review]] estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD. A 2016 survey in the United States reported a rate of 25 per 1,000 children for ASD. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the [[National Health Service|NHS]] estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of [[PDD-NOS]]'s has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC estimates about 1 out of 59 (1.7%) for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children (1.5%) for 2010. The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness, though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward psychosocial factors and changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics. It has been established that vaccination is not a risk factor for autism and is not behind any increase in autism prevalence rates, if any change in the rate of autism exists at all. Males are at higher risk for ASD than females. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed; one theory is that females are underdiagnosed. Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy. The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism. Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism. Several other conditions are common in children with autism. They include: (-) '''[[Genetic disorder]]'''. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) condition, [[chromosome abnormality]], or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders. (-) '''[[Intellectual disability]]'''. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing [[Controversies in autism#Intelligence|intelligence of individuals on the autism spectrum]]. In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker, and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.

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(-) '''[[Anxiety disorder]]''' are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms. (-) '''[[Epilepsy]]''', with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of [[language disorder]]. (-) Several '''[[metabolic defect]]''', such as [[phenylketonuria]], are associated with autistic symptoms. (-) '''[[Minor physical anomalies]]''' are significantly increased in the autistic population. (-) '''Preempted diagnoses'''. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[Tourette syndrome]], and other of these conditions are often present and these [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders|comorbid diagnoses]] are increasingly accepted. (-) '''Sleep problems''' affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of [[insomnia]] such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent [[middle-of-the-night insomnia|nocturnal awakenings]], and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.

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A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The ''[[Table Talk (Luther)|Table Talk]]'' of [[Martin Luther]], compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of [[Hugh Blair of Borgue]], as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance. The [[Wild Boy of Aveyron]], a [[feral child]] caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student [[Jean Marc Gaspard Itard|Jean Itard]] treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation. The [[New Latin]] word ''autismus'' (English translation ''autism'') was coined by the [[Swiss people|Swiss]] psychiatrist [[Eugen Bleuler]] in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of [[schizophrenia]]. He derived it from the Greek word ''autós'' (αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance". A Soviet child psychiatrist, [[Grunya Sukhareva]], described a similar syndrome that was published in Russian in 1925, and in German in 1926.

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The word ''autism'' first took its modern sense in 1938 when [[Hans Asperger]] of the [[Vienna General Hospital|Vienna University Hospital]] adopted Bleuler's terminology ''autistic psychopaths'' in a lecture in German about [[child psychology]]. Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as [[Asperger syndrome]], though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981. [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] first used ''autism'' in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities. Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger. Kanner's reuse of ''autism'' led to decades of confused terminology like ''infantile schizophrenia'', and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "[[refrigerator mother]]". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome.

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Autism

As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions. Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed, parents continue to feel [[social stigma]] in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many [[primary care physician]] and [[medical specialist]] express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research. It took until 1980 for the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-III]] to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the [[DSM-III-R]] provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors. The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. [[Societal and cultural aspects of autism]] have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that [[Neurodiversity|autism is simply another way of being]].

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An autistic culture has emerged, accompanied by the [[autistic rights]] and [[neurodiversity]] movements. Events include [[World Autism Awareness Day]], [[Autism Sunday]], [[Autistic Pride Day]], [[Autreat]], and others. Social-science scholars study those with autism in hopes to learn more about "autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons ... and research on social movements." Many autistic individuals have been successful in their fields.

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The [[autism rights movement]] is a [[social movement]] within the context of [[disability rights movement|disability right]] that emphasizes the concept of [[neurodiversity]], viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in the [[human brain]] rather than a disorder to be cured. The autism rights movement advocates for including greater acceptance of autistic behaviors; therapies that focus on coping skills rather than on imitating the behaviors of those without autism, and the recognition of the autistic community as a [[minority group]]. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the [[human genome]]. This perspective is distinct from [[fringe theories]] that autism is caused by environmental factors such as [[vaccine]]. A common criticism against autistic activists is that the majority of them are "[[High-functioning autism|high-functioning]]" or have Asperger syndrome and do not represent the views of "[[Low-functioning autism|low-functioning]]" autistic people.

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About half of autistics are unemployed, and one third of those with graduate degrees may be unemployed. Among autistics who find work, most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below the national minimum. While employers state hiring concerns about productivity and supervision, experienced employers of autistics give positive reports of above average memory and detail orientation as well as a high regard for rules and procedure in autistic employees. A majority of the economic burden of autism is caused by decreased earnings in the job market. Some studies also find decreased earning among parents who care for autistic children.

