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C Programming/Beginning exercises. Simple I/O. String manipulation. 1. Write a program that prompts the user for a string (pick a maximum length), and prints its reverse. 2. Write a program that prompts the user for a sentence (again, pick a maximum length), and prints each word on its own line. Loops. 1. Write a function that outputs a right isosceles triangle of height and width "n", so "n = 3" would look like 2. Write a function that outputs a sideways triangle of height "2n-1" and width "n", so the output for "n = 4" would be: 3. Write a function that outputs a right-side-up triangle of height "n" and width "2n-1"; the output for "n = 6" would be: Program Flow. 1. Build a program where control passes from main to four different functions with 4 calls. 2. Now make a while loop in main with the function calls inside it. Ask for input at the beginning of the loop. End the while loop if the user hits Q 3. Next add conditionals to call the functions when the user enters numbers, so 1 goes to function1, 2 goes to function 2, etc. 4. Have function 1 call function a, which calls function b, which calls function c 5. Draw out a diagram of program flow, with arrows to indicate where control goes Functions. 1. Write a function to check if an integer is negative; the declaration should look like bool is_positive(int i); 2. Write a function to raise a floating point number to an integer power, so for example to when you use it float a = raise_to_power(2, 3); //a gets 8 float b = raise_to_power(9, 2); //b gets 81 float raise_to_power(float f, int power); //make this your declaration Math. 1. Write a function to calculate if a number is prime. Return 1 if it is prime and 0 if it is not a prime. 2. Write a function to determine the number of prime numbers below n. 3. Write a function to find the square root by using . 4. Write functions to evaluate the trigonometric functions. 5. Try to write a random number generator. 6. Write a function to determine the prime number(s) between 2 and 100. Recursion. Merge sort. 1. Write a C program to generate a random integer array with a given length n , and sort it recursively using the Merge sort algorithm. - sorting a one element array is easy. - sorting two one-element arrays, requires the merge operation. The merge operation looks at two sorted arrays as lists, and compares the head of the list , and which ever head is smaller, this element is put on the sorted list and the head of that list is ticked off, so the next element becomes the head of that list. This is done until one of the lists is exhausted, and the other list is then copied onto the end of the sorted list. - the recursion occurs, because merging two one-element arrays produces one two-element sorted array, which can be merged with another two-element sorted array produced the same way. This produces a sorted 4 element array, and the same applies for another 4 element sorted array. - so the basic merge sort, is to check the size of list to be sorted, and if it is greater than one, divide the array into two, and call merge sort again on the two halves. After wards, merge the two halves in a temporary space of equal size, and then copy back the final sorted array onto the original array. Binary heaps. 2. Binary heaps : - given a position i (the parent) , i*2 is the left child, and i*2+1 is the right child. - ( C arrays begin at position 0, but 0 * 2 = 0, and 0 *2 + 1= 1, which is incorrect , so start the heap at position 1, or add 1 for parent-to-child calculations, and subtract 1 for child-to-parent calculations ). in descending order. Dijkstra's algorithm. Dijkstra's algorithm is a searching algorithm using a priority queue. It begins with inserting the start node with a priority value of 0. All other nodes are inserted with priority values of large N. Each node has an adjacency list of other nodes, a current distance to start node, and previous pointer to previous node used to calculate current node. Alternative to an adjacency list, is an adjacency matrix, which needs n x n boolean adjacencies. The algorithm basically iterates over the priority queue, removing the front node, examining the adjacent nodes, and updating with a distance equal to the sum of the front nodes distance for each adjacent node , and the distance given by the adjacency information for an adjacent node. After each node's update, the extra operation "update priority" is used on that node : "while" the node's distance is less than it's parents node ( for this priority queue, parents have lesser distances than the children), the node is swapped with the parent. After this, "while" the node is greater distance than one or more of its children, it is swapped with the least distant child, so the least distant child becomes parent of its greater distant sibling, and parent to the greater distant current node. With updating the priority, the adjacent node to the current node has a back pointer changed to the current node. The algorithm ends when the target node becomes the current node removed, and the path to the start node can be recorded in an array by following back pointers, and then doing something like a quick sort partition to reverse the order of the array , to give the shortest path to target node from the start node. Quick sort. 3. Write a C program to recursively sort using the Quick sort partition exchange algorithm. - an advantage of reuse is less writing time, debugging time, testing time. classes : those elements less than the partition value, the partition element, and everything above (and equal to ) the partition element. and one at the element next to the partition element , and repeatedly scanning the left pointer right, and the right pointer left. and these are swapped, which uses the temporary extra space. should occur before swapping, otherwise the right pointer may be swapping a less-than-partition element previously scanned by the left pointer. element just before the last element. This happens when all the elements are less than the partition. - if the right pointer is chosen to swap with the partition, then an incorrect state results where the last element of the left array becomes less than the partition element value. - if the left pointer is chosen to swap with the partition, then the left array will be less than the partition, and partition will have swapped with an element with value greater than the partition or the partition itself. - The left pointer stops on the first out of order element. The right pointer begins on the first out-of-order element, but the outer loop exits because this is the leftmost element. The partition element is then swapped with the left pointer's first element, and the two elements are now in order. - In the case of a 2 element in order array, the leftmost pointer skips the first element which is less than the partition, and stops on the partition. The right pointer begins on the first element and exits because it is the first position. The pointers have crossed so the outer loop exits. The partition swaps with itself, so the in-ordering is preserved. the plus one the intended initial scan positions, and use the pre-increment and pre-decrement operators e.g. ( ++i, --i) .

Chinese (Mandarin). "This book teaches Standard Mandarin Chinese. For other uses, see ." Welcome to the Mandarin Wikibook, a free Chinese textbook on the Standard Mandarin dialect. This page links to lessons using Simplified Han characters (used in mainland China, Singapore and Malaysia). There is also a Traditional Han Character Version available (used in Taiwan, Macau, and Hong Kong). Contributors. __NOEDITSECTION__

Chinese (Mandarin)/About Chinese. =About Chinese= The Chinese language (汉语/漢語, 华语/華語 or 中文; Pinyin: Hanyu, Huayu, Zhongwen) is a member of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. About one-fifth of the world speaks some form of Chinese as its native language, making it the most common natively-spoken language in the world. There is great internal variety within Chinese, and spoken Chinese languages such as Standard Mandarin (Putonghua), Shanghainese (Wu), and Cantonese, which are not mutually intelligible. Nevertheless, there is a single standardized form of Chinese known as Standard Mandarin, which is based on the dialect of Beijing, which is in turn its own Mandarin dialect, among a large and diverse group of Chinese dialects spoken in Northern and Southwestern China. Standard Mandarin is the official language of Mainland China and Taiwan, one of four official languages of Singapore, and one of six official languages of the United Nations. Standard Mandarin also corresponds to the modern standard written Chinese language used by people speaking all forms of Chinese from all corners of China, including Mandarin, Wu, Cantonese, Hakka, Min-nan, and so forth. This textbook will teach Standard Mandarin, both spoken and written. Chinese grammar is in many ways simpler than European languages (for example, you will see no tenses, plurals, or subject-verb agreement), but there are also plenty of pitfalls that will trip up the unsuspecting beginner (for example, you will encounter tones, measure words, and discourse particles, which do not feature as strongly in European languages). In addition, the complexity of the writing system often daunts newcomers, as Chinese is one of the few languages in the world that does not use an alphabet or a syllabary; instead, thousands of characters are used, each representing a word or a part of a word. However, most complex Chinese characters are composed of only a few hundred simpler characters and many contain phonetic hints. There is a common Western misconception of Chinese writing as having thousands of distinct and idiomatic symbols each representing a single word. However, Chinese writing is surprisingly mnemonic, granted it is not as simple as the writing of Romance languages. The government of China has developed a system of writing Standard Mandarin pronunciation in the Roman alphabet, known as "Hanyu Pinyin", or simply, "pinyin" (汉语拼音/漢語拼音, "spelling according to sounds"). Hanyu Pinyin is used to write out Chinese words phonetically in an effort to help learners of Chinese with their pronunciation. This wikibook will teach you Hanyu Pinyin first, before any actual sentences. All examples and new vocabulary will always be given together with Hanyu Pinyin. There are two character sets: Simplified Chinese characters (简体字/簡體字, Pinyin: Jiǎntǐzì) and Traditional Chinese characters (繁体字/繁體字, Pinyin: Fántǐzì). Traditional characters trace their lineage through thousands of years of Chinese history, and continue to be used in Hong Kong, Macau, Republic of China, and among many overseas Chinese. Simplified Chinese characters were the result of reforms carried out in Mainland China to increase literacy rates and is now used in Singapore as well. Many people may think that Simplified Chinese was made by the PRC government, but in fact many characters in Simplified Chinese were assembled from the calligraphy in ancient China. There is no denying however that some characters were made up recently. Two systems share many of the same characters or with systematic, predictable reductions in stroke; however, some changes are not as formulaic. As a result, most native Chinese speakers are able to write in only one of the two systems, though they can usually read both. You are recommended to do the same. It is considered easier for people who learn Traditional to read both sets than people who learn Simplified only, but Simplified characters are less intimidating for beginners. In this wikibook, all examples and vocabulary are given in both systems, and you are encouraged to choose one system and stick with it throughout. Chinese characters have also been used in the past by other neighbouring Asian countries, and are still being used by some of them today. Some older Koreans still know how to read and write Chinese characters, but although the members of younger generations are taught Chinese characters or "hanja", they are rarely used and unnecessary for literacy in Korean, with the native alphabet, "hangul". Chinese characters are occasionally used for abbreviations, to clarify technical vocabulary (as Chinese serves roughly the same role in Korean that Latin serves in English), and to write family and many personal names. The Japanese still preserve many Chinese characters or "kanji" today and use them along with two syllabaries to write the Japanese language.

Chinese (Mandarin)/Web Resources. WikiMedia Sites. See more at Wikipedia.

Objective-C Programming/syntax. Objective-C is an object-oriented programming language, and is a layer over the . This means that if you know how to write C, there are only a few syntax changes to learn. In this section, we will look at how we can implement classes and instantiate objects in Objective-C. If you are unfamiliar with object-oriented programming, see . Basic syntax. If you have studied C, you can skip this section and proceed to the next section, A word on runtimes. If not, or if you're a little rusty, read on. In C, code is contained within a function. Functions are composed of several statements, each of which are terminated by a semicolon. For example, a simple function in C to add two numbers may look like this: int add (int a, int b) int c; c = a + b; return c; This sample has the following lines: For control flow, C and Objective-C use: The for, while, and do statements will continue execution of a loop until the condition is false. The switch and if statements jump to different statements depending on the condition. Objective-C does not implement or import any functions by default. Instead, they need to be imported by using the codice_1 preprocessor directive. (#include works too, but generally it is not used in Objective-C - #import works better because it won't import the same thing twice like #include can try to do) A word on runtimes. Objective-C requires what is known as a "runtime system" to provide you with Objective-C features. The runtime takes care of the creation, management, and destruction of objects. If you have the gcc compiler, you should have the Objective-C runtime already installed. Otherwise, you may have to install the runtime separately. Note that gcc is a compiler collection; the full install contains not only the C compiler, but also C++, Java, Objective-C and even Fortran-95 and Ada 2005 compilers. However, it is possible to install gcc only partially, for example only the C compiler. Therefore, the Objective-C runtime may or may not be installed with gcc. Check your distribution. Two main systems are used to run Objective-C programs: This text assumes you are using the GNU runtime, but the two runtime systems are almost identical. This text does not cover the OPENSTEP, Cocoa, or GNUstep frameworks, but the skills learned here will be helpful when developing with those systems. Writing classes in Objective-C. Writing an Objective-C class requires a few design decisions before we start writing any code. Say we are writing a class to represent a point called Point in a two-dimensional plane. We need to ask ourselves two questions: For this example, we'll use double variables for the "x" and "y" coordinates. We'll define a method to get both coordinates, and we'll define a method to get their distance from the origin. The interface. @interface Point : Object @private double x; double y; - (id) x: (double) x_value; - (double) x; - (id) y: (double) y_value; - (double) y; - (double) magnitude; @end Let's examine what each element of this interface means. @interface Point : Object The @interface line says that we begin the declaration of the Point interface. We inherit from another class called Object. Objective-C provides you with a generic class, called Object. The Object class is a "root class" -- it does not inherit from another class. The Object class provides a set of methods that provide key functionality for an object to be used and recognized by the Objective-C runtime. As in C, we need to include Object's header file, Object.h, before we can use the set of methods declared in the header. If you don't explicitly inherit from some class, your class becomes a root class. (In Objective-C, there can be many root classes.) That's probably not what you want to do, because creating a root class is a very tricky and advanced topic that is only useful in very specific situations. In most cases, you will want to inherit from Object or some class that inherits from Object, etc. If you develop in NeXTStep / GNUstep / Cocoa, you will mostly be using another root class called NSObject, which provides different basic methods than Object. The word import means that we only include the file "once". This solves problems like recursive includes. @private double x; double y; Anything between the braces in an interface declaration specifies the instance variables that the class has. The @private line is a visibility modifier: it says that the instance variables after it are "private", i.e. they are accessible only from the class that declares them. It is good practice to mark all your instance variables private: they contain the state of an object and they should never be changed except by the object itself. - (id) x: (double) x_value; The declarations for the methods come after the instance variables. This is a declaration for the method to set the x value. It's common Objective-C style to name the setter method with the same name as the variable it's setting. The hyphen specifies an instance method (we'll look at these later). Then comes the name for the method (this method is called x: - note the colon), and the colon signifies an argument, called x_value, and is of type double. The cast on the x_value argument is necessary, because unlike C, the default type is id, and not int. The type id is very special—it is a type that can hold "any" object whatsoever. The first cast is not strictly necessary, but should be used for clarity. The first cast tells us that the method x returns an object back. - (double) x; This is another method named x (no colon), but it returns a double. This is the specification for the method that gets the value of the x variable. There is no conflict with the previous method because the types are different, and the previous method takes one argument whilst this takes none. @end After all the methods and instance variables are specified, this symbol marks the end of the declaration. The interface specification goes in a .h file—a header file. It's customary to call the file after the class, so we would create a file called Point.h. The implementation. @implementation Point - (id) x: (double) x_value x = x_value; return self; - (double) x return x; - (id) y: (double) y_value y = y_value; return self; - (double) y return y; - (double) magnitude return sqrt(x*x+y*y); @end This is the implementation for the Point class. We implement the methods in the interface defined above. Let's have a look at each element of the implementation in turn. Again, we import Point's interface, just as we do in C. @implementation Point This is a marker that identifies the beginning of the implementation. - (id) x: (double) x_value x = x_value; return self; This is a typical method implementation. We can use the x variable directly without having to declare it since it is already declared in the interface, and is accessible only to the methods of this class. The behaviour, in general, is like an ordinary C function. Here we assign the value of the argument x_value to the instance variable x. The function then, returns the entire, current object as modified. The keyword self represents the current object. - (double) x return x; Here is the simple method to get the value of the x variable. We simply return it. The behaviour for the other methods should be similar to those above. The @end keyword ends the implementation. The implementation specification goes in a .m file. It's customary to call the file after the class, so we would create a file called Point.m. Using the objects. Since Objective-C comes from C, we write a main function to make use of the class that we just created. Here's one typical main function. int main(void) Point *point = [Point new]; [point x:10.0]; [point y:12.0]; printf("The distance from the point (%g, %g) to the origin is %g.\n", [point x], [point y], [point magnitude]); return 0; Let's examine what happens here. We import the interface to Point so we can use it. We import stdio.h so we can use printf. Point *point = [Point new]; This is a typical Objective-C method call: [point x:10.0]; [point y:12.0]; These are some typical instance method calls. We call point's method x: and y:. In Objective-C terminology, we say that we send point a message to apply to the method x:. These messages assign point's x and y variables. Recall that the x: and y: methods had in them return self;. This means that we can chain the two messages together, as follows: [[point x:10.0] y:12.0]; The message [point x:10.0] returns an object, point, with its x variable set. Then "on that object", the outer message assigns its y variable. printf("The distance from the point (%g, %g) to the origin is %g.\n", [point x], [point y], [point magnitude]); The printf statement has in it the method calls [point x], which returns the value of the x variable for printing, [point y], which does the same for the y variable for printing, and [point magnitude] which calculates the distance and returns that value.

