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Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski (fr: Vladimir, de: Vlodimir; 7 October 1866 – 13 December 1942) was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders, he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.Early life He was one of nine children of Count Antoni Halka Ledóchowski and the Swiss Countess Joséphine née Salis-Zizers. He was born in a manor house built by his father in Loosdorf, near St. Pölten, Lower Austria. His uncle was Cardinal Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, and two of his sisters entered the religious life and have become known as Saint Urszula Ledóchowska and Blessed Teresa Ledóchowska. His brother, Ignacy Kazimierz Ledóchowski, was a General in the Polish Army. Ledóchowski studied first at the Theresianum in Vienna and was for a time page to the Empress Elizabeth. He went on to study Law at the Jagellonian University in Kraków. He discerned a religious vocation and turned to studies for the priesthood. While attending the Gregorian University in Rome, he applied to join the Jesuits and entered the Society in 1889. Five years later he was ordained priest. At first he took to writing, but was soon made Superior of the Jesuit house in Kraków, then Rector of the College. He became the Polish Vice-Provincial in 1901 and Provincial of Southern Poland in 1902. From 1906 until February 1915 he was an assistant in the German province.

Early career Władysław Starewicz was born in Moscow to ethnic Polish parents from present-day Lithuania. His father, Aleksander Starewicz, was from Surviliškis near Kėdainiai and his mother, Antonina Legęcka, from Kaunas. Both belonged to lesser nobility and were in hiding after the failed January Uprising against the Tsarist Russian domination. Due to his mother's death, he was raised by his grandmother in Kaunas, then the capital of Kaunas Governorate within the Russian Empire. He attended Gymnasium in Dorpat (today Tartu, Estonia), where he worked painting postcards and illustrations for local magazines. Starewicz pursued an artistic career despite the protest of his family, and enrolled in a painting school.Starewicz had interests in a number of different areas; by 1910 he was named Director of the Museum of Natural History in Kaunas, Lithuania. There he made four short live-action documentaries for the museum. For the fifth film, Starewicz wished to record the battle of two stag beetles, but was stymied by the fact that the nocturnal creatures stopped moving or died due to the heat whenever the stage lighting was turned on. Inspired by a viewing of Les allumettes animées [Animated Matches] (1908) by Arthur Melbourne Cooper, Starewicz decided to re-create the fight through stop-motion animation: by replacing the beetles' legs with wire, attached with sealing wax to their thorax, he is able to create articulated insect puppets. The result was the short film Lucanus Cervus (1910), apparently the first animated puppet film and the natal hour of Russian animation. In 1911, Starewicz moved to Moscow and began work with the film company of Aleksandr Khanzhonkov. There he made two dozen films, most of them puppet animations using dead animals. Of these, The Beautiful Leukanida (premiere – 1912), first puppet film with a plot inspired in the story of Agamemnon and Menelaus, earned international acclaim (one British reviewer thought the stars were live trained insects), while The Grasshopper and the Ant (1913) got Starewicz decorated by the czar. But the best-known film of this period was The Cameraman's Revenge (1912), a cynical work about infidelity and jealousy among the insects. Some of the films made for Khanzhonkov feature live-action/animation interaction. In some cases, the live action consisted of footage of Starewicz's daughter Irina. Particularly worthy of note is Starevich's 41-minute 1913 film The Night Before Christmas, an adaptation of the Nikolai Gogol story of the same name. The 1913 film Terrible Vengeance won the Gold Medal at an international festival in Milan in 1914, being just one of five films which won awards among 1005 contestants.During World War I, Starewicz worked for several film companies, directing 60 live-action features, some of which were fairly successful. After the October Revolution of 1917, the film community largely sided with the White Army and moved from Moscow to Yalta on the Black Sea. After a brief stay, Starewicz and his family fled before the Red Army could capture the Crimea, stopping in Italy for a while before joining the Russian émigrés in Paris.

Ladislas Starevich (Russian: Владисла́в Алекса́ндрович Старе́вич, Polish: Władysław Starewicz; August 8, 1882 – February 26, 1965) was a Polish-Russian stop-motion animator notable as the author of the first puppet-animated film The Beautiful Leukanida (1912). He also used dead insects and other animals as protagonists of his films. Following the Russian Revolution, Starevich settled in France.

Ladislas Starevich (Russian: Владисла́в Алекса́ндрович Старе́вич, Polish: Władysław Starewicz; August 8, 1882 – February 26, 1965) was a Polish-Russian stop-motion animator notable as the author of the first puppet-animated film The Beautiful Leukanida (1912). He also used dead insects and other animals as protagonists of his films. Following the Russian Revolution, Starevich settled in France.Early career Władysław Starewicz was born in Moscow to ethnic Polish parents from present-day Lithuania. His father, Aleksander Starewicz, was from Surviliškis near Kėdainiai and his mother, Antonina Legęcka, from Kaunas. Both belonged to lesser nobility and were in hiding after the failed January Uprising against the Tsarist Russian domination. Due to his mother's death, he was raised by his grandmother in Kaunas, then the capital of Kaunas Governorate within the Russian Empire. He attended Gymnasium in Dorpat (today Tartu, Estonia), where he worked painting postcards and illustrations for local magazines. Starewicz pursued an artistic career despite the protest of his family, and enrolled in a painting school.Starewicz had interests in a number of different areas; by 1910 he was named Director of the Museum of Natural History in Kaunas, Lithuania. There he made four short live-action documentaries for the museum. For the fifth film, Starewicz wished to record the battle of two stag beetles, but was stymied by the fact that the nocturnal creatures stopped moving or died due to the heat whenever the stage lighting was turned on. Inspired by a viewing of Les allumettes animées [Animated Matches] (1908) by Arthur Melbourne Cooper, Starewicz decided to re-create the fight through stop-motion animation: by replacing the beetles' legs with wire, attached with sealing wax to their thorax, he is able to create articulated insect puppets. The result was the short film Lucanus Cervus (1910), apparently the first animated puppet film and the natal hour of Russian animation. In 1911, Starewicz moved to Moscow and began work with the film company of Aleksandr Khanzhonkov. There he made two dozen films, most of them puppet animations using dead animals. Of these, The Beautiful Leukanida (premiere – 1912), first puppet film with a plot inspired in the story of Agamemnon and Menelaus, earned international acclaim (one British reviewer thought the stars were live trained insects), while The Grasshopper and the Ant (1913) got Starewicz decorated by the czar. But the best-known film of this period was The Cameraman's Revenge (1912), a cynical work about infidelity and jealousy among the insects. Some of the films made for Khanzhonkov feature live-action/animation interaction. In some cases, the live action consisted of footage of Starewicz's daughter Irina. Particularly worthy of note is Starevich's 41-minute 1913 film The Night Before Christmas, an adaptation of the Nikolai Gogol story of the same name. The 1913 film Terrible Vengeance won the Gold Medal at an international festival in Milan in 1914, being just one of five films which won awards among 1005 contestants.During World War I, Starewicz worked for several film companies, directing 60 live-action features, some of which were fairly successful. After the October Revolution of 1917, the film community largely sided with the White Army and moved from Moscow to Yalta on the Black Sea. After a brief stay, Starewicz and his family fled before the Red Army could capture the Crimea, stopping in Italy for a while before joining the Russian émigrés in Paris.