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Autism

'''Albedo''' (pronounced ; , meaning 'whiteness') is the measure of the [[diffuse reflection]] of [[sunlight|solar radiation]] out of the total [[solar radiation]] and measured on a scale from 0, corresponding to a [[black body]] that absorbs all incident radiation, to 1, corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation. Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of [[Radiosity (radiometry)|radiosity]] ''J'' to the [[irradiance]] ''E'' (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see [[position of the Sun]]). While bi-hemispherical [[reflectance]] is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes [[visible spectrum|visible light]] (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Albedo is an important concept in [[climatology]], [[astronomy]], and environmental management (e.g., as part of the [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its ''planetary albedo'', is 30–35% because of [[cloud cover]], but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features. The term albedo was introduced into optics by [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] in his 1760 work ''[[Photometria]]''.

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Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a [[black body]]. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of [[Earth]] is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via [[Earth observation]] satellite sensors such as [[NASA]]'s [[MODIS]] instruments on board the [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] and [[Aqua (satellite)|Aqua]] satellites, and the CERES instrument on the [[Suomi NPP]] and [[Joint Polar Satellite System|JPSS]]. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of [[directional-hemispherical reflectance]] and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the [[bidirectional reflectance distribution function]] (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo. Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the [[greenhouse effect]] is currently about 15 °C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C. If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C. In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water – a so-called [[ocean planet]] – the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C.

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For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular [[solar zenith angle]] ''θ'' can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: (-) the [[directional-hemispherical reflectance]] at that solar zenith angle, formula_1, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and (-) the [[bi-hemispherical reflectance]], formula_2, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo. with formula_3 being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and formula_4 being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo formula_5 (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: formula_6 This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.

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Albedo

The albedos of [[planet]], [[Natural satellite|satellites]] and [[minor planet]] such as [[asteroid]] can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of [[photometry (astronomy)|photometry]]. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer [[Solar System]] objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about [[regolith]] properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in [[asteroid]]. [[Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]], with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and [[asteroid belt]] have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical [[comet nucleus]] has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily [[space weathering|space weathered]] surface containing some [[organic compound]]. The overall albedo of the [[Moon]] is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-[[Lambertian reflectance|Lambertian]], displaying also a strong [[opposition effect]]. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the [[regolith]] surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) [[geometric albedo]] (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the [[Bond albedo]] (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five [[Hapke parameters]] which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], including a characterization of the opposition effect of [[regolith]] surfaces. The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, [[Absolute magnitude#Absolute magnitude for planets (H)|absolute magnitude]] and diameter is: formula_7, where formula_8 is the astronomical albedo, formula_9 is the diameter in kilometers, and formula_10 is the absolute magnitude.

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Albedo

Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.

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Albedo

The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local [[insolation]] (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]] regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the [[Sahara Desert]], which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. [[Tropical]] and [[sub-tropical]] [[rainforest]] areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their [[temperate forest]] counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the [[Earth]]. This has been a concern since arctic ice and [[snow]] has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This [[Ice–albedo feedback|feedback loop]] results in a reduced albedo effect.

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Albedo

Albedo affects [[climate]] by determining how much [[radiation]] a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive [[weather]].

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Albedo

When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature [[feedback]] results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm [[air mass]]), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local [[weather]] is dynamic due to the change of [[season]], eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher [[insolation]]) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.

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Albedo

Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over [[Antarctica]] snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo [[positive feedback]]). Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for [[global warming]]. [[Cryoconite]], powdery windblown [[dust]] containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.

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Albedo

Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.

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Albedo

Albedo can affect the [[electrical energy]] output of solar [[photovoltaic system|photovoltaic devices]]. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.

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Albedo

Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and [[visible spectrum]] is absorbed through [[photosynthesis]]), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of [[afforestation]] (or offset the negative climate impacts of [[deforestation]]). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through [[evapotranspiration]]. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. [[Deciduous trees]] have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas [[coniferous trees]] have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is correlated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.

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Albedo

Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the [[Fresnel equations]]. At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally [[specular reflection|specular manner]] (not [[Diffuse reflection|diffusely]]). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small [[angle of incidence (optics)|angles of incident]] light, [[waviness]] results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle. Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the [[terminator (solar)|terminator]] (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.

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[[Cloud albedo]] has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth." Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]] of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.

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[[Aerosols]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are: (-) ''Aerosol direct effect.'' Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. (-) ''Aerosol indirect effect.'' Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called [[cloud condensation nuclei]]. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (''first indirect effect''), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (''second indirect effect''). In extremely polluted cities like [[Delhi]], aerosol pollutants influence local weather and induce an [[Urban heat island#Urban cold island|urban cool island]] effect during the day.

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Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from [[black carbon]] particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] estimates that the global mean [[radiative forcing]] for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.

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Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult, further study is required to determine anthropogenic effects.

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[[Single-scattering albedo]] is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material ([[refractive index]]); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.