GCSE Science/Electricity multiple choice practice question 7. What is the maximum power that an appliance should have if it connect to a 230V supply by a 5A cable ?

GCSE Science/Electricity multiple choice practice question 7 Answer 2. Well done this is the correct answer. On to the next question»

GCSE Science/Electricity multiple choice practice question 7 Answer 1. Sorry this is an incorrect answer. Remember that to find the power you need to "multiply" the current and the voltage. «Go back and try again

GCSE Science/Electricity multiple choice practice question 7 Answer 3. Sorry but this isn't the correct answer. Be careful about powers of ten when you when you do a calculation, especially when using a calculator. «Go back and try again

GCSE Science/Electricity multiple choice practice question 7 Answer 4. Sorry but this is the wrong answer. Remember you need to "multiply" the voltage and the current together to get the power. «Go back and try again

GCSE Science/Electricity multiple choice practice question 8. The graph above shows how the potential difference across a conductor varied with the current flowing through it. Which of the following statements is true ?

GCSE Science/Electricity multiple choice practice question 8 answer 4. Sorry this is the wrong answer.It is quite possible to answe this question from the information given. From Ohm's Law But V/I is also the "slope" (or "gradient") of the line on the graph. So with a constant slope, we must have a constant resistance. Go back and try again»

Trigonometry. All help is welcome. Trigonometry Book 1. Book 1 is pre-calculus trigonometry. We assume the student is relatively new to algebra and can do algebra step by step. Many of the pages have closely related free/YouTube videos at the Khan Academy. This is by design. Many students find the video presentation helpful with learning mathematical material. As with all three trigonometry books, we have a "For Enthusiasts" section, which is for the student who finds the normal content and pace too slow and too easy, and yet still needs exercises and practice with Book 1 trigonometry. Trigonometry Book 2. Book 2 is also pre-calculus trigonometry. However, the algebra moves at a brisker pace than in Book 1. The topics are not central to understanding trigonometry as it is usually taught in schools, now that a lot of former content has been dropped. One rule of thumb of the topics in Book 2 is the union of the set of all topics in high-school contest related to trigonometry, applications, and the topics in the classical book "Plane and Spherical Trigonometry" by Palmer (link), subtracting any thoroughly discussed topics in Book 1, and excluding any topic that requires substantial use of calculus or the concept of limit (which should be done in Book 3). The topics are useful, for example, for students interested in maths contests. In the enthusiasts section there are topics and exercises that are useful to students who will go on to do work with computer graphics. Book 2 trigonometry deepens the understanding of the many relationships "between triangles and circles". It also shows how to tackle some harder trigonometric function identities. Where do These Belong? "This section is for Book 2 pages where we don't yet know how they should fit in. Teachers Notes. Scrap Heap. These are pages that are on the way out. Trigonometry Book 3. Book 3 uses and builds on calculus, complex numbers, matrices. We assume the student is relatively fluent with algebra. We will often combine simple steps to keep proofs/explanations short. Book 1 is a prerequisite, but book 2 isn't. There are many computing related topics, particularly in the "for Enthusiasts" section. Where do These Belong? "This section is for Book 3 pages where we don't yet know how they should fit in. Authors. , , , , Also thanks to the many contributors to mathematical articles on Wikipedia from which some of the content has been lifted.

Trigonometry/Radians. There are formula_1 in<br> a complete circle Units of Measure. We have been measuring angles in degrees, with formula_1 in a complete circle. However, what if we measured the circle according to how many units we went around it. Think about it this way, do you measure the runner going around the circular track according to the degrees from the centre or the meters around the circle? The obvious answer is meters around the circle. However, how do you measure this in trigonometry? Choice of Units for Length and Weight. In measuring many quantities we have a choice of units. For example with distances we can use the metric system and measure in metres, kilometres, centimetres, millimetres. It is also possible to measure distances in miles, yards, feet and inches. With weights we can measure in kilogrammes and grammes. We can also measure in pounds and ounces. Choice of Units for Measuring Time. In measuring time we choose to have 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour. We could devise a new more metric system for time and divide an hour into 100 units, each three fifths of our current minute, and then divide these shorter 'minutes' up into 100 units each of which would be about a third of a second. Why 60? Why 360? The choice of dividing into 60 is not entirely arbitrary. 60 can be divided evenly into 2,3,4,5 or 6 or 10 or 12 parts. 60 can't be divided evenly into 7 equal parts, each a whole number in size, but it's still pretty good. Using 360 degrees in a full circle gives us many ways to divide the circle evenly with a whole number of degrees. Nevertheless, we could divide the circle into other numbers of units. Metric Degrees? From the earlier talk of the metric system you might be anticipating that we are about to divide the circle up into 100 or 1000 'degrees'. There "is" actually a unit called the 'grade' or 'Gradian' (Grad on calculators which have it) in which angles are measured by dividing a right angle up into 100 equal parts, each of one Gradian in size. One Gradian is 0.9 of a degree - quite close to being one degree. The grade is in turn divided into 100 minutes and one minute into 100 seconds. This "centesimal" system (from the Latin "centum", 100) was introduced as part of the metric system after the French Revolution. The Gradian unit is nothing like as widely used as either degrees or the units that interests us most on this page. The unit we introduce here is called the Radian. Radians is the circumference measure at<br> the point from formula_3. Choice of Units for Radians. Radians are quite large compared to degrees (and to Gradians). There are about 6.28 Radians to a complete circle. There are about 57.3 degrees in one Radian. Are the statements: Compatible? It is not hard to check. We said "there are about 6.28 Radians to a complete circle". The exact number is formula_6, making the number of radians in a complete circle the same as the length of the circumference of a unit circle. Remember that: The circumference of a circle is<br> formula_7<br> where formula_8 is the radius. Justifying Choice of Units for Radians. At this stage in explaining trigonometry it is rather difficult to justify the use of these strange units. There aren't even an exact whole number of radians in a complete circle. In more advanced work, particularly when we use calculus they become the most natural units to use for angles with functions like formula_9 and formula_10. A flavour of that, but it is only a hint as to why it is a good unit to use, is that for very small angles. And the approximation is better the smaller the angle is. This "only works if we choose Radians as our unit of measure" and very small angles. We claim that for small angles measured in radians the angle measure and the sine of the angle are very similar. Let us take one millionth of a circle. In degrees that is 0.00036 degrees. In Radians that is formula_12 Radians. The angle of course is the same. It's one millionth of a circle, however we choose to measure it. It is just as with weights where a weight is the same whether we measure it in kilogrammes or pounds. The sine of this angle, which is the same value whether we chose to measure the angle in degrees or in radians, it turns out, is about 0.00000628. If your calculator is set to use degrees then formula_13 will give you this answer. The Radian Measure. There are<br> formula_6 Radians<br> in a complete circle. It is traditional to measure angles in degrees; there are 360 degrees in a full revolution. In mathematically more advanced work we use a different unit, the radian. This makes no fundamental difference, any more than the laws of physics change if you measure lengths in metres rather than inches. In advanced work, If no unit is given on an angle measure, the angle is assumed to be in radians. formula_15 A notation used to make it really clear that an angle is being measured in radians is to write 'radians' or just 'rad' after the angle. Very very occasionally you might see a superscript c written above the angle in question. What You need to Know. For book one of trigonometry you need to know how to convert from degrees to radians and from radians to degrees. You also need to become familiar with frequently seen angles which you know in terms of degrees, such as formula_16 in terms of radians as well (it's formula_17 Radians). Angles in Radians are nearly always written in terms of multiples of Pi. You will also need to be familiar with switching your calculator between degrees and radians mode. Everything that is said about angles in degrees, such as that the angles in a triangle add up to 180 degrees has an equivalent in Radians. The angles in a triangle add up to formula_18 Radians. Defining a radian. A single radian is defined as the angle formed in the minor sector of a circle, where the minor arc length is the same as the radius of the circle. formula_19 Measuring an angle in radians. The size of an angle, in radians, is the length of the circle arc "s" divided by the circle radius "r". formula_20 We know the circumference of a circle to be equal to formula_21 , and it follows that a central angle of one full counterclockwise revolution gives an arc length (or circumference) of formula_22 . Thus formula_6 radians corresponds to formula_1 , that is, there are formula_6 radians in a circle. Converting between Radians and Degrees. Because there are formula_6 radians in a circle: To convert degrees to radians: formula_27 To convert radians to degrees: formula_28 Exercises.

How to Write an Essay. Contributing. This is a wiki textbook -- feel free to edit it, update it, correct it, and otherwise increase its teaching potential.

How to Write an Essay/Authors. Original Author: Modified by

Cell Biology/Cell division/Cell cycle. The normal cell cycle consists of 2 major stages. The first is interphase, during which the cell lives and grows larger. The second is Mitotic Phase. Interphase is composed of three subphases. G1 phase (first gap), S phase (synthesis), and G2 phase (second gap). The interphase is the growth of the cell. The normal cell functions of creating proteins and organelles. The Mitotic Phase is composed of Mitosis and Cytokinesis. Mitosis, when the cell divides. Mitosis can be further divided into multiple phases. Cytokinesis, which is when the two daughter cells complete their separation. Mitosis is the division of the nucleus and cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm. There is some overlap between there two sub phases. Reproductive cell division is called meiosis, which yields a nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes. In other words, they have half as many chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis occurs in gonads, ovaries or testes. Therefore combining two gametes together produce 46 chromosomes. From Wikipedia. The cell cycle is the cycle of a biological cell, starting from the time it is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two cells, consisting of repeated mitotic cell division and interphase (the growth phase). A cell spends the overwhelming majority of its time in the interphase(about 90% of time). Background Information. DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, consists of four nucleic acids, A, T, C, and G. In a cell, the DNA provides the directions for creating all of the proteins necessary for cell viability, health, growth, function, and replication. The unique DNA sequence that encodes each protein is called a gene, and the complete set of genes for an organism or cell is referred to as it's genome. Prokaryotic genomes are often a single long DNA molecule, and Eukaryotic genomes consist of number of DNA molecules. A typical human cell has about 2 m of DNA, which is 250,000 times greater than the cell's diameter. Before a cell divides the DNA is first copied then separated so that each daughter cell ends up with a complete genome. Chromosomes are the packaged DNA molecules. Because of chromosomes, the replication and distribution of so much DNA is manageable. Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus. They contain two sets of each chromosome: one set inherited from each parent. For example human somatic cells (all body cells except the reproductive cells) each contain 46 chromosomes; the reproductive cells, gametes, have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells. The number of chromosomes in somatic cells varies widely among species. Eukaryotic chromosomes are made of chromatin that is a complex of DNA and associated protein molecules. Each single chromosome contains one very long, linear DNA molecule that carries several hundred to a few thousand genes; the associated proteins maintain the structure of the chromosome and help control the gene activity. When a cell is not dividing, each chromosome is a long thins chromatic fiber; however after DNA duplication chromosomes condense. Each chromatin fiber coils and folds. Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, containing an identical DNA molecule, initially attached along adhesive protein complex; such attachment is called sister chromatid cohesion. In condensed form of chromosome, a center narrow part is called centromere, a specialized region where the two chromatids are closely attached. The other part of a chromatid on either side of the centromere is referred as arm. Once the sister chromatids separate, they are considered individual chromosomes. Overview. The mitotic phase includes both mitosis and cytokinesis which is usually the shortest part of the cell cycle. Interphase accounts about 90%of the cycle; during interphase the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. Interphase is divided into sub-phases: G1 phase ("first gap"), the S phase ("synthesis"), and G2 phase ("second gap"). The chromosomes are duplicated only during the S phase. During G1 phase cell grows until S phase where the cell prepares for the cell division during G2 phase. Based on human cell, M phase only takes about 1 hour while the S phase occupies about 10-12 hours. The cell cycle consists of The cell cycle stops at several checkpoints and can only proceed if certain conditions are met, for example, if the cell has reached a certain diameter. Some cells, such as neurons, never divide once they become locked in a G0 phase. Mitosis. Mitosis has five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitotic spindle starts to form in the cytoplasm during prophase. it is made of microtubules and other associated proteins. while the mitotic spindle assembles, the microtubules of the cytoskeleton disassemble, providing the material used to construct the spindle. In animal cells, the assembly of spindle microtubules starts at the centrosome, the microtubule-organizing center. In plant cells, the centrioles are not present. During interphase in animal cells, the single centrosome replicates; the two centrosomes remain together near the nucleus and they move apart during prophase and prometaphase of mitosis as spindle microtubules grows. The two centrosomes are located at the opposite end of the cell. Then aster, a radial array of short microtubules, extends from each centrosome. Kinetochore is a structure of proteins associated with specific sections of chromosomal DNA at the centromere. Each of the two sister chromatids of a replicated chromosome contains kinetochore as it face in opposite direction. During prometaphase, kinetochore microtubules form as come of the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores. After the microtubules are attached to chromosome's kinetochores, the chromosome begins to move towards the pole from which those microtubules extend. the chromosomes moves in a motion like a tug-of-war. Metaphase plate is the imaginary plane that formed during metaphase the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are on the plane midway between the spindle's two poles. The other microtubules that did not attach to kinetochores overlap and interact with other nonkinetochore microtubules from the opposite pole. The nonkinetochore microtubules are responsible for elongating the whole cell during anaphase. During anaphase, the cohesins holding the sister chromatids of each chromosome are cleaved by enzymes. Then the chromatids separated, and they move towards the opposite ends of the cell. The region of overlap is reduced as motor proteins attached to the microtubules move away from one another, using ATP. As the microtubules push apart from each other, their spindle poles are pushed apart, elongating the cell. As the duplicate groups of chromosomes arrive at the opposite ends of the elongated parent cell, the telophase begins; during telophase nuclei reforms and cytokinesis begins. Cytokinesis. The cytokinesis process begins with cleavage. Cleavage furrow, a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate, is the first sign of cleavage. As it process, contractile ring of actin microfilaments form on the cytoplasmic side. The actin microfilaments interact with the myosin molecules, and cause the ring to contract. As the cleavage furrow deepens, the cell is separated into two with its own nucleus. For plant cells, there is no cleavage furrow because they have the cell walls. Instead of forming cleavages, vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the middle of the cells, and forms cell plate. As the cell plate enlarges, and surrounding membrane fuses with the plasma membrane along the perimeter of the cell and from two daughter cells. Binary Fission. Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction by "division in half". In prokaryotes, binary fission does not involve mitosis, but in single celled eukaryotes that undergo binary fission. In bacteria, motst genes are carried on a single bacterial chromosome that consists of a circular DNA molecule and associated proteins. The chromosome of the bacterium Escherichia coli, is 500 times as long as the cell when it is sctreched out. At the origin of replication, DNA of the bacterial chromosome begins to replicate. As the chromosome continues to replicate, one origin moves rapidly toward the opposite end of the cell, and the cell elongates. When the replication is complete the bacterium is about twice its initial size, and its plasma membrane grows inward, dividing the parent E. coli cell into two daughter cells. Bacteria don’t have mitotic spindles; the two origins of replication end up at opposite ends of the cell or in some other very specific location. The Evolution of Mitosis. Since the prokaryotes were on Earth more than a billion years than eukaryotes that mitosis had its origins in simpler prokaryotic mechanism of the cell reproduction can be assumed. Some of the proteins involved in bacterial binary fission are related to eukaryotic proteins that function in mitosis. Possible hypothesis of evolution of mitosis is that prokaryotic cell's reproduction gave rise to mitosis. The Cell Cycle Control System. Based from mammalian cell grow experiment, possible hypothesis was supported: the cell cycle is driven by specific signaling molecules present in the cytoplasm. In this experiment two cells in different phase of the cell cycle were fused to form a single cell with two nuclei. One cell was in the S phase and the other was in G1, and G1 nucleus immediately entered the S phase, as though stimulated by chemicals present in the cytoplasm of the first cell. Therefore, if a cell undergoing mitosis (M phase) was fused with another cell in any stage of its cell cycle, the second nucleus enteres mitosis. Other experiments on animal cells and yeasts demonstrates the sequential events of the cell cycle control system; the cell cycle control system operates set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycles. The cell cycle control system proceeds on its own, but it is regulated at certain checkpoints by internal and external signals. Animal cells have built-in stop signals that halt the cell cycle at checkpoints until they get go-ahead signals. The signals report whether crucial cellular processes that should have occurred by that point have in fact been completed correctly and thus whether or not the cell cycle should proceed. The three check points are in G1, G2, and M phase. For mammalian cells, G1 check points are the most important. When a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, the cell complete the G1, S, G2 and M phases and divide; however when a cell does not get a go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle and enter non dividing state, G0 phase. Most of human cells are in G0 phase, such as mature nerve cells and muscle cells. However the liver cells can re-enter the cycle by external signals such as growth factor released during injury. Rhythmic fluctuations in the abundance and activity of cell cycle control molecules pase the sequential events of the cell cycle. The regulatory molecules are portins of two types: protein kinases and cyclins. Portin kinases are enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating. The protein kinases give the go-ahead signals at the G1 and G2 checkpoints. The kinases that drive the cell cycle are present at a constant concentration in the growing cell, but they are in an inactive form. In order to activate them, kinase must be attached to a cyclin, a protein that cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell. Because of such requirement, these are called cyclin-dependent kinases or Cdks. The activity of cdks rises and falls with changes in the concentration of its cyclin partner. The cylclin level rises during the S and G2 phases and then falls rapidly during M phase. MPF, the maturation -promoting factor, or M-phase -promoting factor, activity corresponds to the peaks of cyclin concentration. MPF triggers the cell's passage past the G2 checkpoint into M phase. MPF acts both directly as a kinase and indirectly by activating other kinases. During anaphase, MPF hels switch itself off by initiating a process that leads to the destruction of its own cyclin. The Cdk, noncyclin part of MPF, persists in the cell in inactive form until it associates with new cyclin molecules synthesized during the S and G2 phase of the next round of the cycle. Density-dependent inhibition is a phenomenon in which crowded cells stop dividing. It is caused by external physical factor. Also most animal cells exhibit anchorage dependence; in order to divide, the cells must be attached to a substratum; like a cell density, anchorage is signaled to the cell cycle control system via pathways involving plasma membrane proteins and elements of cytoskeleton linked to them. The loss of cell cycle controls leads to cancer cells, which exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence. Reference. Berg, Jeremy M., John L. Tymoczko, and Lubert Stryer. Biochemistry. 7th ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 2012. Print. Reece, Campbell, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minosky, and Robert B. Jackson. Biology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Cummings, 2010. Print.