Early career Władysław Starewicz was born in Moscow to ethnic Polish parents from present-day Lithuania. His father, Aleksander Starewicz, was from Surviliškis near Kėdainiai and his mother, Antonina Legęcka, from Kaunas. Both belonged to lesser nobility and were in hiding after the failed January Uprising against the Tsarist Russian domination. Due to his mother's death, he was raised by his grandmother in Kaunas, then the capital of Kaunas Governorate within the Russian Empire. He attended Gymnasium in Dorpat (today Tartu, Estonia), where he worked painting postcards and illustrations for local magazines. Starewicz pursued an artistic career despite the protest of his family, and enrolled in a painting school.Starewicz had interests in a number of different areas; by 1910 he was named Director of the Museum of Natural History in Kaunas, Lithuania. There he made four short live-action documentaries for the museum. For the fifth film, Starewicz wished to record the battle of two stag beetles, but was stymied by the fact that the nocturnal creatures stopped moving or died due to the heat whenever the stage lighting was turned on. Inspired by a viewing of Les allumettes animées [Animated Matches] (1908) by Arthur Melbourne Cooper, Starewicz decided to re-create the fight through stop-motion animation: by replacing the beetles' legs with wire, attached with sealing wax to their thorax, he is able to create articulated insect puppets. The result was the short film Lucanus Cervus (1910), apparently the first animated puppet film and the natal hour of Russian animation. In 1911, Starewicz moved to Moscow and began work with the film company of Aleksandr Khanzhonkov. There he made two dozen films, most of them puppet animations using dead animals. Of these, The Beautiful Leukanida (premiere – 1912), first puppet film with a plot inspired in the story of Agamemnon and Menelaus, earned international acclaim (one British reviewer thought the stars were live trained insects), while The Grasshopper and the Ant (1913) got Starewicz decorated by the czar. But the best-known film of this period was The Cameraman's Revenge (1912), a cynical work about infidelity and jealousy among the insects. Some of the films made for Khanzhonkov feature live-action/animation interaction. In some cases, the live action consisted of footage of Starewicz's daughter Irina. Particularly worthy of note is Starevich's 41-minute 1913 film The Night Before Christmas, an adaptation of the Nikolai Gogol story of the same name. The 1913 film Terrible Vengeance won the Gold Medal at an international festival in Milan in 1914, being just one of five films which won awards among 1005 contestants.During World War I, Starewicz worked for several film companies, directing 60 live-action features, some of which were fairly successful. After the October Revolution of 1917, the film community largely sided with the White Army and moved from Moscow to Yalta on the Black Sea. After a brief stay, Starewicz and his family fled before the Red Army could capture the Crimea, stopping in Italy for a while before joining the Russian émigrés in Paris.

Ladislas Starevich (Russian: Владисла́в Алекса́ндрович Старе́вич, Polish: Władysław Starewicz; August 8, 1882 – February 26, 1965) was a Polish-Russian stop-motion animator notable as the author of the first puppet-animated film The Beautiful Leukanida (1912). He also used dead insects and other animals as protagonists of his films. Following the Russian Revolution, Starevich settled in France.

Ladislas Starevich (Russian: Владисла́в Алекса́ндрович Старе́вич, Polish: Władysław Starewicz; August 8, 1882 – February 26, 1965) was a Polish-Russian stop-motion animator notable as the author of the first puppet-animated film The Beautiful Leukanida (1912). He also used dead insects and other animals as protagonists of his films. Following the Russian Revolution, Starevich settled in France.

Ladislas Starevich (Russian: Владисла́в Алекса́ндрович Старе́вич, Polish: Władysław Starewicz; August 8, 1882 – February 26, 1965) was a Polish-Russian stop-motion animator notable as the author of the first puppet-animated film The Beautiful Leukanida (1912). He also used dead insects and other animals as protagonists of his films. Following the Russian Revolution, Starevich settled in France.