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'''A''', or '''a''', is the first [[Letter (alphabet)|letter]] and the first [[vowel letter]] of the [[English alphabet|modern English alphabet]] and the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]]. Its name in English is [[English alphabet#Letter names|''a'']] (pronounced ), plural [[English alphabet#Letter names|''aes'']]. It is similar in shape to the [[Greek_alphabet#History|Ancient Greek letter]] [[alpha]], from which it derives. The [[Letter case|uppercase]] version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in [[italic type]]. In the English grammar, "[[English articles|a]]", and its variant "[[English articles#Indefinite article|an]]", are [[Article (grammar)#Indefinite article|indefinite articles]].

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The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is [[aleph]] (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the [[Phoenician alphabet]], which consisted entirely of [[consonant]] (for that reason, it is also called an [[abjad]] to distinguish it from a true [[alphabet]]). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a [[pictogram]] of an ox head in [[proto-Sinaitic script]] influenced by [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. When the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the [[glottal stop]]—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and other [[Semitic languages]], and that was the first [[phoneme]] of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of [[alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the [[Greek Dark Ages]], dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the [[Italian Peninsula]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic script|Etruscan alphabet]] to write the [[Latin|Latin language]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.

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During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media. There was also a [[cursive]] style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as [[letter case|majuscule]] cursive, [[letter case|minuscule]] cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early [[Uncial script#Half-uncial|semi-uncial]], the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. At the end of the [[Roman Empire]] (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of [[Italy]], the [[Merovingian script]] in France, the [[Visigothic script]] in Spain, and the [[Insular script|Insular]] or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the [[Carolingian minuscule|Caroline script]], which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms. 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the ''Italic'' and ''Roman'' forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called ''script a,'' is used in most current [[handwriting]] and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter [[tau]] in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a"). Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Graphic designers refer to the ''Italic'' and ''Roman'' forms as "single decker a" and "double decker a" respectively. [[Italic type]] is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). There are some other cases aside from italic type where ''script a'' ("ɑ"), also called [[Latin alpha]], is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]).

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In modern [[English orthography]], the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds: (-) the [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] as in ''pad''; (-) the [[open back unrounded vowel]] as in ''father'', which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound; (-) the [[diphthong]] as in ''ace'' and ''major'' (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from [[Middle English lengthening]] followed by the [[Great Vowel Shift]]; (-) the modified form of the above sound that occurs [[English-language vowel changes before historic /r/|before ]], as in ''square'' and ''Mary''; (-) the rounded vowel of ''water''; (-) the shorter rounded vowel (not present in [[General American]]) in ''was'' and ''what''; (-) a [[schwa]], in many unstressed syllables, as in ''about'', ''comma'', ''solar''. The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as ''Aaron'' and ''[[aardvark]]''. However, occurs in [[List of Latin-script digraphs|many common digraphs]], all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and . is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after and ), and the second most common in Spanish and French. In one study, on average, about 3.68% of letters used in English texts tend to be , while the number is 6.22% in Spanish and 3.95% in French.

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In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is [[Saanich dialect|Saanich]], in which (and the glyph [[Á]]) stands for a [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]] .

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In phonetic and phonemic notation: (-) in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]], is used for the [[open central unrounded vowel]], and is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. (-) in [[X-SAMPA]], is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]] and is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]].

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In [[algebra]], the letter ''a'' along with various other letters of the alphabet is often used to denote a [[Variable (mathematics)|variable]], with various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics. Moreover in 1637, René Descartes "invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra. In [[geometry]], capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote [[Line segment|segment]], [[line (geometry)|line]], [[Line (geometry)#Ray|rays]], etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a [[triangle]], the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A. "A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; [[A-list]] celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a [[motivation|motivating]] effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters. "A" is used as a prefix on some words, such as [[asymmetry]], to mean "not" or "without" (from Greek). In English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an [[Article (grammar)#Indefinite article|indefinite article]], used to introduce noun phrases. Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a [[brassiere]].