Cell Biology/Cell division/Meiosis. Meiosis is a special type of cell division that is designed to produce gametes. Before meiosis occurs, the cell will be double diploid and have a pair of each chromosome, the same as before mitosis. Meiosis consists of 2 cell divisions, and results in four cells. The first division is when genetic crossover occurs and the traits on the chromosomes are shuffled. The cell will perform a normal prophase, then enter metaphase during which it begins the crossover, then proceed normally through anaphase and telophase. The first division produces two normal diploid cells, however the process is not complete. The cell will prepare for another division and enter a second prophase. During the second metaphase, the chromosome pairs are separated so that each new cell will get half the normal genes. The cell division will continue thorough anaphase and telophase, and the nuclei will reassemble. The result of the divisions will be 4 haploid gamete cells. Crossover. Crossover is the process by which two chromosomes paired up during prophase I of meiosis exchange a distal portion of their DNA. Crossover occurs when two chromosomes, normally two homologous instances of the same chromosome, break and connect to each other's ends. If they break at the same locus, this merely results in an exchange of genes. This is the normal way in which crossover occurs. If they break at different loci, the result is a duplication of genes on one chromosome and a deletion on the other. If they break on opposite sides of the centromere, this results in one chromosome being lost during cell division. Any pair of homologous chromosomes may be expected to cross over three or four times during meiosis. This aids evolution by increasing independent assortment, and reducing the genetic linkage between genes on the same chromosome.

Cell Biology/Cell division/Mitosis. Mitosis is the normal type of cell division. Before the cells can divide, the chromosomes will have duplicated and the cell will have twice the normal set of genes. The first step of cell division is prophase, during which the nucleus dissolves and the chromosomes begin migration to the midline of the cell. (Some biology textbooks insert a phase called "prometaphase" at this point.)The second step, known as metaphase, occurs when all the chromosomes are aligned in pairs along the midline of the cell. As the cell enters anaphase, the chromatids, which form the chromosomes, will separate and drift toward opposite poles of the cell. As the separated chromatids, now termed chromosomes, reach the poles, the cell will enter telophase and nuclei will start to reform. The process of mitosis ends after the nuclei have reformed and the cell membrane begins to separate the cell into two daughter cells, during cytokinesis. The mitotic phase which includes both mitosis and cytokinesis is the shortest part of the cell cycle. The interphase cycle accounts for about 90% of the cell cycle. This phase is where the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. In the G1 phase which is also called the “first gap” the cell grows as it copies its chromosomes. In S phase, the cell starts to synthesize the DNA and completes preparation for cell division. In G2 it starts to divide. In biology, Mitosis is the process of chromosome segregation and nuclear division that follows replication of the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. This process assures that each daughter nucleus receives a complete copy of the organism's genetic material. In most eukaryotes, mitosis is accompanied with cell division or cytokinesis, but there are many exceptions, for instance among fungi. There is another process called meiosis, in which the daughter nuclei receive half the chromosomes of the parent, which is involved in gamete formation and other similar processes, which makes the parent cell still active. Mitosis is divided into several stages, with the remainder of the cell's growth cycle considered interphase. Properly speaking, a typical cell cycle involves a series of stages: G1, the first growth phase; S, where the genetic material is duplicated; G2, the second growth phase; and M, where the nucleus divides through mitosis. Mitosis is divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The whole procedure is very similar among most eukaryotes, with only minor variations. As prokaryotes lack a nucleus and only have a single chromosome with no centromere, they cannot be properly said to undergo mitosis. Prophase. The genetic material (DNA), which normally exists in the form of chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome. Since the genetic material has been duplicated, there are two identical copies of each chromosome in the cell. Identical chromosomes (called sister chromosomes) are attached to each other at a DNA element present on every chromosome called the centromere. When chromosomes are paired up and attached, each individual chromosome in the pair is called a chromatid, while the whole unit (confusingly) is called a chromosome. Just to be even more confusing, when the chromatids separate, they are no longer called chromatids, but are called chromosomes again. The task of mitosis is to assure that one copy of each sister chromatid - and only one copy - goes to each daughter cell after cell division. The other important piece of hardware in mitosis is the centriole, which serves as a sort of anchor. During prophase, the two centrioles - which replicate independently of mitosis - begin recruiting microtubules (which may be thought of as cellular ropes or poles) and forming a mitotic spindle between them. By increasing the length of the spindle (growing the microtubules), the centrioles push apart to opposite ends of the cell nucleus. It should be noted that many eukaryotes, for instance plants, lack centrioles although the basic process is still similar. Prometaphase. Some biology texts do not include this phase, considering it a part of prophase. In this phase, the nuclear membrane dissolves in some eukaryotes, reforming later once mitosis is complete. This is called open mitosis, found in most multicellular forms. Many protists undergo closed mitosis, in which the nuclear membrane persists throughout. Now kinetochores begin to form at the centromeres. This is a complex structure that may be thought of as an 'eyelet' for the microtubule 'rope' - it is the attaching point by which chromosomes may be secured. The kinetochore is an enormously complex structure that is not yet fully understood. Two kinetochores form on each chromosome - one for each chromatid. When the spindle grows to sufficient length, the microtubules begin searching for kinetochores to attach to. Metaphase. As microtubules find and attach to kinetochores, they begin to line up in the middle of the cell. Proper segragation requires that every kinetochore be attached to a microtubule before separation begins. It is thought that unattached kinetochores control this process by generating a signal - the mitotic spindle checkpoint - that tells the cell to wait before proceeding to anaphase. There are many theories as to how this is accomplished, some of them involving the generation of tension when both microtubules are attached to the kinetochore. When chromosomes are bivalently attached - when both kinetochores are attached to microtubules emanating from each centriole - they line up in the middle of the spindle, forming what is called the metaphase plate. This does not occur in every organism - in some cases chromosomes move back and forth between the centrioles randomly, only roughly lining up along the midline. Anaphase. Anaphase is the stage of meiosis or mitosis when chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell (opposite ends of the nuclear spindle). Centromeres are broken and chromatids rip apart. When every kinetochore is attached to a microtubule and the chromosomes have lined up along the middle of the spindle, the cell proceeds to anaphase. This is divided into two phases. First, the proteins that bind the sister chromatids together are cloven, allowing them to separate. They are pulled apart by the microtubules, towards the respective centrioles to which they are attached. Next, the spindle axis elongates, driving the centrioles (and the set of chromosomes to which they are attached) apart to opposite ends of the cell. These two stages are sometimes called 'early' and 'late' anaphase. At the end of anaphase, the cell has succeeded in separating identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct populations. Telophase. The nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell and try to cut the cell in two. The nuclear envelopes start to become created by fragments of the parents cell’s nuclear envelope. Then, the chromatids start to become less tightly coiled together. By this point, cytokinesis is fully under way. Cytokinesis. Cytokinesis refers to the physical division of one eukaryotic cell. Cytokinesis generally follows the replication of the cell's chromosomes, usually mitotically, but sometimes meiotically. Except for some special cases, the amount of cytoplasm in each daughter cell is the same. In animal cells, the cell membrane forms a cleavage furrow and pinches apart like a balloon. In plant cells, a cell plate forms, which becomes the new cell wall separating the daughters. Various patterns occur in other groups. In plant cells, cytokinesis is followed through by the usage of contracting ring of microfilaments that pull the cleavage furrow within itself, cutting the cell in two. In plant cells, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus start to form a cell plate within the center of the cell. When this cell plate solidifies and connects the two ends of the cell, a new cell wall is created and two daughter cells are produced. Regulation of Cell Cycle. Protein kinases are enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating them. These give out the signals for the G1 and G2 checkpoints to occur. However, to be active, the kinase must be attached to a cyclin. This is why it is called a CDK or a cyclin-dependent kinase. Internal kinetochores exhibit a wait function. Not until all kinetochores are attached to a spindle microtubule does the cell process starts. This helps prevent some chromosomes from being left behind. Density dependent inhibition is when cells have a cue to multiply until a certain level of density is fulfilled. This means that a cell keeps multiplying until there is a full layer or until a certain level of pressure is built upon each other. One possible explanation of why cancer cells do not follow normal signals is because they have an abnormality in the signaling pathway that conveys the growth factor’s signal to the cell-cycle control system. Usually, a cell will follow normal checkpoints due to the release of CDK in the system that regulate the cell process. However, in a cancer cell, the checkpoints are random. This means that because the cell does not follow density-dependent inhibition or follow the growth signals, the cell replicates at random points.

Computer Programming/DOS Programming. About the platform. DOS, or Disk Operating System, can colloquially refer to any of a hundred different such operating systems. The name itself derives from it's ability to work with disks, a significant improvement over previous methods of storage. Generally this means the OS supplies a means of organizing, listing, reading, and writing files on the media. MS-DOS was Microsoft's first Operating System. It was built upon QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System), which was deliberated modeled after Gary Kildall's CP/M. The original MS-DOS was simplistic and very difficult to use for the untrained. As time progressed, the interface remained essentially the same (keyboard on a text console), however it had some significant usability features (e.g. DOSKey) implemented as well. MS-DOS retained the crown of most used DOS until Microsoft usurped its own OS with Windows, however there were other non-Microsoft disk operating systems (DOS) as well. DR-DOS was the primary competitor for MS-DOS and did fairly well until Windows 95 arrived. Afterwards, most people abandoned the non-GUI DOS system. A few diehards continued to use DOS, however, and some have produced a version of DOS written under an Open Source license known as FreeDOS. Although abandoned by its "creator", DOS is still a stable and viable operating system, although it has been overshadowed by Windows and the most popular open source operating system, Linux. DOS is still occasionally used on boot disks, so system recovery software may sometimes be written for DOS. The most popular languages for use on the DOS platform, besides DOS batch files and Intel x86 Assembly Language, are and . See QEMU/FreeDOS and A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/DOS for more information about FreeDOS. C/C++ Compilers. The main compiler for 32-bit DOS is DJGPP ( http://www.delorie.com/djgpp ). Nevertheless, 16 bit programs make up a substantial amount of the pre-Windows 95 program set, and so you may need to find a 16 bit compiler if you want to program on extremely old computers. For the most part however, one can just use a 32 bit DOS extender, such as CWSDPMI. Batch files. DOS allows the use of batch files, which are a collection or "batch" of DOS prompt commands stored in a file. When a user types in the filename (with or without the extension) of a batch file, DOS will perform each command listed in the .bat file, then return control to DOS. Assembly Language. DOS comes with a low-level debugger called DEBUG. This allows debugging of an executable program which it loads into memory along with DEBUG. This is done by running DEBUG "program" at the DOS prompt, where "program" is the name of your program. DEBUG will work with .com and .exe executables. You must include the file extension in the filename when you call it using DEBUG. DEBUG does not work with .bat files. DEBUG can also be run without a file to view CPU register contents, memory, and to assemble machine instructions directly into memory. A brief walkthrough of how to run DEBUG to view and change memory and registers, as well as assemble and run some basic machine instructions can be viewed here.

Russian/Contents. The Russian Wikibook is a collaborative effort to create a comprehensive textbook for learners of the Russian language. Russian is an East Slavic language, related to Ukrainian and Belarusian, and is spoken by over 270 million people worldwide. This book includes four sections: a main text curriculum, a grammar supplement, an appendix, and a vocabulary. The main text guides the student through the lessons and provides everything to understand the texts that are to be understood. The grammar supplement provides a greater detail into the concepts presented in the lessons. The appendix is there to refer to for usage and other miscellaneous concepts. The vocabulary groups words into concept-based sections for studying. Содержа́ние (Contents). Слова́рь (Vocabulary). <br> <br> <br> <br> Miscellaneous resources Internet Resources Contributors

Indonesian/Important Phrases. These are some of the most commonly used words and phrases. Common phrases. ⁂ Click here for more information on Standard Indonesian phonology, how it differs from Standard Malay phonology. Vowel reduction is evident in modern Indonesian phonology due to the influence of Javanese. Helpful vocabulary for asking about words. When you're trying to find the right word, these can help you ask for suggestions: If you forget these, you can fall back on: "Sinonim" and "antonim" are not common words, but they are easy to remember, many Indonesian speakers understand them, and they can be helpful in your early stages of trying to communicate. Kata-kata Penting ("Important Phrases"). Lost traveller's guide for important phrases. Time. These are the words used to deal with almost any situation involving past or future. If neither word is used, it likely means that the action is happening around now.