Last months, capture, imprisonment, execution and burial However, after initial successes against the Russian armies, the Russians moved a 120,000 men strong army to the area and the revolutionaries started to lose most of the skirmishes. Finally, Kalinowski was betrayed by one of his soldiers and handed over to the Russians. He was imprisoned in Vilnius, where he wrote one of his most notable works - the Letter from Beneath the Gallows (Pismo z-pad szybienicy), a passionate credo for his compatriots. He was tried by a court-martial for leading the revolt against Russia and sentenced to death. On 22 March 1864, at the age 26, he was publicly executed on Lukiškės Square in Vilnius.Kalinowski's remains, along with those of others, were clandestinely buried by the Tsarist authorities on the site of a military fortress on top of the Gediminas Hill in Vilnius. In 2017, Kalinowski's remains were excavated and identified, and solemnly reinterred in the Rasos Cemetery on 22 November 2019.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.Early life and education Kalinowski was born in Mastaŭliany, in Grodnensky Uyezd of the Russian Empire (now Mostowlany, Poland) to a szlachta family. The Kalinowski family hailed from the Polish region of Mazovia and bore the Kalinowa coat of arms. His father, Szymon, was a manager of the Mastaŭliany farm and manor. His older brother, Victor Otan Kalinowski would become a historian. In 1849 his father, Szymon bought a folwark near Świsłocz (now Svislach, Belarus) where Kastuś grew up.After graduating from a local school in Świsłocz in 1855, Kalinowski entered the faculty of Medicine of the University of Moscow as an external student. After one semester he moved to St. Petersburg, where his brother was and joined the faculty of Law at the University of St. Petersburg. Along with his brother Victor, he got himself involved in Polish students' conspiracies and secret cultural societies, headed by Zygmunt Sierakowski and Jarosław Dąbrowski. After graduating in 1860, Konstanty traveled to Vilnius where he unsuccessfully applied to join the civil service under Vladimir Ivanovich Nazimov.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.Early life and education Kalinowski was born in Mastaŭliany, in Grodnensky Uyezd of the Russian Empire (now Mostowlany, Poland) to a szlachta family. The Kalinowski family hailed from the Polish region of Mazovia and bore the Kalinowa coat of arms. His father, Szymon, was a manager of the Mastaŭliany farm and manor. His older brother, Victor Otan Kalinowski would become a historian. In 1849 his father, Szymon bought a folwark near Świsłocz (now Svislach, Belarus) where Kastuś grew up.After graduating from a local school in Świsłocz in 1855, Kalinowski entered the faculty of Medicine of the University of Moscow as an external student. After one semester he moved to St. Petersburg, where his brother was and joined the faculty of Law at the University of St. Petersburg. Along with his brother Victor, he got himself involved in Polish students' conspiracies and secret cultural societies, headed by Zygmunt Sierakowski and Jarosław Dąbrowski. After graduating in 1860, Konstanty traveled to Vilnius where he unsuccessfully applied to join the civil service under Vladimir Ivanovich Nazimov.Career Literary work Konstanty then returned to the Grodno area in 1861. Konstanty started publishing Mużyckaja prauda (Peasants' Truth), the first newspaper in Belarusian, written in Łacinka, first published in June 1862. The Peasants' Truth was issued seven times until 1863. Konstanty also published two other Polish language newspapers. Konstanty was more aligned with the Reds which represented a democratic movement uniting peasants, workers, and some clergy rather than the more moderate Whites.In his literary work, Kalinoŭski underlined the need to liberate all people of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Russia's occupation and to conserve and promote the Greek-Catholic faith and Belarusian language. He also promoted the idea of activisation of peasants for the cause of national liberation, the idea that was until then dominated by the gentry. He favored the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's traditions of democracy, tolerance and freedom, as opposed to national oppression of cultures dominated by Imperial Russia:

Early life and education Kalinowski was born in Mastaŭliany, in Grodnensky Uyezd of the Russian Empire (now Mostowlany, Poland) to a szlachta family. The Kalinowski family hailed from the Polish region of Mazovia and bore the Kalinowa coat of arms. His father, Szymon, was a manager of the Mastaŭliany farm and manor. His older brother, Victor Otan Kalinowski would become a historian. In 1849 his father, Szymon bought a folwark near Świsłocz (now Svislach, Belarus) where Kastuś grew up.After graduating from a local school in Świsłocz in 1855, Kalinowski entered the faculty of Medicine of the University of Moscow as an external student. After one semester he moved to St. Petersburg, where his brother was and joined the faculty of Law at the University of St. Petersburg. Along with his brother Victor, he got himself involved in Polish students' conspiracies and secret cultural societies, headed by Zygmunt Sierakowski and Jarosław Dąbrowski. After graduating in 1860, Konstanty traveled to Vilnius where he unsuccessfully applied to join the civil service under Vladimir Ivanovich Nazimov.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.Career Literary work Konstanty then returned to the Grodno area in 1861. Konstanty started publishing Mużyckaja prauda (Peasants' Truth), the first newspaper in Belarusian, written in Łacinka, first published in June 1862. The Peasants' Truth was issued seven times until 1863. Konstanty also published two other Polish language newspapers. Konstanty was more aligned with the Reds which represented a democratic movement uniting peasants, workers, and some clergy rather than the more moderate Whites.In his literary work, Kalinoŭski underlined the need to liberate all people of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Russia's occupation and to conserve and promote the Greek-Catholic faith and Belarusian language. He also promoted the idea of activisation of peasants for the cause of national liberation, the idea that was until then dominated by the gentry. He favored the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's traditions of democracy, tolerance and freedom, as opposed to national oppression of cultures dominated by Imperial Russia:

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.

Last months, capture, imprisonment, execution and burial However, after initial successes against the Russian armies, the Russians moved a 120,000 men strong army to the area and the revolutionaries started to lose most of the skirmishes. Finally, Kalinowski was betrayed by one of his soldiers and handed over to the Russians. He was imprisoned in Vilnius, where he wrote one of his most notable works - the Letter from Beneath the Gallows (Pismo z-pad szybienicy), a passionate credo for his compatriots. He was tried by a court-martial for leading the revolt against Russia and sentenced to death. On 22 March 1864, at the age 26, he was publicly executed on Lukiškės Square in Vilnius.Kalinowski's remains, along with those of others, were clandestinely buried by the Tsarist authorities on the site of a military fortress on top of the Gediminas Hill in Vilnius. In 2017, Kalinowski's remains were excavated and identified, and solemnly reinterred in the Rasos Cemetery on 22 November 2019.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.