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(-) Æ æ : [[Æ|Latin ''AE'']] ligature (-) A with [[diacritic]]: [[Å|Å å]] [[Ǻ|Ǻ ǻ]] [[Ring (diacritic)|Ḁ ḁ]] [[ẚ]] [[Ă|Ă ă]] [[Ặ|Ặ ặ]] [[Ắ|Ắ ắ]] [[Ằ|Ằ ằ]] [[Ẳ|Ẳ ẳ]] [[Ẵ|Ẵ ẵ]] [[Ȃ|Ȃ ȃ]] [[Â|Â â]] [[Ậ|Ậ ậ]] [[Ấ|Ấ ấ]] [[Ầ|Ầ ầ]] [[Ẫ|Ẫ ẫ]] [[Ẩ|Ẩ ẩ]] [[Ả|Ả ả]] [[Caron|Ǎ ǎ]] [[Bar (diacritic)|Ⱥ ⱥ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ȧ ȧ]] [[Ǡ|Ǡ ǡ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ạ ạ]] [[Ä|Ä ä]] [[Ǟ|Ǟ ǟ]] [[À|À à]] [[Ȁ|Ȁ ȁ]] [[Á|Á á]] [[Ā|Ā ā]] Ā̀ ā̀ [[Ã|Ã ã]] [[Ą|Ą ą]] Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ [[ᶏ]] (-) [[Phonetic transcription#Alphabetic|Phonetic alphabet]] symbols related to A (the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems): (-) Ɑ ɑ : [[Latin alpha|Latin letter alpha / script A]], which represents an [[open back unrounded vowel]] in the IPA (-) ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook (-) Ɐ ɐ : [[Turned A]], which represents a [[near-open central vowel]] in the IPA (-) Λ ʌ : [[Turned V]] (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]] in the IPA (-) Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an [[open back rounded vowel]] in the IPA (-) ᶛ : Modifier letter small turned alpha (-) ᴀ : Small capital A, an [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet]] used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels) (-) ᵄ : Modifier letters are used in the [[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]] (UPA) (sometimes encoded with [[Unicode subscripts and superscripts]]) (-) : Subscript small a is used in [[Indo-European studies]] (-) ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the [[Teuthonista]] phonetic transcription system (-) Ꞻ ꞻ : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of [[Ugaritic]]

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(-) ª : an [[ordinal indicator]] (-) Å : [[Ångström]] sign (-) ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in [[predicate logic]] to specify [[universal quantification]] ("for all") (-) @ : [[At sign]] (-) ₳ : [[Argentine austral]]

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(-) 𐤀 : [[Phoenician alphabet|Semitic]] letter [[Aleph]], from which the following symbols originally derive (-) Α α : [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letter [[Alpha]], from which the following letters derive (-) А а : [[Cyrillic]] letter [[A (Cyrillic)|A]] (-) : [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] letter Alpha (-) 𐌀 : [[Old Italic script|Old Italic]] A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A (-) : [[Runes|Runic]] letter [[Ansuz (rune)|ansuz]], which probably derives from old Italic A (-) : [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] letter aza/asks (-) Ա ա : [[Armenian alphabet|Armenian letter]] [[Ayb (letter)|Ayb]]

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'''Alabama''' () is a state in the [[Southeastern United States|Southeastern]] region of the [[United States]], bordered by [[Tennessee]] to the north; [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east; [[Florida]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to the south; and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|30th largest by area]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|24th-most populous]] of the [[List of U.S. states|U.S. states]]. With a total of of [[inland waterway]], Alabama has among the most of any state. Alabama is nicknamed the ''[[Northern flicker|Yellowhammer]] State'', after the [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]]. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of [[Dixie]]" and the "Cotton State". The [[List of U.S. state trees|state tree]] is the [[longleaf pine]], and the [[List of U.S. state flowers|state flower]] is the [[camellia]]. Alabama's capital is [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The largest city by population is [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], which has long been the most industrialized city; the largest city is [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]]. The oldest city is [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], founded by French [[colonists]] in 1702 as the capital of [[Louisiana (New France)|French Louisiana]]. [[Birmingham metropolitan area, Alabama|Greater Birmingham]] is Alabama's largest urban economy, its most populous urban area, and its economic center. The state's geography is diverse, with the north dominated by the mountainous [[Tennessee Valley]] and the south by [[Mobile Bay]], a historically significant port. Politically, as part of the [[Deep South]], Alabama is now a predominantly conservative state, and it is known for its [[Southern culture]]. Today, [[American football]], particularly at the college level at schools like the [[University of Alabama]], [[Auburn University]], [[Alabama A&M University]], [[Alabama State University]] and [[Jacksonville State University]] is a major part of the state's culture. Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century, founding Mobile in 1702. The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War. Spain held Mobile as part of [[Spanish West Florida]] until 1813; Spain ceded West Florida to the US in 1819. In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major cotton producer and widely used African-American slaves on its plantations. In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the [[Confederate States of America]], with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868.

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From the [[American Civil War]] until [[World War II]], Alabama, like many states in the [[southern U.S.]], suffered economic hardship, in part because of its continued dependence on agriculture. Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed [[Jim Crow laws]] to disenfranchise and otherwise discriminate against [[African Americans]] from the end of the [[Reconstruction Era]] up until at least the 1970s. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, [[White American|white]] rural interests dominated the state legislature from 1901 to the 1960s. During this time, urban interests and African Americans were markedly under-represented. High-profile events such as the [[Selma to Montgomery march]] made the state a major focal point of the [[civil rights movement]] in the 1950s and 1960s. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy changed from one primarily based on [[agriculture]] to one with diversified interests. The state's economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology.