Japanese/Contents. = Phrase = Grammar. Time and day. Comparisons. = Lessons = Miscellaneous. = Structure/Lesson Plans/Syllabus = Links and resources. These should be found place on pages where are relevant. Meta. Templates. Just an idea.... ... tell me what you think. Ruby. These are out-dated and should be replaced with when used in Japanese text, but kept for general use elsewhere on Wikibooks. Not sure what to do about these:

Elements of Art/Introduction. ELEMENTS OF ART-INTRODUCTION. Audience (who the book is for). Students, producers and consumers of diverse forms of art, including but not limited to painting, drawing and sculpture, who would like to know more about the elements and theory of their specific art and art in general. This book is also for those who have an interest in the history of art. It will be richly illustrated, so that the facts and concepts it contains will be comprehended by children and adults, and be within their interest levels. Purpose (why it might be used). Elements of Art is designed to be used as a reference book. It is also a teaching book, to be consulted with other and more advanced/specialised resources on the subject, including textbooks that people may already be using. It can be a 'cram book' for examinations and tests, or a 'coffee table' book to take to the museum, library or keep at home. Form (the shape of the book). Chapters explaining (describing, analysing) the form, content and structure of particular elements of art, as well as general concepts reinforced throughout the book, and at the end of a section. Generally they are designed to build upon one another. Thus, there are chapters about line, colour, dimensionality (2-D forms of art like drawing and painting, and 3-D like sculpture) and shape. General Questions about Art (five Ws and a H-hopefully will be answered throughout the book, by clicking on specific links). WHO WHAT WHERE WHEN WHY and HOW What are the elements of art? How many elements? What are the forms of art? What is the difference between two-dimensional art? What is line? What is colour? How is line used? How is colour used? What is a dimension? What are the components of two dimensions? Of three? How can I show emotion? What have artists used to show emotion? What have artists used to show senses? Who is an artist? Who created the first art? Where was the first art created? Where were major art developments? Where can I go and see (hear/touch/taste/smell) art? Where can I go and learn more about art? Where do I start? When was the first art created? When were the major art developments? When is an artwork complete? Why do we create art? Why do we need art? Why do we respond to elements? Why use line/colour/whatever there and not here? http://SeaCloud9.org This web site is dedicated to the latest technological advancements, open source code, and cutting edge multimedia art.

Elements of Art/Line. LINE. What is line? In art, line is the continuous movement of a mark from dot to dot. An identifiable path created by a point moving in space. Examples of line usage: Tughra of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent Leonardo Da Vinci's The Head of the Virgin in Three-Quarter View Facing Right Francisco Goya's Plate 43 from 'Los Caprichos': The sleep of reason produces monsters Different lines. Lines of direction. The ability to manipulate a line includes suggesting its direction. There is no limit to a created line and below are the most common and basic types. Horizontal. Horizontal lines generally travel from left to right and are relative to the horizon. In art, it often establishes a feeling of rest as well as develops a ground in space. Vertical. Vertical lines travel up and down; they're perpendicular to horizontal lines. They often emphasize height and, in art, leads the eye from bottom to top and vice versa. Diagonal. Diagonal lines are angled and can either be an incline or decline slope. Artistically, they can be described as "unbalanced" and are considered neither horizontal nor vertical. Patterns can be created by using any of these lines, especially combining them, and manipulating them to produce variations. Lines of length. Lines can be short or long. Short lines. Short lines are lines that only extend for a short distance. Long lines. Long lines are lines that extend for a longer distance than a short line would. Lines of thickness. The thickness or thinness of a line can be achieved by using different materials. A ballpoint pen will create a thinner line than a big marker. Thick and thin lines are used to express different meanings in the work being creative. Using both Thick and thin lines together helps pull together a more cohesive work of art. Thick lines. Thick lines give the appearance of strength and allow a supportive quality to the lines around them. They tend to stand out and grab the eye's attention. Thin lines. Thin lines appear frail as if they can break under the slightest pressure. Thin lines give the piece a sense of elegance and lightness. Putting lines together. There are many ways to put lines together. One of the simplest is to join a horizontal and a vertical line. A square is two horizontal lines and two vertical lines. Many lines can be put together to make a shading effect. An example of this is cross-hatching, where many small horizontal lines are put over many small vertical lines. This gives a realistic effect. Putting curved lines together can create organic shapes unlike the vertical and horizontal lines which create a point. Effect of lines. Line creates movement and emotion in an artwork. Lines of movement. Lines can often give an artwork a sense of movement. For example, organic lines can create a sense of flowing movement, while geometric line can create a rigid feel or no movement in an artwork. Implied line can aid in guiding the viewers eye around an artwork, this is a form of movement in itself. The viewers eyes are moved by the implied line around the artwork. Repeated lines can create a vibration movement in an artwork. An example of implied line moving a viewer through an artwork can be seen in Raphael Sanzio's 'School of Athens'. The structure if the building create lines that unconsciously force the viewer to move through the painting and eventually to the focal point, the two men in the middle of the painting. As you can see there are 'lines' all leading to the direction of these men. Lines of emotion. There are a variety of different lines in art that all protrude some form of emotions. Organic, wavy lines create a mood of peacefulness and are softer on the viewer. While straight lines can have more harsh emotion for example power or anger. Vertical lines can also depict the same more hard emotions. Horizontal line are more peaceful than vertical lines. Diagonal lines create a sense of motion. An example of line protruding emotion can be seen in Van Gogh's 'Wheat field with Cypresses' The horizontal, curvy lines, created by the landscape and Van Gogh's visible brush strokes, sets the mood of the painting. The line creates a sense of calmness and tranquility.

Botany/Magnoliophyta. Chapter 15 Chapter 15. Magnoliophyta (I) The Division Magnoliophyta in the Kingdom Plantae comprises those species of plants that were formerly classified as angiosperms and are known widely as the "flowering plants". You have already studied flowers (Chapter 4), so now understand that the Division Magnoliophyta comprises all those species of plants that have flowers. For perspective: all of the plants we have read about in Section II of the "Botany Study Guide" up to this point do not have flowers, but certainly do have reproductive structures. We also know that flowers are the reproductive structures of the plants that bear them, and that reproductive structures are not limited to flowering plants. Thus, "flowers" are structures that distinguish plants in the Division Magnoliophyta from plants in the other divisions of the Kingdom Plantae. Observe a flower, and you know you are examining an angiosperm. However, not all angiosperms have obvious, showy flowers. You will need to consider that the structure of a flower is quite variable across all the many species of angiosperms (about a quarter million have been identified) and a few flowering plants actually seldom flower. However, angiosperm botanists put great stock in the structure of flowers as a way of classifying plants—more than any other part of a plant, the flower provides the basis for placement of a species in subtaxa (classes, orders, and families) of the Division Magnoliophyta. The Division Magnoliophyta is split into two large classes: the Magnoliopsida and the Liliopsida. There are over 300 families and 250,000 species of flowering plants. The remainder of this chapter will be concerned with the dicotyledonous angiosperms (Class Magnoliopsida), leaving the monocotyledonous angiosperms to be covered in the next chapter. Flower evolution. Conifers are pollinated by wind, meaning they must produce a large amount of pollen grains for only a few to arrive at the female megaspore, resulting in fertilization. An advancement that allowed for higher rates of fertilization per energy expended in making pollen would surely result in that new plant type being prolific and even dominant. However, a single mutation would never result in a flower adequately adapted to spread pollen using animals. Flowers are the result of a special kind of evolution called co-evolution. If plants reproduced and thrived with wind pollination, why did flowers evolve? Suppose one wind pollinated plant began to have its' pollen eaten by an animal, for example a beetle. Then suppose the beetle spreads the pollen from the male cones to the female cones while looking for pollen because it can't tell the difference between the male and female cones; it searches both, spreading pollen from the male to the female in doing so. This plant has an advantage over all wind pollinated plants, because of a higher rate of fertilization. Any mutation that leads to pollen being spread by an animal soon becomes prevalent within a species, because the plant pollinated by an animal is more efficient. The plant and the animal rely on each other, one for food, the other for reproduction. Any mutation in the animal that helps pollinate the plant will become prolific through natural selection, just as mutations that favor feeding the insect or making the insect come to the flower will be dominant. This back and forth evolution results in such seemingly improbable structures as flowers that look like female moths that are pollinated by amorous male moths, or flowers and bird beaks that complement the feeding of the bird and the pollination of the flowers. Class Magnoliopsida (dicots). Members of the Class Magnoliopsida are defined partly on the basis of the seed or seedling having two cotyledons, most obvious at germination. But the differences between dicots and monocots are many, and we will be able to recognize most flowering plants that we encounter as belonging to one or the other class without having to dissect the seed or observe the seedling.

Elements of Art/Shape. SHAPE. Shapes are created with lines in a given space, either real or imaginary. Shapes can be endlessly rotated. Shapes may be organic (curved, freeform, similar to nature) or geometric (rigid, having definite properties). Different shapes. Circle. A circle is a shape with only one side created from a single, continuously curved line which encompasses the whole of the shape. Triangle. A triangle is a shape comprised of three straight lines which meet at three endpoints - the bottom side is horizontal, and the other two sides are diagonal, meeting each other at a point. Square. A square is a shape which is made of four straight lines which intersect at four points at 90 degree angles: the top and bottom lines are parallel to one another, as are the two lines comprising the sides of the square. In a square, each of the sides is the exact length of the other sides (a rectangle is a different shape where the opposing sides are equal in length; thus, all squares are rectangles but not all rectangles are squares.) Pentagon. A shape with 5 sides. The bottom side is horizontal, there are two vertical sides that are parallel, and the two top sides are diagonal. A common use of the pentagon is to draw a house. Hexagon. A shape with six sides. 4 sides are diagonal and 2 are horizontal. Star. The most common type of star is made of five triangles, each connected to a side of a pentagon by the bottom side. The lines forming the pentagon may or may not be drawn. Stars can also be drawn with four, six, or more points. Three-dimensional forms. Three-dimensional shapes are not flat; instead, they create depth which creates form and the shapes appear touchable. Sphere. A round figure where every point on its surface is an equal distance from the center. Examples: ball and globe. Cone. A solid or hollow object that tapers from a circular base to a point. It is a geometric shape formed from the base with lines that connect to one common point. Examples: funnel, traditional ice cream cone, traffic cones, and classic party hats. Pyramid. A structure whose sides are made of triangles attached to each other by the sides and a base shape by the bottom. The base of a pyramid may be a triangle or a square. Example: the Great Pyramid of Giza Cube. A cube has 8 endpoints, 12 edges and 6 faces. At every endpoint 3 lines intersect, and at an intersection any two edges are perpendicular to each other. Everything about the cube (edges, faces..etc) are equal. Think of a square with depth. Examples: Rubik cube and classic ice cube. Prism. A shape with two identical ends (often a shape) and flat sides that connect the ends. There are two common prisms: triangular and rectangular. However, a prism could be any shape as long as it is a polyhedron which means all faces are flat and all edges are straight This rules out a cylinder because it is curved. Putting shapes together. Most shapes in art are combinations of the shapes described above. They may be expressed (that is, they have a clear outline) or implied (the viewer has to see them for themself). Also, different shapes can be put together for interesting results. Effects of shapes. Weight. Weight can capture the viewers eye by creating two-dimensional shape(s) that has a force that an element applies and attracts the eye. When it comes to shapes, you will notice that when you have shapes that are irregular, like an irregular triangle or quadrilateral, it will appear lighter than that of a regular shape. The reason for this being, is because irregular shapes make is appear as though part of the mass is taken away. When you put more elements into a space you are giving that space more weight. Height. Height has an effect on both two-dimensional forms and three-dimensional shapes. It related to how tall the shape can be made or stretch too. By having a variety of heights with shapes you are able to have all different types of proportions with how tall each shape is, one could be extremely tall while the other is shorter.

Elements of Art/Two and Three Dimensions. Two and Three Dimensions. Dimensions, in art, can create some really interesting effects. They are connected with perspective, which is often used in graphic design, especially one-point perspective and two-point perspective. Two dimensions. The two dimensions are height and width. Three dimensions. The three dimensions are height and width and depth. Depth is often applied by projecting a shadow. Three-dimensional shapes can often be created by extra lines, or by doing a net. Art forms that use two dimensions. Drawing Painting Art forms that use three dimensions. Sculpture Origami Art forms that use two and three dimensions. Provide examples Mixed-media.

General Chemistry/Properties of matter. The fundamental properties that we use to measure matter in are; Inertia, Mass, Weight, Volume, Density and Specific Gravity. The periodic table is a visual method of interpreting the chemical properties of elements which effect the measurements below. These measurements can be classified into two categories, intrinsic and extrinsic. the overall weight is equal to to another extrinsic properties Extrinsic properties (also called extensive), such as volume and weight, are directly related to the amount of material being measured. Density- the amount of how much an object/ matter is or how compact it is Intrinsic Properties. Intrinsic properties (also called intensive) are those which are independent of the quantity of matter present. For example, the density of gold is the same no matter how much gold you have to measure. Common intrinsic properties are density and specific gravity.

Japanese/Vocabulary/Phrases and Idioms. ... が好きです. ... ga suki desu Expresses that a thing or person is liked. The subject, marked by が, is liked by the person marked with the topic marker は (if mentioned). ... なければならない. ... nakereba naranai The construction "(verb stem)なければならない", "-nakereba naranai" is used to express an obligation: something that has to be done. Examples. Since ならない "naranai" is the plain-form negative of the verb なる "naru" (to become), in a more formal or polite situation one would use the polite negative form なりません "narimasen" instead. 下手の横好き（へたのよこずき）. heta no yoko-zuki An idiom meaning that you are "unskilled but enthusiastic" or "crazy about it, but not very good at it". Used about a hobby or skilled activity.

Spanish/First Conjugation Verb. Verb amar (to love) This is the typical example of a regular first conjugation verb in Spanish.

Spanish/Second Conjugation Verb. Verb temer (to fear) This is the typical example of a regular second conjugation verb in Spanish.

Spanish/Third Conjugation Verb. Verb partir (to leave "or" to cut) This is the typical example of a regular third conjugation verb in Spanish.

Botany/Phycology. Chapter 9 The term "algae" is used to collectively refer to a wide range (20,000-30,000 spp.) of very simple photosynthetic organisms. While this term is no longer used as a taxonomic grouping, it is still useful for referring informally to these photosynthetic protists. (Protists are diverse eukaryotes which are neither fungi, animals nor plants.) The earliest multicellular alga known is the red fossil alga Bangiomorpha (at right), found in 1,200 million year old rocks in Arctic Canada. What's more this is the first known organism to show sexual reproduction. Chapter 9. Phycology ~ The Algae. The algae (singular: alga) comprise several different groups of plant-like organisms, some of which are (and some are not) regarded as members of the Kingdom Plantae. All algae lack true leaves, roots, flowers, and other structures found in the higher plants. They are distinguished from bacteria and protozoa mainly in that they are autotrophic, obtaining energy through photosynthesis. Although no longer considered a natural group, the term "algae" is still used for convenience. The botanical discipline concerned with the study of algae is called Phycology (or sometimes, Algology); and the environments most phycologists (or algologists) focus on are the marine intertidal/shallow subtidal regions of the world oceans. It is in these environments that the diversity of structurally complex algae (called seaweeds) reaches its pinnacle. As a grouping, the algae cut across even the prokaryote/eukaryote divide: the so-called "Blue-green algae" are cyanobacteria. All other algae are eukaryotes. Green Algae (different from Blue-green algae) are considered to be the ancestors of green plants. Other kinds of algae on the other hand are distinct from green plants and from each other in having different and unrelated accessory pigments. These pigments are responsible for the ways different algae absorb light, providing advantage to each individual type of alga to compete best at a water depth where its preferred wavelength is perhaps strongest. Cyanobacteria. The cyanobacteria comprise the structurally simplest algae, and presumably are closely related to the oldest photosynthetic organisms on the planet. Although capable of extracting energy from sunlight through photosynthesis, these algae are related to bacteria as evidenced by their prokaryotic cell structure. Yet, some Blue-greens have developed multi-cellular thalli that approach eukaryotic algal forms, and thus their traditional inclusion within the "algae." "Questions" 8.1 How do we know that the different algae are not monophyletic? 8.2 What do the different algae have in common that they are grouped together as algae? 8.3 What are 3 similarities between the green algae and green plants? 8.4 Define endosymbiosis. Did photosynthetic cyanobacteria exist before or after photosynthetic organelles? Why or why not?