Early life and education Kalinowski was born in Mastaŭliany, in Grodnensky Uyezd of the Russian Empire (now Mostowlany, Poland) to a szlachta family. The Kalinowski family hailed from the Polish region of Mazovia and bore the Kalinowa coat of arms. His father, Szymon, was a manager of the Mastaŭliany farm and manor. His older brother, Victor Otan Kalinowski would become a historian. In 1849 his father, Szymon bought a folwark near Świsłocz (now Svislach, Belarus) where Kastuś grew up.After graduating from a local school in Świsłocz in 1855, Kalinowski entered the faculty of Medicine of the University of Moscow as an external student. After one semester he moved to St. Petersburg, where his brother was and joined the faculty of Law at the University of St. Petersburg. Along with his brother Victor, he got himself involved in Polish students' conspiracies and secret cultural societies, headed by Zygmunt Sierakowski and Jarosław Dąbrowski. After graduating in 1860, Konstanty traveled to Vilnius where he unsuccessfully applied to join the civil service under Vladimir Ivanovich Nazimov.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.

Wincenty Konstanty Kalinowski, also known as Kastuś Kalinoŭski (Belarusian: Касту́сь Каліно́ўскі also Belarusian: Вінцэ́нт Канстанці́н Каліно́ўскі, lit. 'Vincent Kanstancin Kalinoŭski', Lithuanian: Konstantinas Kalinauskas) (2 February [O.S. 21 January] 1838 – 22 March [O.S. 10 March] 1864), was a Belarusian and Polish writer, journalist, lawyer and revolutionary. He was one of the leaders of the Polish Lithuanian and Belarusian national revival and the leader of the January Uprising in lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. One of several participants in the failed January Uprisings, Kalinowski is especially revered in Belarus where he is seen as a forefather and icon of Belarusian nationalism.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.Priesthood On 5 June 1976, he was ordained to the priesthood from the diocese of Gniezno by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. He began his work in Kazakhstan on 21 August 1990 as the parish of Mary - Queen of Peace in the village of Lakeside Tayynshinsky region of North Kazakhstan region. On 6 August 1999 Pope John Paul II appointed him Apostolic Administrator in Astana. On 19 March 2001 by decision of the Holy See, Peta was ordained bishop. On 17 May 2003 the Pope lifted the Apostolic Administration in Astana to the level of archdiocese titled Archdiocese of Saint Mary in Astana. Then, on June 16, 2003, Tomasz Peta was appointed Archbishop, Metropolitan Archdiocese of St. Mary in Astana. On 19 May 2003, he was elected President of the Conference of Bishops of Kazakhstan. On 1 April 2008 Pope Benedict XVI entered the Metropolitan Tomasz Peta in the Congregation for the Clergy, dealing with life and work of the priests.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.Priesthood On 5 June 1976, he was ordained to the priesthood from the diocese of Gniezno by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. He began his work in Kazakhstan on 21 August 1990 as the parish of Mary - Queen of Peace in the village of Lakeside Tayynshinsky region of North Kazakhstan region. On 6 August 1999 Pope John Paul II appointed him Apostolic Administrator in Astana. On 19 March 2001 by decision of the Holy See, Peta was ordained bishop. On 17 May 2003 the Pope lifted the Apostolic Administration in Astana to the level of archdiocese titled Archdiocese of Saint Mary in Astana. Then, on June 16, 2003, Tomasz Peta was appointed Archbishop, Metropolitan Archdiocese of St. Mary in Astana. On 19 May 2003, he was elected President of the Conference of Bishops of Kazakhstan. On 1 April 2008 Pope Benedict XVI entered the Metropolitan Tomasz Peta in the Congregation for the Clergy, dealing with life and work of the priests.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.Priesthood On 5 June 1976, he was ordained to the priesthood from the diocese of Gniezno by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. He began his work in Kazakhstan on 21 August 1990 as the parish of Mary - Queen of Peace in the village of Lakeside Tayynshinsky region of North Kazakhstan region. On 6 August 1999 Pope John Paul II appointed him Apostolic Administrator in Astana. On 19 March 2001 by decision of the Holy See, Peta was ordained bishop. On 17 May 2003 the Pope lifted the Apostolic Administration in Astana to the level of archdiocese titled Archdiocese of Saint Mary in Astana. Then, on June 16, 2003, Tomasz Peta was appointed Archbishop, Metropolitan Archdiocese of St. Mary in Astana. On 19 May 2003, he was elected President of the Conference of Bishops of Kazakhstan. On 1 April 2008 Pope Benedict XVI entered the Metropolitan Tomasz Peta in the Congregation for the Clergy, dealing with life and work of the priests.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.Priesthood On 5 June 1976, he was ordained to the priesthood from the diocese of Gniezno by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. He began his work in Kazakhstan on 21 August 1990 as the parish of Mary - Queen of Peace in the village of Lakeside Tayynshinsky region of North Kazakhstan region. On 6 August 1999 Pope John Paul II appointed him Apostolic Administrator in Astana. On 19 March 2001 by decision of the Holy See, Peta was ordained bishop. On 17 May 2003 the Pope lifted the Apostolic Administration in Astana to the level of archdiocese titled Archdiocese of Saint Mary in Astana. Then, on June 16, 2003, Tomasz Peta was appointed Archbishop, Metropolitan Archdiocese of St. Mary in Astana. On 19 May 2003, he was elected President of the Conference of Bishops of Kazakhstan. On 1 April 2008 Pope Benedict XVI entered the Metropolitan Tomasz Peta in the Congregation for the Clergy, dealing with life and work of the priests.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.Priesthood On 5 June 1976, he was ordained to the priesthood from the diocese of Gniezno by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. He began his work in Kazakhstan on 21 August 1990 as the parish of Mary - Queen of Peace in the village of Lakeside Tayynshinsky region of North Kazakhstan region. On 6 August 1999 Pope John Paul II appointed him Apostolic Administrator in Astana. On 19 March 2001 by decision of the Holy See, Peta was ordained bishop. On 17 May 2003 the Pope lifted the Apostolic Administration in Astana to the level of archdiocese titled Archdiocese of Saint Mary in Astana. Then, on June 16, 2003, Tomasz Peta was appointed Archbishop, Metropolitan Archdiocese of St. Mary in Astana. On 19 May 2003, he was elected President of the Conference of Bishops of Kazakhstan. On 1 April 2008 Pope Benedict XVI entered the Metropolitan Tomasz Peta in the Congregation for the Clergy, dealing with life and work of the priests.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.Priesthood On 5 June 1976, he was ordained to the priesthood from the diocese of Gniezno by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. He began his work in Kazakhstan on 21 August 1990 as the parish of Mary - Queen of Peace in the village of Lakeside Tayynshinsky region of North Kazakhstan region. On 6 August 1999 Pope John Paul II appointed him Apostolic Administrator in Astana. On 19 March 2001 by decision of the Holy See, Peta was ordained bishop. On 17 May 2003 the Pope lifted the Apostolic Administration in Astana to the level of archdiocese titled Archdiocese of Saint Mary in Astana. Then, on June 16, 2003, Tomasz Peta was appointed Archbishop, Metropolitan Archdiocese of St. Mary in Astana. On 19 May 2003, he was elected President of the Conference of Bishops of Kazakhstan. On 1 April 2008 Pope Benedict XVI entered the Metropolitan Tomasz Peta in the Congregation for the Clergy, dealing with life and work of the priests.