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The European-American naming of the [[Alabama River]] and state was derived from the [[Alabama people]], a [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean-speaking tribe]] whose members lived just below the [[confluence]] of the [[Coosa River|Coosa]] and [[Tallapoosa River|Tallapoosa]] rivers on the upper reaches of the river. In the [[Alabama language]], the word for a person of Alabama lineage is ''Albaamo'' (or variously ''Albaama'' or ''Albàamo'' in different dialects; the plural form is ''Albaamaha''). The suggestion that "Alabama" was borrowed from the [[Choctaw language]] is unlikely. The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the [[Hernando de Soto]] expedition of 1540: [[Garcilaso de la Vega (chronicler)|Garcilaso de la Vega]] used ''Alibamo'', while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote ''Alibamu'' and ''Limamu'', respectively, in [[transliteration]] of the term. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the ''Alibamon'', with French maps identifying the river as ''Rivière des Alibamons''. Other spellings of the name have included ''Alibamu'', ''Alabamo'', ''Albama'', ''Alebamon'', ''Alibama'', ''Alibamou'', ''Alabamu'', ''Allibamou''. Sources disagree on the word's meaning. Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw ''alba'' (meaning "plants" or "weeds") and ''amo'' (meaning "to cut", "to trim", or "to gather"). The meaning may have been "clearers of the thicket" or "herb gatherers", referring to clearing land for cultivation or collecting medicinal plants. The state has numerous [[List of place names in Alabama of Native American origin|place names of Native American origin]]. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language. An 1842 article in the ''Jacksonville Republican'' proposed it meant "Here We Rest". This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of [[Alexander Beaufort Meek]]. Experts in the [[Muskogean languages]] have not found any evidence to support such a translation.

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[[Indigenous peoples]] of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes by the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period (1000BCE700CE) and continued until [[European colonization of the Americas|European contact]]. The agrarian [[Mississippian culture]] covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 CE, with one of its major centers built at what is now the [[Moundville Archaeological Site]] in [[Moundville, Alabama]]. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after [[Cahokia]] in present-day [[Illinois]], which was the center of the culture. Analysis of [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] from [[archaeological]] excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] (SECC). Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to [[Mesoamerica]] culture, but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood. Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the [[Cherokee]], an [[Iroquoian language]] people; and the [[Muskogean]]-speaking [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (''Alibamu''), [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], and [[Koasati]]. While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages.

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The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama during their exploration of North America in the 16th century. The expedition of [[Hernando de Soto]] passed through [[Mabila]] and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at [[Old Mobile Site|Old Mobile]] in 1702. The city was moved to the current site of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of [[La Louisiane]]. After the French lost to the British in the [[Seven Years' War]], it became part of British [[West Florida]] from 1763 to 1783. After the United States victory in the [[American Revolutionary War]], the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813. Thomas Bassett, a [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the [[Tombigbee District]] during the early 1770s. The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the [[Tombigbee River]] and included portions of what is today southern [[Clarke County, Alabama|Clarke County]], northernmost [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]], and most of [[Washington County, Alabama|Washington County]]. What is now the counties of [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] and [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] became part of [[Spanish West Florida]] in 1783, part of the independent [[Republic of West Florida]] in 1810, and was finally added to the [[Mississippi Territory]] in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the [[Yazoo lands]] beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the [[Province of Georgia]] from 1767 onwards. Following the Revolutionary War, it remained a part of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], although heavily disputed. With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the [[Yazoo land scandal]]. Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.

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Before [[Mississippi]]'s admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the [[Alabama Territory]]. The [[United States Congress]] created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817. [[St. Stephens, Alabama|St. Stephens]], now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819. Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention. From July5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to [[Cahaba, Alabama|Cahaba]] in [[Dallas County, Alabama|Dallas County]]. Cahaba, now a [[ghost town]], was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825. The [[Alabama Fever]] land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation. Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men. Southeastern planters and traders from the [[Upper South]] brought [[History of slavery in Alabama|slaves]] with them as the cotton [[List of plantations in Alabama|plantations in Alabama]] expanded. The economy of the central [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton [[Plantation complexes in the Southeastern United States|plantations]] whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor. The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became [[subsistence farmers]]. Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830. Most Native American tribes were [[Indian removal|completely removed]] from the state within a few years of the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]] by Congress in 1830. From 1826 to 1846, [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847. A new capitol building was erected under the direction of [[Stephen Decatur Button]] of [[Philadelphia]]. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of [[Exeter, Maine]].