High School Mathematics Extensions/Solutions to Problem Sets. Primes and Modular Arithmetic. Factorisation Exercises. Factorise the following numbers. (note: I know you didn't have to, this is just for those who are curious) Recursive Factorisation Exercises. Factorise using recursion. Prime Sieve Exercises. 2. Find all primes below 200. 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191 193 197 199

High School Mathematics Extensions/Primes/Solutions. HSE Primes|Primes and Modular Arithmetic. Factorisation Exercises. Factorise the following numbers. (note: I know you didn't have to, this is just for those who are curious) Recursive Factorisation Exercises. Factorise using recursion. Prime Sieve Exercises. 2. Find all primes below 200. 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191 193 197 199 Division and Inverses Exercises. 1. 2. formula_30 3. 4. Coprime and greatest common divisor Exercises. 1. 2. We first calculate the gcd for all combinations Diophantine equation Exercises. 1. 2. 3. 4. Chinese remainder theorem exercises. 1. Question 1. Show that the divisible-by-3 theorem works for any 3 digits numbers (Hint: Express a 3 digit number as 100a + 10b + c, where a, b and c are ≥ 0 and < 10) Solution 1 Any 3 digits integer "x" can be expressed as follows where a, b and c are positive integer between 0 and 9 inclusive. Now if and only if a + b + c = 3k for some k. But a, b and c are the digits of x. Question 2. "A number is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9." True or false? Determine whether 89, 558, 51858, and 41857 are divisible by 9. Check your answers. Solution 2 The statement is true and can be proven as in question 1. Question 4. The prime sieve has been applied to the table of numbers above. Notice that every number situated directly below 2 and 5 are crossed out. Construct a rectangular grid of numbers running from 1 to 60 so that after the prime sieve has been performed on it, all numbers situated directly below 3 and 5 are crossed out. What is the width of the grid? Solution 4 The width of the grid should be 15 or a multiple of it. Question 6. Show that n - 1 has itself as an inverse modulo n. Solution 6 Alternatively Question 7. Show that 10 does not have an inverse modulo 15. Solution 7 Suppose 10 does have an inverse "x" mod 15, for some integer k but now "x" is not an integer, therefore 10 does not have an inverse

Botany/Microbes. Chapter 8 Chapter 8. Microbiology Microbes. Microbes are extremely small organisms or quasi-living particles traditionally studied by botanists, but now treated within the more specialized field of Microbiology. As a specialized field, Microbiology has its own methodologies and terminologies often very different from those used by botanists. Nonetheless, there is value for beginning botany students to learn something of these organisms—to gain understanding of their presumably more primitive nature and significance as the causes of plant diseases. Bacteria. Overview. A bacterium (plural: bacteria) is a single celled organism belonging to the Domain Bacteria, in the three domain scheme. It can also be a type of organism belonging to one of the three major branches of life. They belong to the kingdom monerans. Traditionally classified as one of the five kingdoms, bacteria are microscopic and relatively simple cells, called prokaryotes. These cells lack the nucleus and organelles of the more complex cells called eukaryotes that plants are constructed of. However, like the cells of plants, most bacteria possess a carbohydrate-based cell wall. In common speech, "bacteria" still refers also to archaeabacteria, although the latter recently have been classified as an independent branch or "domain" of life. They occur in various shapes which include: True bacteria are the oldest organisms on Earth, with the possible exception of the Archaea, and they are also the most abundant. Bacteria exist in soil, water, and as parasites of other organisms. Species and strains of bacteria cause many if not most non-hereditary diseases. They are the target of the drugs known as antibiotics. Viruses. Overview. A virus is an obligate cellular parasite that is completely dependent on the host cell for its replication. The genome of the virus may consist of single stranded or double stranded DNA or RNA. The size of viral genomes varies widely and may encode between one and 250 genes. Of most interest within the study of Botany are viruses that are plant pathogens. The majority of plant viruses have single-stranded, messenger-sense RNA genomes (Class IV) and encode only between one and 12 proteins. These proteins function in virus transmission, in replication, cell-to-cell and systemic movement, in the structure of the virus, and in the suppression of plant host defense mechanisms. In many cases, virus replication takes place in distinct virus-induced regions of the cell, the so-called viroplasms, and induces the synthesis of a pool of virus components followed by assembly of many virus particles from this pool. Viruses can usually be horizontally transmitted between hosts. In many cases the transmission is dependent on insects, nematodes, fungi or other vectors. However, some other viruses, for example "Tobacco mosaic virus" (TMV), are transmitted mechanically by physical contact between plant tissue and virus-contaminated surfaces. Once the virus is transmitted and has successfully entered into the plant cell, it moves locally from cell to cell until it enters the phloem, which allows the virus to enter distant tissue to cause a systemic infection. Even smaller than viruses are viroids . Viroids are infectious agents that consist of single-stranded RNA, which does not encode any proteins. History. The first virus to be identified was TMV. A. E. Mayer was a professor at the Agricultural College in Wageningen, the Netherlands that was established in 1876. Soon after he was asked by farmers to investigate a highly contagious disorder in tobacco, which he called "mosaic disease". In 1898, M. W. Beijerinck in the Netherlands concluded that the tobacco mosaic disease-causing agent was neither a bacterium nor any corpuscular body, but rather a contagium vivum fluidum, an infectious fluid. The next big step was made in 1935, when TMV was chemically purified by Nobel prizewinner Wendell M. Stanley in the United States. This was followed soon after in 1939 by the first visual observation of the rod shaped TMV particles by electron microscopy by Kausche, Pfankuch and Ruska in Germany. For a long time electron microscopy remained a main tool in virology, and many viruses were isolated and visualized. The study of the mechanisms of viral infection cycles became more important after molecular biology tools became available. Links to external portals / webpages. <br>

Trigonometry/Prerequisites and Basics. To be able to study Trigonometry successfully, it is recommended that students complete Geometry and Algebra prior to digging in to the course material. Students should also be familiar with the arithmetic of the real number system. It is helpful to have a graphing calculator and graph paper on hand to be able to follow along as well. If one is not available, software available on sites such as GraphCalc or GeoGebra may be helpful. Geometric constructions proposed in the text can be drawn using Geops, free software for performing geometric constructions in the manner of the Ancient Greeks. "Next Page: In simple terms"

William Shakespeare's Works/The Life of William Shakespeare. Who do we mean when we speak of this person, Shakespeare? Shakespeare is William Shakespeare, one of the English-speaking world's greatest playwrights and poets, who possessed a great knowledge of human nature and transformed the English theatre. Yet many facts of his life remain a mystery. Some have been acquired from painstaking looks at the records of the time, so that this summary is based on generally agreed facts. It has been said that we only know three things about Shakespeare: that he was born, married and died. He was baptised on April 26, 1564; we do not know his birth date, but many scholars believe it was 23 April 1564. His father was John Shakespeare (who was a glover and leather merchant) and his mother Mary Arden (who was a landed local heiress). John had a remarkable run of success as a merchant, alderman, and high bailiff of Stratford, during William's early childhood. His fortunes declined, however, in the late 1570s. William lived for most of his early life in Stratford-upon-Avon. We do not know exactly when he went to London but he is said to have arrived in 1592. There is great conjecture about Shakespeare's childhood years, especially regarding his education. It is surmised by scholars that Shakespeare attended the free grammar school in Stratford, which at the time had a reputation to rival that of Eton. While there are no records extant to prove this claim, Shakespeare's knowledge of Latin and Classical Greek would tend to support this theory. In addition, Shakespeare's first biographer, Nicholas Rowe, wrote that John Shakespeare had placed William "for some time in a free school." John Shakespeare, as a Stratford official, would have been granted a waiver of tuition for his son. As the records do not exist, we do not know how long William attended the school, but certainly the literary quality of his works suggest a solid education. What is certain is that William Shakespeare never proceeded to university schooling, which has stirred some of the debate concerning the authorship of his works. In November 28, 1582, when he was 18, he married Anne Hathaway, who was 26. They had a daughter named Susanna, who was baptised on May 26, 1583. Later they had twins, a son named Hamnet and a daughter named Judith. Hamnet died while he was still a child on August 11, 1596. Due to the early death of his only son, Shakespeare does not have any direct descendants. For the seven years that followed the birth of his twins, William Shakespeare disappeared from all records, and then, turned up again in London some time in 1592. This period, which is known as the "Lost Years," has sparked as much controversy about Shakespeare's life as any period. When he was in London, he worked in repertory companies, and became part of the Lord Chamberlain's Men as an actor, playwright and shareholder. In 1599 he became an part-owner of the Globe Theater in Southwark. In 1603 James I became king and issued a royal licence to Shakespeare's acting company, who then became the King's Men, the foremost acting company in London at the time. In 1608 they leased a building called Blackfriars, which they converted to an indoor playhouse. It had some advantageous features like lighting and possibly heating. The Globe continued as their primary theater. From 1599 to 1608 he wrote several comedies and nearly all the famous tragedies. The year after (1609), his sonnets were published. William Shakespeare wrote his will in 1611, bequeathing his properties to his daughter Susanna (married in 1607 to Dr. John Hall). To his younger daughter Judith, he left £300, and to his wife Anne left "my second best bed." According to tradition, William Shakespeare died on his 52nd birthday, April 23, 1616. On his grave are the haunting words: "Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare" "To dig the dust enclosed here" "Blessed be the man that spares these stones," "And cursed be he that moves my bones." It took over 100 years for some of his bones to be stolen. After his death, in 1623, his friends published the First Folio, the first authorized collection of his works and a main source for the texts of his plays,

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Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 1. __NOEDITSECTION__ =Lesson 1: 你好！= It is appropriate to start off the introduction to Chinese with the common greeting 。 Below is a dialogue between two people meeting each other for the first time. Vocabulary. Note: Visit this lesson's Stroke Order subpage to see images and animations detailing how to write the following characters. Audio files of the words are linked from the pīnyīn when available. Problems listening? See . Proper Nouns. Forming the nationality is usually as simple as adding on to the country name. becomes , and so forth. Grammar. Basic Sentences. <br> 1. 我叫艾美。 Sentences using shì [是]. <br> <br> 1. 我是中国人。 2. 她是金妮。 3. 她们是英国人。 <br> <br> 1. 他不是东尼。 2. 我不是美国人。 Articles. There are no articles in Chinese grammar. While English noun clauses often begin with "a", "an", or "the", Chinese is less verbose. An example: An "a" appears in the English translation, but the singular and indefinite nature of is just inferred in Chinese. The question particle. The declarative example sentence in #1 is transformed into an interrogative in #2. 1. 她是金妮。 2. 她是金妮吗？ The question particle. 1. 我叫东尼, 你呢？ 2. 艾美是中国人, 他呢？ Question words. 1. 他们是哪国人？ 2. 谁是美国人？ 3. 她是谁？

High School Mathematics Extensions/Primes/Problem Set/Solutions. Question 1. Is there a rule to determine whether a 3-digit number is divisible by 11? If yes, derive that rule. Solution Let "x" be a 3-digit number We have now We can conclude a 3-digit number is divisible by 11 if and only if the sum of first and last digit minus the second is divisible by 11. Question 2. Show that "p", "p" + 2 and "p" + 4 cannot all be primes. ("p" a positive integer and is great than 3) Solution We look at the arithmetic mod 3, then "p" slotted into one of three categories Therefore "p", "p" + 2 and "p" + 4 cannot all be primes. Question 3. Find "x" Solution Notice that Then Likewise, and Then Question 4. 9. Show that there are no integers "x" and "y" such that Solution Look at the equation mod 5, we have but therefore there does not exist "a" x such that Question 5. Let "p" be a prime number. Show that where E.g. 3! = 1×2×3 = 6 Hence, show that for "p" ≡ 1 (mod 4) Solution a) If "p" = 2, then it's obvious. So we suppose "p" is an odd prime. Since "p" is prime, some deep thought will reveal that every distinct element multiplied by some other element will give 1. Since we can pair up the inverses (two numbers that multiply to give one), and (p - 1) has itself as an inverse, therefore it's the only element not "eliminated" as required. b) From part a) since "p" = 4"k" + 1 for some positive integer "k", (p - 1)! has 4"k" terms there are an even number of minuses on the right hand side, so it follows and finally we note that p = 4k + 1, we can conclude

William Shakespeare's Works/Romances. The romance category of plays contains four plays: They were all written late in Shakespeare's career. The Two Noble Kinsmen, of which Shakespeare was co-author, is sometimes included in this grouping.

Geometry/Points, Lines, Line Segments and Rays. Points and lines are two of the most fundamental concepts in Geometry, but they are also the most difficult to define. We can describe intuitively their characteristics, but there is no set definition for them: they, along with the plane, are the undefined terms of geometry. All other geometric definitions and concepts are built on the undefined ideas of the point, line and plane. Nevertheless, we shall try to define them. Point. A point is an exact location in space. A point is denoted by a dot. A point has no size. Line. As for a line segment, we specify a line with two endpoints. Starting with the corresponding line segment, we find other line segments that share at least two points with the original line segment. In this way we extend the original line segment indefinitely. The set of all possible line segments findable in this way constitutes a line. A line extends indefinitely in a single dimension. Its length, having no limit, is infinite. Like the line segments that constitute it, it has no width or height. You may specify a line by specifying any two points within the line. For any two points, only one line passes through both points. On the other hand, an unlimited number of lines pass through any single point. Ray. We construct a ray similarly to the way we constructed a line, but we extend the line segment beyond only one of the original two points. A ray extends indefinitely in one direction, but ends at a single point in the other direction. That point is called the end-point of the ray. Note that a line segment has two end-points, a ray one, and a line none. An angle can be formed when two rays meet at a common point. The rays are the sides of the angle. The point of the end of two rays is called the vertex. Plane. A point exists in zero dimensions. A line exists in one dimension, and we specify a line with two points. A plane exists in two dimensions. We specify a plane with three points. Any two of the points specify a line. All possible lines that pass through the third point and any point in the line make up a plane. In more obvious language, a plane is a flat surface that extends indefinitely in its two dimensions, length and width. A plane has no height. Space. Space exists in three dimensions. Space is made up of all possible planes, lines, and points. It extends indefinitely in all directions. N-dimensional Space. Mathematics can extend space beyond the three dimensions of length, width, and height. We then refer to "normal" space as 3-dimensional space. A 4-dimensional space consists of an infinite number of 3-dimensional spaces. Etc.

Vietnamese. Lessons. This is a draft of the lesson plans. You can discuss these plans here. The second draft of this book is also being planned .