Tomasz Bernard Peta (Russian: Томаш Бернард Пэта; born on 20 August 1951 in Inowrocław, Poland) is the current Catholic Archbishop of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Saint Mary in the city of Astana, and the President of the Bishops' Conference of Kazakhstan from May 19, 2003. He speaks Polish, Russian and Kazakh language and he is citizen of Kazakhstan.

Aleksander Kakowski (Polish pronunciation: [alɛˈksandɛr kaˈkɔfskʲi]; 5 February 1862 – 30 December 1938) was a Polish politician, diplomat, a member of the Regency Council and, as Cardinal and Archbishop of Warsaw, the last titular Primate of the Kingdom of Poland before Poland fully regained its independence in 1918.Early life He was born on 5 February 1862 in Dębiny near Przasnysz, the son of Franciszek Kakowski and Paulina Ossowska. He was ordained a priest on 30 May 1886 in Warsaw, by Cardinal Wincenty Chościak-Popiel. The following year he became one of the professors at the Warsaw Theological Seminary. In 1910 he became Rector of the Saint Petersburg Roman Catholic Theological Academy, and on 22 July 1913 he was ordained a bishop by Stanisław Zdzitowiecki. On 14 September 1913 he became the archbishop of Warsaw in St. John's Cathedral, thus becoming the titular primate of the Kingdom of Poland.

Aleksander Kakowski (Polish pronunciation: [alɛˈksandɛr kaˈkɔfskʲi]; 5 February 1862 – 30 December 1938) was a Polish politician, diplomat, a member of the Regency Council and, as Cardinal and Archbishop of Warsaw, the last titular Primate of the Kingdom of Poland before Poland fully regained its independence in 1918.

Early life He was born on 5 February 1862 in Dębiny near Przasnysz, the son of Franciszek Kakowski and Paulina Ossowska. He was ordained a priest on 30 May 1886 in Warsaw, by Cardinal Wincenty Chościak-Popiel. The following year he became one of the professors at the Warsaw Theological Seminary. In 1910 he became Rector of the Saint Petersburg Roman Catholic Theological Academy, and on 22 July 1913 he was ordained a bishop by Stanisław Zdzitowiecki. On 14 September 1913 he became the archbishop of Warsaw in St. John's Cathedral, thus becoming the titular primate of the Kingdom of Poland.

Early life He was born on 5 February 1862 in Dębiny near Przasnysz, the son of Franciszek Kakowski and Paulina Ossowska. He was ordained a priest on 30 May 1886 in Warsaw, by Cardinal Wincenty Chościak-Popiel. The following year he became one of the professors at the Warsaw Theological Seminary. In 1910 he became Rector of the Saint Petersburg Roman Catholic Theological Academy, and on 22 July 1913 he was ordained a bishop by Stanisław Zdzitowiecki. On 14 September 1913 he became the archbishop of Warsaw in St. John's Cathedral, thus becoming the titular primate of the Kingdom of Poland.

Aleksander Kakowski (Polish pronunciation: [alɛˈksandɛr kaˈkɔfskʲi]; 5 February 1862 – 30 December 1938) was a Polish politician, diplomat, a member of the Regency Council and, as Cardinal and Archbishop of Warsaw, the last titular Primate of the Kingdom of Poland before Poland fully regained its independence in 1918.Early life He was born on 5 February 1862 in Dębiny near Przasnysz, the son of Franciszek Kakowski and Paulina Ossowska. He was ordained a priest on 30 May 1886 in Warsaw, by Cardinal Wincenty Chościak-Popiel. The following year he became one of the professors at the Warsaw Theological Seminary. In 1910 he became Rector of the Saint Petersburg Roman Catholic Theological Academy, and on 22 July 1913 he was ordained a bishop by Stanisław Zdzitowiecki. On 14 September 1913 he became the archbishop of Warsaw in St. John's Cathedral, thus becoming the titular primate of the Kingdom of Poland.

On 28 November 1919, he was the main consecrator of Achille Ratti, the papal nuncio to Poland who later became Pope Pius XI. On 15 December, Kakowski himself was made a cardinal. During his service as the Archbishop of Warsaw, Kakowski promoted the creation of a strong Catholic press. He was one of the authors of the success of Rycerz Niepokalanej, one of the most popular newspapers in prewar Poland. He was also the main creator of the theological faculty at the Warsaw University and of the Catholic Action movement. For his role in liberating Poland from foreign occupation, he was awarded the Order of the White Eagle, the highest Polish decoration, in 1925; in July 1938, he even briefly appeared as the head of that order's chapter. In 1930, he also became a "bailiff of honour and devotion" of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. His successor, August Hlond, was to reintroduce the title of Primate of Poland after the Second World War, but Kakowski continued to style himself Primate of the Kingdom of Poland until his death, on 30 December 1938.

Early life He was born on 5 February 1862 in Dębiny near Przasnysz, the son of Franciszek Kakowski and Paulina Ossowska. He was ordained a priest on 30 May 1886 in Warsaw, by Cardinal Wincenty Chościak-Popiel. The following year he became one of the professors at the Warsaw Theological Seminary. In 1910 he became Rector of the Saint Petersburg Roman Catholic Theological Academy, and on 22 July 1913 he was ordained a bishop by Stanisław Zdzitowiecki. On 14 September 1913 he became the archbishop of Warsaw in St. John's Cathedral, thus becoming the titular primate of the Kingdom of Poland.