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By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were [[free people of color]]. On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its [[Secession in the United States|secession]] from the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the [[Confederate States of America]]. The Confederacy's capital was initially at [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. Alabama was heavily [[Alabama in the American Civil War|involved in the American Civil War]]. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]'s battalion in [[Hopkinsville, Kentucky]]. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coat tails. This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army. Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865. Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: [[Jeremiah Haralson]], [[Benjamin S. Turner]], and [[James T. Rapier]]. Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]], state legislators ratified a [[Constitution of Alabama|new state constitution]] in 1868 which created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and [[misappropriation]]. Organized [[insurgent]], resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original [[Ku Klux Klan]], these included the Pale Faces, [[Knights of the White Camellia]], [[Red Shirts (Southern United States)|Red Shirts]], and the [[White League]]. Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875, and the legislature passed the [[Blaine Amendment]], prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools. The same year, legislation was approved that called for [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] schools. Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891. After disenfranchising most African Americans and many poor whites in the 1901 constitution, the Alabama legislature passed more [[Jim Crow laws]] at the beginning of the 20th century to impose segregation in everyday life.

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The new 1901 [[Constitution of Alabama]] included provisions for [[voter registration]] that effectively [[Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|disenfranchised]] large portions of the population, including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans, and tens of thousands of poor whites, through making voter registration difficult, requiring a [[Poll tax (United States)|poll tax]] and [[literacy test]]. The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were [[literate]]. This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades. The state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities into the 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945. While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax. By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African-Americans. Nearly all African Americans had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens. The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes. Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the [[Rosenwald Fund]] began funding the construction of what came to be known as [[Rosenwald School]]. In Alabama these schools were designed and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well. Beginning in 1913, the first 80 [[Rosenwald Schools]] were built in Alabama for African-American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the [[The Rosenwald School Building Fund and Associated Buildings Multiple Property Submission|surviving school buildings]] in the state are now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].

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Continued racial discrimination and [[lynching]], agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to [[boll weevil]] infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] out of the South. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "historical populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920. At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called the "Magic City". By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order. Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war. Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries. Cotton and other [[cash crop]] faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result was that [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson County]], containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25% of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature." In the United States Supreme Court cases of ''[[Baker v. Carr]]'' (1962) and ''[[Reynolds v. Sims]]'' (1964), the court ruled that the principle of "[[one man, one vote]]" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures, and that their districts had to be based on population rather than geographic counties. In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years. Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts.

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African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the [[civil rights movement]], including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor [[George Wallace]], Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for [[desegregation]]. The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the [[Montgomery bus boycott]] (1955–56), [[Freedom Rides]] in 1961, and 1965 [[Selma to Montgomery marches]]. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] by the U.S. Congress. Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but [[Jim Crow]] customs often continued until specifically challenged in court. According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', by 2017, many of Alabama's African-Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also, the [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt region]] across central Alabama "is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include [[Dallas County, Alabama|Dallas]], [[Lowndes County, Alabama|Lowndes]], [[Marengo County, Alabama|Marengo]] and [[Perry County, Alabama|Perry]]." Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, ''[[Dillard v. Crenshaw County]]'', challenged the [[at-large]] voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions. As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], adopted a system of [[proportional representation|cumulative voting]] for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in [[Conecuh County, Alabama|Conecuh County]]. In 1982, limited voting was first tested in [[Conecuh County, Alabama|Conecuh County]]. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens. Beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition. Steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011. However, the state, particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening of the [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] in 1960, a major facility in the development of the Saturn rocket program and the space shuttle. Technology and manufacturing industries, such as automobile assembly, replaced some the state's older industries in the late twentieth century, but the state's economy and growth lagged behind other states in the area, such as Georgia and Florida.

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In 2001, Alabama Supreme Court chief justice [[Roy Moore]] installed a statue of the [[Ten Commandments]] in the capitol in Montgomery. In 2002, the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed, but Moore refused to follow the court order, which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. The monument was removed in August 2003. Natural disasters have plagued the state in the twenty-first century. In 2004, [[Hurricane Ivan]], a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $18 billion of damage. It was the among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history. A [[2011 Super Outbreak|super outbreak]] of 62 tornadoes hit the state in April 2011 and killed 238 people, devastating many communities.