Canadian History. __NOEDITSECTION__ This is a work in progress, if you have suggestions or ideas to add in feel free but please do not completely rewrite what has already been written unless grossly inaccurate, if you have suggestions use the discussion page. Correct spelling, grammar, dates, names, places and any other such faux pas liberally; all spellings however are in Canadian English and not American.

English in Use/Time and Date. Here are some hints on how to express the date and time in English:

Vietnamese/Ng. The sound that "ng" and "ngh" make in Vietnamese is by far the hardest sound for Westerners to make. "Ng" and "ngh" simply make the last sound in " or " (as long as you don't make the hard /g/ sound at the end). The problem arises when "ng" or "ngh" come at the beginning of a word, as the common family name "Nguyễn" clearly demonstrates. Here, the speaker has to isolate the /ŋ/ sound, which even many Western dictionaries don't recognize in their pronunciation guides. (Those that do tend to represent it as /ng/.) This lesson will help you to at least pronounce the /ŋ/ sound well enough for a native listener. Oral exercise 1: Sing-along. For this exercise, follow the directions below. It may be a good idea to repeat each step until you've mastered it: Hopefully, you've just pronounced the word ""! It should sound something like .

How to Write an Essay/Free Response. you can used tamplets to help start your response paragraph. Ex: "One nation of the people, by the people, and for the people" is famous in part because Abraham Lincoln made a grammatically appealing statement. (Topic sentence) By using the prepositions ("of", "by", "for"), he reinforces his point by using parallel structure, and a repetitive vocative anaphora which harkens back to the role that the "people" play in making up a "nation". Reasons why this is a good passage: Vocative comes from the Latin (vocare) and is similar to other English word such as "vocation". It means "call". The "-ive" postfix normally means you are looking at a noun.

Internet Technologies/Email spam. Email spam (or just "Spam") is unsolicited email, similar to conventional "junk mail", but often on a larger scale. Spam is estimated to have cost U.S. organizations over $10 billion (in lost productivity) in 2003. Various software products are available to block or filter spam. Even lawmakers are stepping up to fight spam- in the United States the Can-Spam Act of 2003 was passed into law. "Spammers" - people or organizations responsible for sending out email spam - use large lists of email addresses that are collected in a number of ways. One of these means is by using computer programs that search websites for email addresses. An email address that appears on a website is therefore more likely to get spammed, other things being equal. There are various ways of preventing your email being harvested in this way. One is to include it as an image rather than a link. This is not ideal, though, because it means firstly that people will have to type the address themselves, and secondly, it makes the address inaccessible to blind people, or people who browse without images. An alternative, better method, is to use a small piece of 'JavaScript' to insert the email address into the page when it is displayed, keeping it out of the html which an email-collecting spam program might look at. One final method is to create a contact form to display on your website. The website user would fill out the form which when submitted forwards the message to you without displaying your email address. This final method has one drawback in that it circumvents the user's email system and does not provide the user with a record of the email that they sent. I have also seen many people try the format of [email protected] or whatever. The person who has a genuine interest in emailing you will remove the REMOVETHIS part of the eddress before sending, but programmes that gather email addresses en-masse will use it as-is - thus, you do not receive spam. One must be fairly inventive to make this effective; the instance given would be algorithmically handled by most site-scraping email bots. In addition, there is a new anti-spam feature now available. Named the "Challenge/Response System", this either sends a link, or a word-verification page to a user, the first time they e-mail you. The user must either click the link or enter the word to verify they are not a spamming program. After this, you get the e-mail and they're added to your allow list. A study, by Brockmann & Company IT consultants showed that challenge-response proved to be superior to appliances, hosted spam filters and commercial filters.Brockmann surveyed more than 500 businesses, with 40% of the respondents having IT responsibilities. The independently funded study resulted in the creation of a spam index to measure how satisfied workers were with their spam technologies. Despite being less sophisticated than filtering technology sold by antispam and antivirus vendors, the challenge-response method was twice as effective as hosted services for spam prevention. According to the survey, 67% of challenge-response users specified that they are very satisfied with their email experience as compared to next highest technology, hosted services, in which 42% reported that they were very satisfied. Commercial software filters, such as those produced by McAfee, Symantec and Trend Micro, scored the lowest satisfying only 22% of respondents.(SearchSecurity.com, Robert Westervelt Jul. 2007) www.bluebottle.com currently offers a public beta of this software. Spam is a very common thing and at one point or another it is something that we have all had. Spam is not only an annoying email, it is a tactics for marketing. However many times you have received this type of email, it is becoming more and more dangerous. It can be generated by businesses as well as individuals. It is used to promote products and is also brought about by things like forwarding ( things like jokes, images or chain letters) spam can be used to gather information from your computer if opened as well as used to send out viruses. It is becoming an increasing threat. Spam has become such an issue, that people now have to have an entire email address just as a "throw away account" an email address specifically catered toward junk mail because if we were to let it, it would take up about 90% of our inbox's, not only is this an issue for our email account but it is also being directed towards our phone, and needs to be handled with caution Email-spam-sample.png‎ Spam is a very common thing and at one point or another it is something that we have all had. Spam is not only an annoying email, it is a tactics for marketing. However many times you have received this type of email, it is becoming more and more dangerous. It can be generated by businesses as well as individuals. It is used to promote products and is also brought about by things like forwarding ( things like jokes, images or chain letters) spam can be used to gather information from your computer if opened as well as used to send out viruses. It is becoming an increasing threat. Spam has become such an issue, that people now have to have an entire email address just as a "throw away account" an email address specifically catered toward junk mail because if we were to let it, it would take up about 90% of our inbox's, not only is this an issue for our email account but it is also being directed towards our phone, and needs to be handled with caution

High School Mathematics Extensions/Set Theory and Infinite Processes. Introduction. As soon as a child first learns about numbers, they become interested in big ones, a million, a billion, a trillion. They even make up their own, a zillion etc. One of the first mathematical questions a child asks is "what is the largest number?" This will often lead to a short explanation that there are infinitely many numbers. But there are many different "types" of infinity - in fact, there are infinite types of infinity! This chapter will try to explain what some of these types mean and the differences between them. Finite and Infinite Sets. There was once a mathematician called Georg Cantor who created a new branch of mathematics called set theory in the late 19th century. Set theory involves collections of numbers or objects. Here's a set: This set consists of five elements, namely the first five natural numbers. Now consider the set: Are these sets of the same size? Yes, they are. This is because they both have five elements. As we will see later, this method of comparing sizes does not work for all sets. An alternate method for comparing set sizes is to match elements of sets in a one-one fashion. Think of a small child who wants to compare the number of marbles she has with her brother's collection. Let's say she doesn't know how to count beyond ten. She can still compare the sizes of their collections of marbles by lining up their marbles in two parallel lines. The line on the left contains her marbles while the one on the right contains her brother's. If each marble on the left is aligned with exactly one marble on the right, then they both have the same number of marbles. We can use the same idea to compare infinite sets. If we can find a way to pair up one member of set A with one member of set B, and if there are no members of A without a partner in B and vice versa then we can say that set A and set B have the same number of members. Formally, two sets formula_3 and formula_4 are of the same size if there is a function formula_5 such that for every formula_6 in formula_3, we have formula_8 in formula_4 and moreover, for every formula_10 in formula_4, there exists an formula_6 in formula_3 such that formula_14. Example. Consider our previous example. We want to know if the sets formula_1 and formula_2 have the same size. We can create the following matching. Example. Let Set N be all counting numbers. N is called the set of natural numbers. 1,2,3,4,5,6... and so on. Let Set B be the negative numbers -1,-2,-3, ... and so on. Can the members of N and B be paired up? The formal way of saying this is "Can A and B be put into a one to one correspondence"? Obviously the answer is yes. 1 in set N corresponds with -1 in B. Likewise: and so on. Here, the one-one function that maps from A to B is formula_17. So useful is the set of counting numbers that any set that can be put into a one to one correspondence with it is said to be "countably infinite". Example. The set of integers is the set containing all elements from the set N, the set B and the element 0. That is The set of integers is usually denoted by Z. Note that N the set of natural numbers is a subset of Z. All members of N are in Z, but not all members of Z are in N. Is the set of integers countably infinite? In other words, can the set of integers be put in one-one correspondence with the set of all natural numbers? Since the set N is contained in the set Z, we may be tempted to declare that these two sets are not of the same size. However, we can and so on. We can write this one-one correspondence as a function formula_18 We can verify that this function generates all the integers in Z from the natural numbers in N. Strange indeed! A subset of Z (namely the natural numbers) has the same size as Z itself! Infinite sets are not like ordinary finite sets. In fact this is sometimes used as a definition of an infinite set. An infinite set is any set which can be put into a one to one correspondence with at least one of its subsets. Rather than saying "The number of members" of a set, people sometimes use the word cardinality or cardinal value. Z and N are said to have the same cardinality. Is the set of rational numbers bigger than N? In this section we will look to see if we can find a set that is bigger than the countable infinity we have looked at so far. To illustrate the idea we can imagine a story. There was once a criminal who went to prison. The prison was not a nice place so the poor criminal went to the prison master and pleaded to be let out. She replied: "Oh all right - I'm thinking of a number, every day you can have a go at guessing it. If you get it correct, you can leave." Now the question is - can the criminal get himself out of jail? (Think about if for a while before you read on) Obviously it depends on the number. If the prison master chooses a natural number, then the criminal guesses 1, the first day, 2,the second day and so on until he reaches the correct number. Likewise for the integers 0 on the first day, -1 on the second day. 1 on the third day and so on. If the number is very large then it may take a long time to get out of prison but get out he will. What the prison master needs to do is choose a set that is not countable in this way. Think of a number line. The integers are widely spaced out. There are plenty of numbers in between the integers 0 and 1 for example. So we need to look at "denser" sets. The first set that springs to most peoples mind are the fractions. There are an infinite number of fractions between 0 and 1 so surely there are more fractions than integers? Is it possible to count fractions? Let's think about that possibility for a while. If we try to use the approach of counting all the fractions between 0 & 1 then go on to 1 - 2 and so on we will come unstuck because we will never finish counting the ones up to 1 ( there are an infinite number of them). But does this mean that they are uncountable ? Think of the situation with the integers. Ordering them ...-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ... renders them impossible to count, but "reordering" them 0, -1, 1, -2, 2, ... allows them to be counted. There is in fact a way of ordering fractions to allow them to be counted. Before we go on to it let's revert to the normal mathematical language. Mathematicians use the term "rational number" to define what we have been calling fractions. A rational number is any number that can be written in the form p/q where p and q are integers. So 3/4 is rational, as is -1/2. The set of all rational numbers is usually called Q. Note that Z is a subset of Q because any integer can be divided by 1 to make it into a rational. E.g. the number 3 can be written in the form p/q as 3/1. Now as all the numbers in Q are defined by two numbers p and q it makes sense to write Q out in the form of a table. formula_19 Note that this table isn't an exact representation of Q. It only has the positive members of Q and has a number of multiple entries.( e.g. 1/1 and 2/2 are the same number) We shall call this set Q'. It is simple enough to see that if Q' is countable then so is Q. So how do we go about counting Q'? If we try counting the first row then the second and so on we will fail because the rows are infinite in length. Likewise if we try to count columns. But look at the diagonals. In one direction they are infinite ( e.g. 1/1, 2/2, 3/3, ...) but in the other direction they are finite. So this set is countable. We count them along the finite diagonals, 1/1, 1/2, 2/1, 1/3, 2/2, 3/1... Can we find any sets that are bigger than N? So far we have looked at N, Z, and Q and found them all to be the same size, even though N is a subset of Z which is a subset of Q. You might be beginning to think "Is that it? Are all infinities the same size?" In this section we will look at a set that is "bigger" than N. A set that "cannot" be put into a one to one correspondence with N, no matter how it is arranged. The set in question is R: the real numbers. A real number is any number on the number line. Remember that the set Q contains all the numbers that can be written in the form p/q with p and q integers, q different from 0. Most real numbers can never be put in this form and they are named "irrational numbers". Examples of irrational numbers include formula_21, formula_22 and formula_23. The set R is huge! Much bigger than Q. To get a feel for the different sizes of these two infinite sets consider the decimal expansions of a real number and a rational number. Rational numbers always either terminate: or repeat: Imagine measuring an object such as a book. If you use a ruler you might get 10cm. If you take a bit more care to and read the mm you might get 10.2cm. You'd then have to go on to more accurate measuring devices such as vernier micrometers and find that you get 10.235cm. Going onto a travelling microscope you may find its 10.235823cm and so on. In general the decimal expansion of any "real" measurement will be a list of digits that look completely random. Now imagine you measure a book and found it to be 10.101010101010cm. You'd be pretty surprised wouldn't you? But this is exactly the sort of result you would need to get if the book's length were rational. Rational numbers are dense (you find them all over the number line), infinite, yet much much rarer than real numbers. How we can prove that R is bigger than Q. It's good to get a feel for the size of infinities as in the previous section. But to be really sure we have to come up with some form of proof. In order to prove that R is bigger than Q we use a classic method. We assume that R is the same size as Q and come up with a contradiction. For the sake of clarity we will restrict our proof to the real numbers between 0 and 1. We will call this set R'. Clearly if we can prove that R' is bigger than Q then R must be bigger than Q also. If R' was the same size as Q it would mean that it is countable. This means that we would be able to write out some form of list of all the members of R' (This is what countable means, so far we have managed to write out all our infinite sets in the form of an infinitely long list). Let's consider this list. Where R1 is the first number in our list, R2 is the second, and so on. Note that we haven't said what order the list is to be written. For this proof we don't need to say what the order of the list needs to be, only that the members of R are listable (hence countable). Now lets write out the decimal expansion of each of the numbers in the list. Here r11 means the first digit after the decimal point of the first number in the list. So if our first number happened to be 0.36921... r11 would be 3, r12 would be 6 and so on. Remember that this list is meant to be complete. By that we mean that it contains "every" member of R'. What we are going to do in order to prove that R is not countable is to construct a number in R' that is not already on the list. Since the list is supposed to contain "every" member of R', this will cause a contradiction and therefore show that R' is unlistable. In order to construct this unlisted number we choose a decimal representation: Where a1 is the first digit after the point etc. We let a1 take any value from 0 - 9 inclusive "except" the digit r11. So if r11 = 3 then a1 can be 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. Then we let a2 be any digit except r22 (the second digit of the second number on the list). Then a3 be any digit except r33 and so on. Now if this number, that we have just constructed "were" on the list somewhere then it would have to be equal to Rsomething. Let's see what Rsomething it might be equal to. It can't be equal to R1 because it has a different first digit (r11 and a1. Nor can it be equal to R2 because it has a different second digit, and so on. In fact it can't be equal to "any" number on the list because it differs by at least one digit from "all" of them. We have done what we set out to do. We have constructed a number that is in R' but is not on the list of all members of R'. This contradiction means that R' is bigger than any list. It is not listable. It is not countable. It is a bigger infinity than Q. Are there even bigger infinities? There are but they are difficult to describe. The set of all the possible combinations of any number of real numbers is a bigger infinity than R. However trying to imagine such a set is mind boggling. Let's look instead at a set that looks like it should be bigger than R but turns out not to be. Remember R', which we defined earlier on as the set of all numbers on the number line between 0 and 1. Let us now consider the set of all numbers in the plane from [0,0] to [1,1]. At first sight it would seem obvious that there must be more points on the whole plane than there are in a line. But in transfinite mathematics the "obvious" is not always true and proof is the only way to go. Cantor spent three years trying to prove it true but failed. His reason for failure was the best possible. It's false. Each point in this plane is specified by two numbers, the x coordinate and the y coordinate; x and y both belong to R. Lets consider one point in the line. 0.a1a2a3a4... Can you think of a way of using this one number to specify a point in the plane ? Likewise can you think of a way of combining the two numbers x= 0.x1x2x3x4... and y= 0.y1y2y3y4... to specify a point on the line? (think about it before you read on) One way is to do it is to take This defines a one to one correspondence between the points in the plane and the points in the line. (Actually, for the sharp amongst you, not quite one to one. Can you spot the problem and how to cure it?) Continuum hypothesis. We shall end the section on infinite sets by looking at the Continuum hypothesis. This hypothesis states that there are no infinities between the natural numbers and the real numbers. Cantor came up with a number system for transfinite numbers. He called the smallest infinity formula_24 with the next biggest one formula_25 and so on. It is easy to prove that the cardinality of N is formula_24 (Write any smaller infinity out as a list. Either the list terminates, in which case it's finite, or it goes on forever, in which case it's the same size as N) but is the cardinality of the reals = formula_25? To put it another way, the hypotheses states that: The hypothesis is interesting because it has been proved that "It is not possible to prove the hypothesis true or false, using the normal axioms of set theory" Further reading. If you want to learn more about set theory or infinite sets try one of the many interesting pages on our sister project . Limits "Infinity got rid of". The theory of infinite sets seems weird to us in the 21st century, but in Cantor's day it was downright unpalatable for most mathematicians. In those days the idea of infinity was too troublesome, they tried to avoid it wherever possible. Unfortunately the mathematical topic called analysis was found to be highly useful in mathematics, physics, engineering. It was far too useful a field to simply drop yet analysis relies on infinity or at least infinite processes. To get around this problem the idea of a "limit" was invented. Consider the series This series is called the harmonic series. Note that the terms of the series get smaller and smaller as you go further and further along the series. What happens if we let n become infinite? The term would become formula_29 But this doesn't make sense. (Mathematicians consider it sloppy to divide by infinity. Infinity is not a real number, you can't divide by it). A better way to think about it (The way you probably already do think about it, if you've ever considered the matter) is to take this approach: Infinity is very big, bigger than any number you care to think about. So let's let "n" become bigger and bigger and see if 1/"n" approaches some fixed number. In this case as "n" gets bigger and bigger 1/"n" gets smaller and smaller. So it is reasonable to say that the "limit" is 0. In mathematics we write this as and it reads: Note that we are not dividing 1 by infinity and getting the answer 0. We are letting the number "n" get bigger and bigger and so the reciprocal gets closer and closer to zero. Those 18th Century mathematicians loved this idea because it got rid of the pesky idea of "dividing by infinity". At all times "n" remains finite. Of course, no matter how huge "n" is, 1/"n" will not be "exactly" equal to zero, there is always a small difference. This difference (or error) is usually denoted by ε (epsilon). info -- infinitely small. When we talk about infinity, we think of it as something big. But there is also the infinitely small, denoted by ε (epsilon). This animal is closer to zero than any other number. Mathematicians also use the character ε to represent anything small. For example, the famous Hungarian mathematician Paul Erdos used to refer to small children as epsilons. Examples. Lets look at the function What is the limit as x approaches infinity ? This is where the idea of limits really come into its own. Just replacing "x" with infinity gives us very little: But by using limits we can solve it For our second example consider this limit as x approaches infinity of formula_34 Again lets look at the "wrong" way to do it. Substituting formula_35 into the expression gives formula_36. Note that you cannot say that these two infinities just cancel out to give the answer zero. Now lets look at doing it the "correct" way, using limits The last expression is two functions multiplied together. Both of these functions approach infinity as "x" approaches infinity, so the product is infinity also. This means that the "limit" does not exist, i.e. there is no finite number that the function approaches as "x" gets bigger and bigger. One more just to get you really familiar with how it works. Calculate: To make things very clear we shall rewrite it as Now to calculate this limit we need to look at the properties of sin(x). Sin(x)is a function that you should already be familiar with (or you soon will be) its value oscillates between 1 and -1 depending on x. This means that the absolute value of sin(x) (the value ignoring the plus or minus sign) is always less than or equal to 1: So we have 1/x which we already know goes to zero as x goes to infinity multiplied by sin(x) which always remains finite no matter how big x gets. This gives us Exercises. Evaluate the following limits; Infinite series. Consider the infinite sum 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + ... Do you think that this sum will equal infinity once all the terms have been added ? Let's sum the first few terms. formula_46 Can you guess what formula_47 is ? Here is another way of looking at it. Imagine a point on a number line moving along as the sum progresses. In the first term the point jumps to the position 1. This is half way from 0 to 2. In the second stage the point jumps to position 1.5 - half way from 1 to 2. At each stage in the process (shown in a different colour on the diagram) the distance to 2 is halved. The point can get as close to the point 2 as you like. You just need to do the appropriate number of jumps, but the point will never actually reach 2 in a finite number of steps. We say that in the limit as n approaches infinity, Sn approaches 2. Zeno's Paradox. The ancient Greeks had a big problem with summing infinite series. A famous paradox from the philosopher Zeno is as follows: In the paradox of Achilles and the tortoise, we imagine the Greek hero Achilles in a footrace with the plodding reptile. Because he is so fast a runner, Achilles graciously allows the tortoise a head start of a hundred feet. If we suppose that each racer starts running at some constant speed (one very fast and one very slow), then after some finite time, Achilles will have run a hundred feet, bringing him to the tortoise's starting point. During this time, the tortoise has "run" a (much shorter) distance, say one foot. It will then take Achilles some further period of time to run that distance, during which the tortoise will advance farther; and then another period of time to reach this third point, while the tortoise moves ahead. Thus, whenever Achilles reaches somewhere the tortoise has been, he still has farther to go. Therefore, Zeno says, swift Achilles can never overtake the tortoise.