Early life He was born on 5 February 1862 in Dębiny near Przasnysz, the son of Franciszek Kakowski and Paulina Ossowska. He was ordained a priest on 30 May 1886 in Warsaw, by Cardinal Wincenty Chościak-Popiel. The following year he became one of the professors at the Warsaw Theological Seminary. In 1910 he became Rector of the Saint Petersburg Roman Catholic Theological Academy, and on 22 July 1913 he was ordained a bishop by Stanisław Zdzitowiecki. On 14 September 1913 he became the archbishop of Warsaw in St. John's Cathedral, thus becoming the titular primate of the Kingdom of Poland.

Melchior Grodziecki (c. 1582 – 7 September 1619) was a Silesian Jesuit priest. He is considered a martyr and saint by the Catholic Church. He was canonized in 1995 and is liturgically commemorated on 7 September.Biography He was born in Těšín into the noble Grodziecki family, and received his education in the Jesuit college of Vienna. In 1603 he entered the Jesuit novitiate of Brno. After making his first religious profession in 1605, he went on to the Jesuit College in Kłodzko (1606–1607). To be able to teach in high schools, he spent a year in the seminary in České Budějovice. In 1608, he returned to Kłodzko to complete his education in music. He graduated from philosophy and theology in the Clementinum of Prague and in 1614 was ordained a priest. From 1616, he was entrusted with the management of a hostel in Prague for poor students.After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), he was sent to Kassa, Kingdom of Hungary (today Košice, Slovakia) with Hungarian István Pongrácz, a colleague from the Jesuit seminary. When the army of the Prince of Transylvania, George Rákóczi, took Kassa, Melchior stayed at the castle, together with István Pongrácz and canon Marko Krizin. On 7 September 1619, the Transylvanian army stormed the castle and arrested the priests. They gave them a death sentence on charges of treason; accusing them of inviting the Polish army into Kassa. They were tortured and then beheaded that day. The execution of the priests, known for their gentleness and courtesy, shocked the local population, Catholics and Protestants alike.The bodies of the martyrs were recovered, after negotiations with Gabriel Bethlen, and were buried in the vicinity of Kassa. In 1636, they were moved to Nagyszombat (today: Trnava, Slovakia).

Korczak Ziolkowski (Polish: Korczak Ziółkowski; September 6, 1908 – October 20, 1982) was the Polish-American designer and sculptor of the Crazy Horse Memorial.Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.

Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.

Korczak Ziolkowski (Polish: Korczak Ziółkowski; September 6, 1908 – October 20, 1982) was the Polish-American designer and sculptor of the Crazy Horse Memorial.Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.

Sources Ziółkowska-Boehm, Aleksandra, Nie tylko Ameryka (Not Only America), Warsaw, 1992; ISBN 83-900358-1-2. Ziółkowska-Boehm, A., The Roots Are Polish, Toronto, 2004; ISBN 0-920517-05-6 Ziółkowska-Boehm, A., Otwarta rana Ameryki (America's Open Wound), Bielsko Biala, 2007; ISBN 978-83-7167-556-0 Ziółkowska-Boehm, A., Open Wounds: A Native American Heritage, Nemsi Books, Pierpont, S.D., 2009; ISBN 978-0-9821427-5-2 Thomas Powers, The Killing of Crazy Horse, Alfred A.Knopf, 2010 ISBN 978-0-375-41446-6 Korczak – Storyteller in Stone, crazyhorsememorial.org

== References ==

Korczak Ziolkowski (Polish: Korczak Ziółkowski; September 6, 1908 – October 20, 1982) was the Polish-American designer and sculptor of the Crazy Horse Memorial.Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.

Korczak Ziolkowski (Polish: Korczak Ziółkowski; September 6, 1908 – October 20, 1982) was the Polish-American designer and sculptor of the Crazy Horse Memorial.Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.

Korczak Ziolkowski (Polish: Korczak Ziółkowski; September 6, 1908 – October 20, 1982) was the Polish-American designer and sculptor of the Crazy Horse Memorial.

Korczak Ziolkowski (Polish: Korczak Ziółkowski; September 6, 1908 – October 20, 1982) was the Polish-American designer and sculptor of the Crazy Horse Memorial.Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.

Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.Last years and death Ziolkowski continued his work until he died of acute pancreatitis in 1982 at the age of 74 in Sturgis, SD. He was buried in an impressive tomb that he had built, with a huge steel plate on which he cut the words, "Korczak; Storyteller in Stone; May His Remains; Be Left Unknown" at the base of the mountain. After his death, his widow, Ruth Ziolkowski, took over the project as director of the Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation.Ruth Ziolkowski died May 21, 2014, aged 87. All ten of their children and two of their grandchildren have continued the carving of the monument or are active in the Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation. The rocks that are blasted away are placed in a rock crusher and used for the roads at the complex. When completed, the memorial will be the focal point of a massive university campus and cultural complex celebrating the Native Americans of North America.

Korczak Ziolkowski (Polish: Korczak Ziółkowski; September 6, 1908 – October 20, 1982) was the Polish-American designer and sculptor of the Crazy Horse Memorial.Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.