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Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general descent towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. Alabama is bordered by the states of [[Tennessee]] to the north, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east, Florida to the south, and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. The state ranges in elevation from sea level at [[Mobile Bay]] to nearly half a mile in the [[Sand Mountain (Alabama)|northeast]], to wit [[Mount Cheaha]] at . Alabama's land consists of of forest or 67% of total land area. Suburban [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin County]], along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area. Areas in Alabama administered by the [[National Park Service]] include [[Horseshoe Bend National Military Park]] near [[Alexander City, Alabama|Alexander City]]; [[Little River Canyon National Preserve]] near [[Fort Payne, Alabama|Fort Payne]]; [[Russell Cave National Monument]] in [[Bridgeport, Alabama|Bridgeport]]; [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]] in [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]]; and [[Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site]] near Tuskegee. Additionally, Alabama has four [[United States National Forest|National Forests]]: [[Conecuh National Forest|Conecuh]], [[Talladega National Forest|Talladega]], [[Tuskegee National Forest|Tuskegee]], and [[William B. Bankhead National Forest|William B. Bankhead]]. Alabama also contains the [[Natchez Trace Parkway]], the [[Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail]], and the [[Trail of Tears|Trail of Tears National Historic Trail]]. Notable natural wonders include: the [[Natural Bridge, Alabama|"Natural Bridge"]] rock, the longest [[natural bridge]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]], located just south of [[Haleyville, Alabama|Haleyville]]; [[Cathedral Caverns State Park|Cathedral Caverns]] in [[Marshall County, Alabama|Marshall County]], named for its cathedral-like appearance, features one of the largest cave entrances and stalagmites in the world; Ecor Rouge in [[Fairhope, Alabama|Fairhope]], the highest coastline point between [[Maine]] and Mexico; [[DeSoto Caverns]] in [[Childersburg, Alabama|Childersburg]], the first officially recorded cave in the United States; [[Noccalula Falls Park|Noccalula Falls]] in [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] features a 90-foot waterfall; [[Dismals Canyon]] near [[Phil Campbell, Alabama|Phil Campbell]], home to two waterfalls, six natural bridges and allegedly served as a hideout for legendary outlaw Jesse James; Stephens Gap Cave in [[Jackson County, Alabama|Jackson County]] boasts a 143-foot pit, two waterfalls and is one of the most photographed wild cave scenes in America; [[Little River Canyon National Preserve|Little River Canyon]] near [[Fort Payne, Alabama|Fort Payne]], one of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers; [[Rickwood Caverns State Park|Rickwood Caverns]] near [[Warrior, Alabama|Warrior]] features an underground pool, blind cave fish and 260-million-year-old limestone formations; and the [[The Walls of Jericho (canyon)|Walls of Jericho]] canyon on the Alabama-[[Tennessee]] state line.

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A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in [[Elmore County, Alabama|Elmore County]], just north of Montgomery. This is the [[Wetumpka crater]], the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster". A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown [[Wetumpka]] showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth.

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The state is classified as [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] (''Cfa'') under the [[Humid temperate climate|Koppen Climate Classification]]. The average annual temperature is 64°F (18°C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the [[Appalachian Mountains]] in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state. Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to [[tropical storm]] and even [[hurricane]]. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken. South Alabama reports many [[thunderstorm]]. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent [[lightning]] and large [[hail]]; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita. Alabama, along with [[Oklahoma]] and [[Iowa]], has the most confirmed [[Fujita scale|F5]] and [[Enhanced Fujita scale|EF5]] tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the [[National Climatic Data Center]] for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013. Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state. The state was affected by the [[1974 Super Outbreak]] and was devastated tremendously by the [[2011 Super Outbreak]]. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62. The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December besides the typically severe spring. The northern part—along the Tennessee River Valley—is most vulnerable. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as [[Dixie Alley]], as distinct from the [[Tornado Alley]] of the Southern Plains.

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Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the Southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around in Mobile and around in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include [[New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm]] and the [[1993 Storm of the Century]]. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. Alabama's highest temperature of was recorded on September 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of [[Centerville, Alabama|Centerville]]. The record low of occurred on January 30, 1966, in [[New Market, Alabama|New Market]].

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Alabama is home to a diverse array of [[flora]] and [[fauna]] in habitats that range from the [[Tennessee Valley]], [[Appalachian Plateau]], and [[Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians]] of the north to the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]], [[Canebrake (region of Alabama)|Canebrake]], and [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] of the central region to the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] and beaches along the [[Gulf of Mexico]] in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall [[biodiversity]]. Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state. It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 [[pteridophyte]] and [[spermatophyte]] plant species. [[Indigenous (ecology)|Indigenous]] animal species in the state include 62 [[mammal]] [[species]], 93 reptile species, 73 [[amphibian]] species, roughly 307 native [[freshwater fish]] species, and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state. Invertebrates include 97 [[crayfish]] species and 383 [[mollusk]] species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state.

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The [[2020 United States Census]] the population of Alabama was 5,024,279 on April 1, 2020, which represents an increase of 244,543 or 5.12%, since the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]]. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 (502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 into the state. [[Immigration to the United States|Immigration]] from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were undocumented (24,000). The [[center of population]] of Alabama is located in [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], outside the town of [[Jemison, Alabama|Jemison]].