Korean. Welcome to the Korean Wikibook, a free textbook for learning Korean. Note: To use this book, your web browser must first be configured to display Korean ("Hangeul") characters. Check the two boxes below: The boxes show "Hangeul" characters and "jamo". If symbols appear as blank boxes, garbage, or question marks (?), your computer or web browser needs to be configured for the Korean language. Introduction. Korean is the official language of both the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). It is also one of the two official languages in Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, China. Worldwide, there are about 80 million Korean speakers, most of whom live in China, Japan or the United States outside of the Koreas, but they also represent sizeable minorities in Russia (esp. Far East and Sakhalinsk), New Zealand, Kazakhstan, Canada, Uzbekistan and Australia. In the Republic of Korea, the language is most often called 한국말 ("Han-guk-mal"), or more formally, 한국어 ("Han-guk-eo") or 국어 ("Guk-eo"; literally "national language"). In North Korea and Yanbian, the language is most often called 조선말 ("Chosŏnmal"), or more formally, 조선어 ("Chosŏnŏ"). Experts are unsure of the origins of the Korean language, although some believe it to come from the Altaic language tree. It is an agglutinative language, so it has some certain special characteristics that are unlike English. A student of Chinese languages will quickly notice that Korean shares much of their vocabulary, while a Japanese student will also notice similarities in grammar and vocabulary. Feel free to use English Wiktionary's Korean language Category as a reference for these courses. New students to this type of language may initially progress slowly, but as study progresses, previously unfamiliar aspects of Korean will begin to make sense and new concepts will be more easily learned. Korean grammar is complex but surprisingly also very simple, and always very fun to learn.

Spanish/Ser. ../Verbs/ =Ser= "Ser" is an irregular verb that means "to be". Indicative. ../Future/. — "or" — Subjunctive. ../Imperfect Subjunctive/. — "or" — Pluperfect subjunctive. — "or" — Compound tenses. These tenses are combinations of the above tenses.

Spanish/Present. ../Verbs/ No bones about it. The present tense is EASY. Just memorize the endings for the different verbs and a couple of oddball exceptions and you will be able to talk about any momentary thing that is on your mind. Who needs to plan for the future, dwell on the past, or delve into abstraction anyway ? There are three verb types in Spanish. They are called -AR, -ER, and -IR verbs. Each of these refers to the last two letters of the infinitive form of the verb. Examples: -AR: bailar, "to dance"; -ER: aprender, "to learn;" and -IR: escribir, " to write." When you conjugate a verb you take the generic, infinitive form and change the ending to match the person(s) or thing(s) doing whatever action the verb describes. In Spanish, the last two letters come off and another ending goes on in their place. Each verb tense has its own set of six endings for each verb type. Don't worry though, there are patterns there and much of the endings overlap so it is easier to remember them. The present tense verb endings are as follows: -ar verbs. That is: Sometimes the vowel in the ending is accented. Here is an example conjugation: Bailar Of course, most of the above statements can be restated without any loss of meaning with no pronoun: Bailo -- "I dance"; bailas, "you dance". In Spanish, the verbs change to reflect the person(s) doing the action on them and it is OK to leave off the pronouns, especially when context makes the subject clear. -er/-ir verbs. -ER and -IR verbs are almost identical, so they are often listed together. The only differences in the present tense are in Nosotros and Vosotros. For -ER verbs: For -IR verbs: That is: Here is an example conjugation of an -ER verb: Aprender Here's an example conjugation of an -IR verb: Escribir Irregular verbs. Tener. Note that the first "e" turns to "ie" in all of the conjugations except the "nosotros" form. That is a pattern that you will see repeated.

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair. Bicycles throughout the world are made with standardized, interchangeable parts. Unlike many modern products, the technology used in bicycles is simple enough to allow many riders to repair their own vehicles with a minimum of effort. For any cyclist, bicycle maintenance is a particularly useful skillset to acquire. Every skill learned in this area—no matter how simple or complex—can aid in keeping your bike in good working order, save you money, and make the difference between pushing your bike home or riding it.

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Wheels and Tires/Fixing a flat. This page explains how to repair punctures in bicycle inner tubes, and gives some advice as to the most likely causes. In addition, there are notes peculiar to the use of tube sealants. Terminology. The basic parts of interest are these: The Causes of Flats. A "flat tire" or "puncture" is most often caused by glass, thorns, flints or nails when they cut through the outer rubber tread of the tire and damage the inner tube. These deflations are usually quick, at least when the object is removed. Although this is the most obvious way to get a flat tire there are other ways too. Consider these: Replace or Repair? It is undoubtedly easier to change a tube for a new one than it is to find the puncture in the original. For this reason many riders carry both puncture repair materials "and" a new tube when they travel for any great distance. When on the road it is sometimes difficult to find the point on an inner tube that is punctured. If it is a "slow" puncture it might be possible to pump some air into the tube, perhaps more than once, enough to reach home or a more convenient place to do the work. If is it a "quick" deflation, then a repair or replacement becomes necessary. When an object penetrates a tire it is best not to remove it immediately if it is the only thing that keeps air in the system. Instead, use the remaining air to get the bike home before removing it. If the tires are fitted with self-sealing fluids it might be that the puncture will have been fixed already and that the tire just needs to be inflated. A puncturing object should be removed from such a tire only when the part with the inclusion has been rotated to the "six-o'clock" position; this allows the internal sealant to fully reach the puncture. A different method is needed for slow-to-seal sidewall "pinches"; allow the fluid to pond at the bottom of the tire then tilt the wheel, slowly rotating it, so that the fluid can reach the internal sidewalls. If the tire is not self-sealing, and "must" be repaired rather than replaced, then the remainder of this page will explain how. The Basic Tools. This section lists the basic requirements for tube repair. The primary items are these: Also useful are these: The Repair Procedure. Examine the flat tire carefully to find any sharp item that may be responsible. If a nail, thorn, shard of glass, or a flint is found in the outer tire then mark the rubber of the outer tire with a wax crayon or suitable pen so that the location is easily found. Continue to check the tire in case there are more. Some punctures of inner-tubes also cause damage to the fabric of the outer tire, so look for any potential problems such as a bulge, that suggests a torn carcass, or for exposed carcass cord. If such damage is excessive then it may cause repeated punctures to inner tubes. At this time the method to correct such damage involves the surfacing of the inside of the tire with a so-called "boot"; a pre-glued patch that keeps the fibers clear of the tube. A piece of an old inner tube can also be used as a temporary fix, if loosely wrapped around the tube in the location of the damage. This latter fix suggests that it might be a good idea to carry an old piece of inner tube in your repair kit. At this time there is no rubber-based filler for cuts in "outer" tire cladding, so water ingress is likely. If there is no clear cause of the puncture and the location remains obscure, or if it is a "slow" puncture, then the wheel will need to be removed to get proper access to the inner tube. Methods are given below that include both wheel removal and repair with the wheel in place. Bike tire sticks on Rim - solution … It won't always happen but you can't get enough purchase on the edge to push the tire over the inner rim … So what do you do? After several attempts to lever off with the tire lever … The tire and tube were 100% empty of air … I put one foot on VERY FIRMLY on the tire (soft sole) and the applied 1 tire lever to push the bead over the rim and it came over the rim relatively easily. I was then able to access the tube. Inserting my spare tube, and making sure it was tucked snugly inside the tire (again completely empty of air), I again had difficulty coaxing the tire bead over the last couple of inches of the wheel rim. (sounds familiar ). by the way leaving the tire on the wheel rim I flipped it inside out and had a good look inside to try (and out ) to try and make sue there were no spikes, pins or thorns on either side that might puncture the new tube. I had applied all due pressure with both tire levers bring the tire levers closer together but the last few inches was eluding me. What did I do? You've guessed it. I removed one tire lever and once again I applied my trusty foot to on edge / rim of the tire, and then brought the remaining tire lever along the edge (both hands now available) until I got the tire bead to flip completely over the wheel rim. Eureka! Not to be recommended but any port in a storm! Remove the wheel? Wheel in place. Most punctures need the wheel removed, but if you are sure that you know "where" the hole is, you can do the repair with the wheel still on the bike. This method is popular on bikes that need wrenches to remove the wheels, and for rear wheels, even when they are of the quick-release type. However, if the "front" wheel is of the quick-release type, you will usually find it more comfortable to remove it anyway. The sequence for an on-the-bike repair is just: Remove the Inner Tube. Be careful too, with the valve when it is removed from its rim, and remember to first remove the locking screw on the rim if the valve is of the Presta type. Valve Problems. Any inner tube can be checked for leaks by first inflating it, and submerging it in water. Telltale air bubbles will seen emerging from the site of the leak. This process can be made more effective by forcing sections of the tire between the hands to increase the leakage. A slow leak can sometimes be caused by the valve itself. Sometimes a leak can be seen in a valve by wetting its various parts with a soapy solution and looking for bubbles. To try to fix a leaking Schrader valve, deflate the tire, unscrew the valve body with a keyed valve cap or valve tool, and examine the seat or rubber sealing ring for cuts or nicks, dust, lint, or fibers that prevent the valve from closing fully. Likewise check the valve seat and the bore of the valve stem. Clean if necessary. The valve body may be replaced. If no spares exist, an emergency fix can be had by inflating the tire with the valve sealed with silicon rubber, caulk, or cured epoxy resin. Obviously the tube must be discarded after such a process. If the Presta valves cannot be disassembled, then tubes with leaking valves must be replaced. Some Presta valves, for example, those made by Schwalbe and those of Bontrager have removable cores, but most do not. Such valves can be recognized since they have flat sections on them to allow slackening and tightening of the cores with a valve removal tool. Internal tube sealants can block both valve stems and cores. However, stems are easily cleared with a thin object after the cores are removed, and sealant can be removed from the cores by washing them in water. Self Sealing Tires. Sealants will seal most small punctures in tires up to about one eighth of an inch in size. The product ("Slime"), is already in some tubes bought from bike shops, but can be poured into existing tubes, provided that they have removable valve cores. There are a few points peculiar to the use of tires with internal sealants.