Korczak Ziolkowski (Polish: Korczak Ziółkowski; September 6, 1908 – October 20, 1982) was the Polish-American designer and sculptor of the Crazy Horse Memorial.Early life Ziolkowski was born September 6, 1908, in Boston to Polish parents. Orphaned at the age of one when both his parents died in a boating accident, he grew up in a series of foster homes, and was raised by an Irish boxer. Although he never received any formal art training, his gifts as a sculptor began to show at an early age. After putting himself through Rindge Technical School, he became an apprentice to a Boston ship maker.He began to carve wood and by the age of 20 had become an accomplished furniture maker. His first marble sculpture, made in 1932, honored Judge Frederick Pickering Cabot, who had inspired him as a child growing up in the rough neighborhoods of Boston. Ziolkowski moved to New Britain, Connecticut, to begin life as a professional artist, and began to sell commissioned sculptures throughout New England and New York. In 1939, Ziolkowski was hired as a sculptor's assistant by Gutzon Borglum on his Mount Rushmore project. According to Lincoln Borglum, Gutzon's son, he was unhappy, having expected to be made the primary assistant. Instead, Lincoln was the primary assistant, and when Ziolkowski argued about his orders, Borglum fired him by telegram. A fistfight between Lincoln and Ziolkowski had to be broken up.His sculpture of Ignacy Jan Paderewski won first prize at the 1939 New York World's Fair. The resulting fame, as well as his familiarity with the Black Hills, prompted several Lakota Chiefs, including Lakota elder Henry Standing Bear, to write to him about a monument honoring Crazy Horse. Chief Henry Standing Bear wrote, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know the red man has great heroes, too."Ziolkowski met with the leaders shortly afterward and began planning a monument. Over the next few years, he conducted research and began planning the sculpture. He also met Ruth Ross, a young art enthusiast, who would later become his second wife. He put the project on hold when the United States entered World War II. He volunteered for service and joined the United States Army on May 17, 1943. He was wounded in 1944 at Omaha Beach in Normandy. He was discharged as a sergeant on November 5, 1945. In 1947 Ziolkowski moved to the Black Hills and began to search for a suitable mountain for his sculpture. He thought the Wyoming Tetons would be the best choice, where the rock would be better for carving, but the Lakota wanted the memorial in the sacred Black Hills on a 600-foot (180 m)-high mountain. The monument was expected to be the largest sculpture in the world. When completed, it would be 563 feet (172 m) high by 641 feet (195 m) long. Crazy Horse's head would be large enough to contain all the 60-foot (18 m)-high heads of the Presidents at Mount Rushmore. On June 3, 1948, the first blast was made, and the memorial was dedicated to the Native American people. In 1950, Ziolkowski met Ruth Ross, 18 years his junior, who was a volunteer at the monument. She became Ziolkowski's second wife that year. Work continued slowly, since he refused to accept government grants. Instead, as he stated on a 1961 guest appearance on the TV show To Tell the Truth, he raised money for the project by charging seventy-five cents admission to the monument work area.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.Early years Ossendowski was born on 27 May 1876, at his family's manorial estate near Ludza, in what was then the Vitebsk Governorate and is now Latvia. His family was Protestant with Lipka Tatar roots. He studied at the famous gymnasium in Kamieniec Podolski, but he moved with his father, a renowned doctor, to Saint Petersburg, where he graduated from a Russian language school. Then he joined the mathematical-physical faculty of the local university, where he studied chemistry. As an assistant to professor Aleksander Zalewski, he traveled to many distant areas, including Siberia, the Caucasus and the Altay Mountains. During the summer, he was frequently enrolled as a ship's writer on the Odessa-Vladivostok line, a job that allowed him to visit many parts of Asia, including Japan, Sumatra, China, Malaya and Indonesia. For his description of his trip to Crimea and Constantinople, he received his first royalty. His record of a trip to India (Chmura nad Gangesem: A Cloud Over the Ganges) gained the prestigious Petersburg Society of Literature prize. In 1899, after a students' riot in Saint Petersburg, Ossendowski was forced to leave Imperial Russia and move to Paris, where he continued his studies at the Sorbonne, his professors being Maria Curie-Skłodowska and Marcelin Berthelot. It is possible that he received a doctorate back in Russia, but no documents have survived. In 1901 he was allowed to return to Russia, where professor Zalewski invited him to the newly founded Institute of Technology of the Tomsk State University. There, he gave lectures on chemistry and physics. At the same time he also gave lectures at the Agricultural Academy and published numerous scientific works on hydrology, geology, physical chemistry, geography and physics. After the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) Ossendowski moved to Harbin in Manchuria, where he founded a Central Technical Research Laboratory, a Russian-financed institution for development of the ore deposits in the area. At the same time, he headed the local branch of the Russian Geographic Society in Vladivostok. As such he made numerous trips to Korea, Sakhalin, Ussuri and the shores of the Bering Strait. In Manchuria, he also became one of the leaders of the considerable Polish diaspora and published his first novel in Polish, Noc (Night). He also got involved in the Main Revolutionary Committee, a leftist organisation that tried to take power in Manchuria during the Revolution of 1905. After the failure of the revolution, Ossendowski organised a strike against the brutal repressions in Congress Poland for which he was arrested. A military tribunal sentenced him to death for conspiracy against the tsar, but his sentence was later commuted to several years' hard labour.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Early years Ossendowski was born on 27 May 1876, at his family's manorial estate near Ludza, in what was then the Vitebsk Governorate and is now Latvia. His family was Protestant with Lipka Tatar roots. He studied at the famous gymnasium in Kamieniec Podolski, but he moved with his father, a renowned doctor, to Saint Petersburg, where he graduated from a Russian language school. Then he joined the mathematical-physical faculty of the local university, where he studied chemistry. As an assistant to professor Aleksander Zalewski, he traveled to many distant areas, including Siberia, the Caucasus and the Altay Mountains. During the summer, he was frequently enrolled as a ship's writer on the Odessa-Vladivostok line, a job that allowed him to visit many parts of Asia, including Japan, Sumatra, China, Malaya and Indonesia. For his description of his trip to Crimea and Constantinople, he received his first royalty. His record of a trip to India (Chmura nad Gangesem: A Cloud Over the Ganges) gained the prestigious Petersburg Society of Literature prize. In 1899, after a students' riot in Saint Petersburg, Ossendowski was forced to leave Imperial Russia and move to Paris, where he continued his studies at the Sorbonne, his professors being Maria Curie-Skłodowska and Marcelin Berthelot. It is possible that he received a doctorate back in Russia, but no documents have survived. In 1901 he was allowed to return to Russia, where professor Zalewski invited him to the newly founded Institute of Technology of the Tomsk State University. There, he gave lectures on chemistry and physics. At the same time he also gave lectures at the Agricultural Academy and published numerous scientific works on hydrology, geology, physical chemistry, geography and physics. After the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) Ossendowski moved to Harbin in Manchuria, where he founded a Central Technical Research Laboratory, a Russian-financed institution for development of the ore deposits in the area. At the same time, he headed the local branch of the Russian Geographic Society in Vladivostok. As such he made numerous trips to Korea, Sakhalin, Ussuri and the shores of the Bering Strait. In Manchuria, he also became one of the leaders of the considerable Polish diaspora and published his first novel in Polish, Noc (Night). He also got involved in the Main Revolutionary Committee, a leftist organisation that tried to take power in Manchuria during the Revolution of 1905. After the failure of the revolution, Ossendowski organised a strike against the brutal repressions in Congress Poland for which he was arrested. A military tribunal sentenced him to death for conspiracy against the tsar, but his sentence was later commuted to several years' hard labour.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