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According to the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]], Alabama had a population of 4,779,736. The racial composition of the state was 68.5% [[White American|White]] (67% [[Non-Hispanic White]] and 1.5% [[Hispanic White]]), 26.2% [[African American|Black or African American]], 3.9% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] of any race, 1.1% Asian, 0.6% [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian and Alaska Native]], 0.1% [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] and Other [[Pacific Islander]], 2% from "Some Other Race", and 1.5% from "Two or More Races". In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age1 were minorities. The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are: American (13.4%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (10.5%), [[English American|English]] (10.2%), [[German Americans|German]] (7.9%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] (2.5%) The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed. In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the [[Alabama Indian Affairs Commission]]. Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has [[State recognized tribes in the United States|officially recognized]] nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the [[Five Civilized Tribes]] of the American Southeast. These are the following. (-) [[Poarch Band of Creek Indians]] (who also have federal recognition) (-) [[MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians]] (-) Star Clan of [[Muscogee Creek people|Muscogee Creeks]] (-) [[Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama]] (-) [[Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama]] (-) Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians (-) ''Ma-Chis'' Lower Creek Indian Tribe (-) ''Piqua'' [[Shawnee]] Tribe (-) ''Ani-Yun-Wiya'' Nation The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day.

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Most Alabama residents (95.1% of those five and older) spoke only English at home in 2010, a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000. Alabama English is predominantly [[Southern American English|Southern]], and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border from [[Tennessee]]. In the major Southern speech region, there is the decreasing loss of the final ''r'', for example the "boyd" pronunciation of "bird". In the northern third of the state, there is a South Midland "arm" and "barb" rhyming with "form" and "orb". Unique words in Alabama English include: redworm ([[earthworm]]), peckerwood ([[woodpecker]]), snake doctor and snake feeder ([[dragonfly]]), tow sack ([[Gunny sack|burlap bag]]), plum peach ([[Clingstone peach|clingstone]]), French harp (harmonica), and dog irons ([[andiron]]).

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In the 2008 [[American Religious Identification Survey]], 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion. The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu. Alabama is located in the middle of the [[Bible Belt]], a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly. A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. , the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the [[Southern Baptist Convention]], [[The United Methodist Church]], and [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational]] Evangelical Protestant. In Alabama, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the [[United Methodist Church]] with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the [[Great Awakening]] of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The [[Assemblies of God]] had almost 60,000 members, the [[Churches of Christ]] had nearly 120,000 members. The [[Presbyterian church]], strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 ([[Presbyterian Church in America|PCA]]—28,009 members in 108 congregations, [[PC(USA)]]—26,247 members in 147 congregations, the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church]]—6,000 members in 59 congregations, the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America]]—5,000 members and fifty congregations plus the [[Edgewater Presbyterian Church|EPC]] and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and nine congregations). In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian [[Canonical Gospels|Gospels]]. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning. In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state. Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including Judaism, [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], the [[Baháʼí Faith]], and [[Unitarian Universalism]]. Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when [[Sephardic Jews]] immigrated from London. The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is [[Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim (Mobile, Alabama)|Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim]] in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844. Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be [[Ashkenazi Jews]] from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], four [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], ten [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], and one [[Humanistic Judaism|Humanistic]] synagogue. Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts. Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by Indian immigrants and their descendants, the best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in [[Pelham, Alabama|Pelham]], the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in [[Capshaw, Alabama|Capshaw]], and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]].

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There are six [[Dharma centre|Dharma centers]] and organizations for [[Theravada]] [[Buddhists]]. Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near [[Bayou La Batre, Alabama|Bayou La Batre]]. This area has attracted an [[Indochina refugee crisis|influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam]] during the 1970s and thereafter. The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan. The first community of adherents of the [[Baháʼí Faith]] in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy, who moved from Chicago to [[Fairhope]]. Baháʼí centers in Alabama exist in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]], and [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]].

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In 2018 life expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years, below the national average of 78.7 years and is the third lowest life expectancy in the country. Factors that can cause lower life expectancy are maternal mortality, suicide, and guns. A [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama is a problem, with most counties having more than 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%. Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time. Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset [[diabetes type II|diabetes]] in the country, exceeding 10% of adults. On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the [[Human Life Protection Act]], banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk", with no exceptions for rape and [[incest]]. The law, if enacted, would punish doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment and be the most restrictive [[abortion law]] in the country. However, on October 29, 2019, U.S. District Judge [[Myron Herbert Thompson|Myron Thompson]] blocked the law from taking effect.

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The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and [[fabrication (metal)|fabrication]]. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates. Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving. According to the U.S. [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the 2008 total [[gross state product]] was $170billion, or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information. In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984. The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015. This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%. Alabama has no minimum wage and in February 2016 passed legislation preventing municipalities from setting one. (A Birmingham [[Local ordinance|city ordinance]] would have raised theirs to $10.10.) , Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S. In 2017, United Nations Special Rapporteur [[Philip Alston]] toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world.

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