World War II After the 1939 Invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II, Ossendowski remained in Warsaw, where he lived at 27 Grójecka Street. In 1942 he converted to Catholicism (previously being a Lutheran), and the following year, he joined the ranks of the underground National Party. He worked in the structures of the Polish Secret State and cooperated with the Government Delegate's Office in preparation of the underground education in Poland during World War II and postwar learning programmes. After the Warsaw Uprising, Ossendowski, now seriously ill, moved to the village of Żółwin, near the Warsaw suburb of Milanówek. On 2 January 1945, he was taken to the hospital in Grodzisk Mazowiecki where he died on 3 January 1945. He was buried the following day in the local cemetery in Milanówek.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.World War II After the 1939 Invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II, Ossendowski remained in Warsaw, where he lived at 27 Grójecka Street. In 1942 he converted to Catholicism (previously being a Lutheran), and the following year, he joined the ranks of the underground National Party. He worked in the structures of the Polish Secret State and cooperated with the Government Delegate's Office in preparation of the underground education in Poland during World War II and postwar learning programmes. After the Warsaw Uprising, Ossendowski, now seriously ill, moved to the village of Żółwin, near the Warsaw suburb of Milanówek. On 2 January 1945, he was taken to the hospital in Grodzisk Mazowiecki where he died on 3 January 1945. He was buried the following day in the local cemetery in Milanówek.

World War II After the 1939 Invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II, Ossendowski remained in Warsaw, where he lived at 27 Grójecka Street. In 1942 he converted to Catholicism (previously being a Lutheran), and the following year, he joined the ranks of the underground National Party. He worked in the structures of the Polish Secret State and cooperated with the Government Delegate's Office in preparation of the underground education in Poland during World War II and postwar learning programmes. After the Warsaw Uprising, Ossendowski, now seriously ill, moved to the village of Żółwin, near the Warsaw suburb of Milanówek. On 2 January 1945, he was taken to the hospital in Grodzisk Mazowiecki where he died on 3 January 1945. He was buried the following day in the local cemetery in Milanówek.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (Polish pronunciation: [fɛrˈdɨ.nant anˈtɔ.ɲi ɔs.sɛnˈdɔf.ski]; 27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he participated.

Onufry Pietraszkiewicz (1793–1863) was a Polish poet from Shchuchyn. One of the founders of the Philomaths, he was arrested by the Russian Empire government and sentenced to exile into Russia, first to Moscow, then after helping some other Polish exile escape, deep into Siberia. He became known as an activist of Polish culture, helping other exiles. He is buried at the Rasos Cemetery in Vilnius.

Onufry Pietraszkiewicz (1793–1863) was a Polish poet from Shchuchyn. One of the founders of the Philomaths, he was arrested by the Russian Empire government and sentenced to exile into Russia, first to Moscow, then after helping some other Polish exile escape, deep into Siberia. He became known as an activist of Polish culture, helping other exiles. He is buried at the Rasos Cemetery in Vilnius.

The Polish minority in Ukraine officially numbers about 144,130 (according to the 2001 census), of whom 21,094 (14.6%) speak Polish as their first language. The history of Polish settlement in current territory of Ukraine dates back to 1030–31. In Late Middle Ages, following the extinction of the Rurik dynasty in 1323, the Kingdom of Poland extended east in 1340 to include the lands of Przemyśl and in 1366, Kamianets-Podilskyi (Kamieniec Podolski). The settlement of Poles became common there after the Polish–Lithuanian peace treaty signed in 1366 between Casimir III the Great of Poland, and Liubartas of Lithuania.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.

Stanisław Lorentz (28 April 1899 – 15 March 1991) was a Polish scholar of museology and history of art. He was director of the National Museum in Warsaw in the years 1935-1985, deputy to Sejm - the Polish Parliament (1965–69), and an UNESCO expert for the protection of monuments and historic sites.Life Born in Radom, Lorentz moved to Warsaw where he studied Philosophy and History of Art at Warsaw University. In 1924 he defended his doctoral thesis (a monograph of Ephraim Szreger - Warsaw architect of the Age of Enlightenment). He moved to Vilnius in 1929, where he worked as the Art conservation officer in the regions of Vilnius (e.g. protection of the ruins of Peninsula Castle in Trakai) and Novogrodek as well as lectured at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (then in Poland, now Vilnius in Lithuania). From 1935 he was director of the National Museum in Warsaw. With the title of "Polish head of the museum under the German commissioner", he remained engaged at the National Museum. He was a high-ranking member of the Polish Underground State during the German occupation of Poland, tasked with preserving Polish cultural heritage. After the war in 1945, he resumed his post as the director of the National Museum in Warsaw. In 1982 he was dismissed as a director because of joining the "Solidarity" movement. He became an honorary director from 1990 until his death in 1991. In 1947 he became a professor at the University of Warsaw, in 1949 a member of Polish Academy of Learning, and in 1952, the Polish Academy of Sciences. He was a member of several governmental departments and commissions related to art conservation and was also a deputy to Polish Sejm (1965–1969). He was a UNESCO expert on Polish and international cultural heritage, highly active in the restoration of the Royal Castle, Warsaw and Old Town in Havana, Cuba. Lorentz conducted an intensive correspondence with Lithuanian art conservation specialist Vladas Drėma. The letters were published in 1998.