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Wheels and Tires/Truing a bicycle wheel. Overview. A bicycle wheel consists of a central hub and a round rim, joined by a number of spokes. Spokes radiate from the hub to the rim, where they are anchored in a screw-thread attachment called a nipple. By tightening and loosening the nipples, it is possible to bring the wheel back into round (vertical true) or remove a side to side wobble (lateral true). Spokes may be arranged in a variety of patterns, of which three-cross, four-cross and radial are the most common. The pattern affects the strength, weight and characteristics of the wheel but is not particularly relevant to the process of truing. Tools Needed. To build or to maintain a spoked wheel, a spoke wrench is necessary. The flat-to-flat dimensions of a typical spoke nipple are too small to fit any commonly-available open-end wrench. Any good bicycle shop will, however, stock a selection of spoke wrenches, with price and quality being proportional. A spoke 'twiddler', or nipple driver, is a tool that may be useful in the course of assembling a new wheel from its component parts - hub, spokes, and rim. It isn't necessary - especially if you aren't building a wheel - but it can save some time. Similar to a screwdriver, but with an off-set blade that rotates freely in the handle, it is used on the slotted outer face of the nipple - which resembles a slotted screw. A spoke 'twiddler' allows for rapid assembly of the wheel - or installation of a nipple on a single spoke - and is designed to self-limit the extent to which a nipple can be threaded onto a spoke. A spoke wrench is used to bring tension to the spokes, and is applied to the square part of the nipple that protrudes inward at the rim. Unlike the 'twiddler', the spoke wrench is designed to turn the nipple when the spoke is under tension. This difference is what makes the spoke wrench essential. A truing stand is a purpose-built stand into which a wheel (rim, spokes, and hub, with axle) is installed during wheel-building, wheel repair, or wheel maintenance. A truing stand is very useful - possibly essential - for making hand-built wheels. Effectively, it is a rugged, precision-made jig for holding the axle of the wheel solidly in place. By extension, the rim thus has a steady reference in the axle in the hub held in the truing stand. The rim is, therefore, also found in relation to a caliper, or set of calipers, built into the truing stand, and against which checks are made for radial and lateral true (read 'perfection') during the course of building or adjusting a wheel. For extreme accuracy in measuring true, an optional dial indicator may be fitted to the truing stand, and a separate tensiometer may be kept to hand to test for proper tension on all the spokes (tension-balancing). Instructions for creating an inexpensive, but very accurate, truing stand are here. A dishing tool is used to measure the extent to which the axle juts out past the rim. Since a true wheel has the plane of the rim centered laterally between the points on the axle at which the axle is fixed to the frame, the offset of the rim from that anchor point on one side of the wheel should be identical to the corresponding offset on the other side. A dishing tool is used as a comparator: the offset on one side is measured using the tool, that setting is 'stored' in the tool, and the tool is applied to the other side of the wheel for purposes of comparison; the deviation of the second side's offset from that of the first's indicates the direction in which, and the extent to which, the rim needs to be moved to make the wheel true. However, a dishing tool is not strictly necessary if you have a good truing stand: if it's understood that a true wheel (abstracting from the particularities of the hub and the spokes) is symmetrical (i.e. the rim itself is, in some sense, 'centered' on the axle) then you can use the truing stand's caliper (or calipers). and an occasional flipping of the wheel in the stand, to serve the same function as a dishing tool. Tools, Punting. In most cases, especially when truing as maintenance on a wheel that has already been built, checking the tension on the spokes by ensuring that they all make the same tone when "pinged" with a fingernail will work fine. Checking the dish is also unnecessary on minor repairs, as most good truing stands will be able to give an accurate idea of how close the wheel is to centered, though it is probably a good idea to take the wheel out and re-settle it in the stand to double check. It's necessary to measure the distance if you are truing a wheel that is meant to have an offset, but this is very rare. In a situation where a stand is not available, the brake calipers on a bicycle can be used to measure true while the wheel is still attached, but this is less than ideal. Also, if no other option is available, a small adjustable wrench can be used instead of a spoke wrench or key, but extra care should be taken not to strip the nipples. A glass cutter made by Richards has one opening small enough that it can be enlarged slightly to make a passable 0 spoke wrench - or a 1 or 2, if that's what you need. If a rim has been 'pringled', or 'potato-chipped', into a saddle shape, by a lateral blow, it will be difficult to straighten by spoke tensioning alone - in fact, it is probably impossible to overcome severe rim warping this way. Often, however, it is possible to restore the wheel to a nearly-true state, even if it seems hopelessly warped. The procedure that follows should be applied as soon as possible after the trauma; leaving the wheel in it warped state for more than a few days will likely cause the wheel to cold-set - meaning it will retain the new shape in which it is left, and probably will have to be replaced. In order to effect the following quickie repair, you must have a properly inflated tube and tire still on the rim, and the rim itself should only be generally out of shape, with no damage to the rim wall itself. To wit: standing with your feet shoulder-width apart, with both hands, grip the wheel firmly by the rim and rubber at the point directly opposite the point on the circumference that is most obviously bent away from the principle plane of the wheel; bend slightly at the waist and position the point of the tire opposite on the ground in front of you, with the wheel at an angle of 45 degrees to the ground (possibly greater, depending on the denomination of the tire), and the bent part heading earthward; raise that point off the ground a few inches and let it fall again, ensuring that in the next step, only the tire - and no part of the rim - is going to strike the ground; without straightening at the waist, or bending over further, raise the wheel off the ground to about head or chest height, then forcibly bring the wheel down in such a way as to strike the ground sharply with the inflated tube and tire at the point opposite your grip; the rim should pop back to very nearly true. You can't undo damage done by striking the rim on the ground, so plan carefully, and rehearse mentally before committing to this repair. If the quickie fix above has improved matters, it's usually possible to improve the situation further with the usual techniques required of truing or maintaining a wheel. In the event that the above procedure doesn't bring the rim back to at least a rideable state, it may be necessary to replace the rim or the entire wheel. Note, though, that a rim can often be straightened, at least to some extent, by placing the rim (with appropriately loosened spokes) between two rigid objects (e.g. a pair of closely-spaced pipes, or between a door and its cross-wise bar-like handle) and, using a prying action, creeping up on the desired degree of 'flat'. Don't bend the rim more than necessary, work iteratively, check frequently on your progress, and be aware that you may need to overshoot your target slightly to allow for the tendency of metals to spring back from bending. It should be noted that repairing local rim damage with pliers or even a hammer and anvil is never advised - because less dramatic, more effective, methods are available which will not cause even superficial damage to the rim wall - the all-important braking surface in most cases. Instead of pliers neat, repair a flairing of the rim by sandwiching the rim between two thin, very flat pieces of metal (e.g. two cone wrenches) and placing this in the jaws of channel-lock pliers. An alternative method for repairing rim flairing is to use blocks of wood as both anvil - below the rim - and hammer - above the rim. If it seems necessary to use a hammer, don't strike the rim directly with the hammer's face; lay a strip of aluminum or brass over the area of the rim to be repaired, and strike there. Aluminum cans - ubiquitous and easily cut with scissors or even a pocket knife - are indispensable in bicycle repair. Truing the Wheel. First, remove the wheel from the bike and remove the tire and tube before placing it in the truing stand. Adjust the arm and caliper on the stand so that the caliper is just shy of touching both sides of the wheel. Now, spin the wheel and slowly close the stand's calipers until they scrape against a spot on the wheel. Once you've found a spot where you are out of lateral true, tighten the spoke or spokes on the side opposite the bump, and loosen the ones that are pulling it out of true. Be patient while doing this - you shouldn't be going more than a quarter turn at a time while truing like this. If the spokes are giving resistance, try over turning slightly, and turning back to where you intended. After you've gone through several passes like this, you should check the vertical true of the wheel to make sure that you haven't put it out of round. Re-adjust the arm and caliper of the stand so that the calipers are together and just underneath the rim. Spin the wheel, and this time adjust the arm until the wheel begins to scrape. While adjusting for vertical true, you should tighten the spoke at the center of the hump, and tighten the spokes to the sides one half as much each. Because these spokes will be on opposite sides of the wheel, this will ensure that you don't put the wheel very much out of lateral true. If the hump is between two spokes, tighten them equally. Adjusting the spokes in one place will affect another section of the wheel, somewhat like squeezing a balloon. After this is done, you should check for lateral true and even tension, retruing for both lateral and vertical true if the wheel is out. If the wheel is properly trued and tensioned, you should stress test the wheel by placing it on one side and pressing down on it fairly firmly. You should repeat this going around the wheel, in order to be sure that the spokes settle into position with the spokes that they cross now and not while the wheel is being ridden. This can also put the wheel out of true again, and this should be checked. A full, comprehensive discussion of bicycle wheel building and truing is found in Jobst Brandt's book "The Bicycle Wheel" .

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Brakes/Adjusting Rim Brakes. ADJUSTING RIM BRAKES Rim brakes on bicycles are simple to adjust, and the term "rim" is used to distinguish them from "hub brakes". Rim brakes include all brake designs that depend on using brake pads to close on the rims of a bicycle's wheels. The brake parts for the most common configuration are identified in Figures 1 and 2. Although brakes are usually mandatory on bicycles, the laws and rules for brake performance vary, and some countries, while making law for "new" bicycles, ('at the point of sale'), have few specifications for the operation of bicycles "after" that point. Bike riders are advised to use the sources of law that apply in their "own" countries, but where the rules there are incomplete or unclear, they are advised to use any "point of sale" specifications that are available. Because the matter might then still be unclear in some countries, a table below repeats the braking distances of British Standard BS6102/1 for new bicycles. Bike shops can perform any number of tasks for the bicycle owner, but the basic brake adjustments are easy to do for yourself. At the simplest level they consist of screw adjustments on the handlebars, while knowing what gaps you intend to produce. At other times, (rarely), the cable length needs to be changed, but this too can be done by anybody with a practical leaning. It is perhaps when the conventional adjustments fail to solve the problem that most people resort to such pages to learn more. This page includes a selection of the most common confusions for brake adjustment and explains how to correct them. Bear in mind that the best way to learn the adjustment of brakes is to be shown by somebody while it is being done; in this way much of the mystery vanishes. The next best way is to follow a fairly stolid description of the sort below, and although it lacks interaction, should at least leave the reader better informed than when he started. <br clear=left> Preliminaries. Consider these few things before carrying out brake adjustments. Doing so might save time in the long run: The Full Procedure The full adjustment procedure is summarized below but it should be emphasized that slight adjustments might solve the problem. In any case, it is quite usual to repeat balancing at various stages throughout the adjustment. These above points are all described in some detail in the text that follows. Brake Block Alignment. The brake blocks need to be aligned with the metal rims. Refer to Figs 1 and 3. The leading edge of each block should be slightly closer to the rim than its trailing edge. This prevents brake squealing and is called "toeing-in". Use a coin, a credit card, or any other thin material under the back end of the block while adjusting it. Some suggest tying an elastic band temporarily to the trailing end of the block to allow more freedom while working. To make the adjustment, slacken the screw that holds the block. Usually a 5mm hex wrench is used. Swing the brake arm in so that the block is pressed squarely against the metal rim, and then re-tighten it while holding the block hard with your "toeing-in" device in place. Avoid the rubber of the wheel; the block should contact only the rim. The block should be parallel to the rim, noting that some blocks are curved to fit its shape. Do one block at a time, and just let each arm relax after the block is set. If there is insufficient clearance to work or if you intend adjusting the cable length later in any case, then unhook the cable bridge (Figure 1, D) or undo the cable clamp (Figure 1, F) before carrying out the work. Block Clearance. Decide whether or not the block clearance is correct by trying the feel of the brake lever. (Figure 2, D). The brake should feel responsive without too much handbrake slack prior to the start of braking. Some mountain bike V-brakes might need only a 1mm gap, while many other brakes need about 2mm. If in doubt, refer to your bicycle handbook. If a "significant" adjustment is needed, resetting the cable length should do it. If a "small" change will do then use the brake lever barrel-adjusters on the handlebars, as described in the Fine Adjustments below. Rough Adjustment. Alternatively, to set cable tension, back the barrel adjusters off a few extra turns, squeeze both pads against the rim, tighten the cable pinch bolt, then back of the barrel adjuster until the wheel spins freely between the pads. Brake Block Balance. 'The brake arms should be adjusted so that both blocks apply pressure to the rim at the same time. As a result, at balance, there is no sideways displacement of the wheel during braking. Although slight imbalance is not "always" critical, displacement of the wheel by even a small amount can cause damage when small-clearance devices such as distance counters are installed on the spokes. Balancing the spring tensions keeps the wheel centered even during braking. For brakes like V-brakes, there is a small screw near the bottom of each brake arm to adjust the spring tension.( Fig 5). It is often a posidrive screw, (M4x6mm) , with a tightening insert. Turning this screw "clockwise" will cause the brake block to move "outward" slightly, and turning it "counterclockwise" will cause the block to move "inward". As one block moves, so does the other, to maintain the distance between them. Adjust these until the clearances are about equal. In this way, operating the brake causes the blocks to reach the rim at about the same time. Be careful not to withdraw the screws too far since they may not be captive. At the other extreme, if a screw is too far in, the brake arm will bind; if a brake arm seems inactive, or unresponsive, this might be the case, or the spring may just have popped out of its slot. Try to avoid the limits and to reach a balance with the screws near their mid-range. This is easier than it sounds since making an identical adjustment on both screws will leave the balance unchanged. Brakes usually can be balanced unless the wheel is not centered in the wheel-arch. (See Common Brake Problems on this page for more on this). Final Check. Rotate the wheel to check brake clearance. Make sure that there are no repetitive noises coming from the brakes. Test the brakes on the spinning wheels before riding. If these work well enough then test the brakes again by riding the bicycle in a quiet place. The brakes should stop the bicycle decisively in a fairly short distance. Some v-brakes in particular have a short stopping distance; on these you should not need a deep pull on the brake lever for a good braking effect since this is a sign that the blocks are set too far from the rims. In any case be sure to refer to the manual if there is doubt. Figure 4 is an extract of maximum braking distances as given by the CTC Hire Standard, that is itself related to the content of British Standard BS6102/1 for new bikes. The CTC standard is an attempt to consider used bikes, as opposed to bikes at the point of first sale. In any case, these stopping distances are useful until such time as the European standards properly address the issue. The most common reason for long braking distances, apart from maladjusted brakes, is the degradation of the brake block surface area. Be sure if replacing these to replace both together. Common Brake Problems. Balance Problems. Sometimes, despite best efforts, the brake arms will not balance. The spring balance screws are designed to have limited range since they are only expected to handle the "difference" between the arm tensions to achieve balance. So, faults that only slightly bind any part of the braking system can cause trouble with balancing. Possible faults include: The lack of general lubrication, the binding of brake arms, the slipping of faulty adjustment screws, unseated brake-arm springs, unseated housing ferrules or nipples, or a quick-release wheel that needs re-clamped closer to the centre of the wheel arch. See these points below. Soft Brakes. If brakes are softer than intended, even after adjustment, then it might be that the toeing-in is excessive. Also, if wheel wobble causes rubbing on the brake blocks, widening the gaps will necessarily soften the brakes. See the comments below. Cables and Housings. The subject has been given a separate page at Cables and Housings.

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Chains/Mending a broken chain. Mending a broken chain. Newer, narrower chains and wider chains for single speed or three speed bicycles often have special links for removing the chain, but the chain tool is still needed to remove excess links when replacing chains. A chain tool can be used to push out the rivet which joins the plates of the chain together. Many chain tools have two positions the chain will fit- make sure the plate furthest from the extractor pin is supported by the tool. Once this is done the chain can be replaced or re-assembled as a shorter chain. Most chains will have enough slack to allow removal of a few links without making the chain too short. Avoid pushing the rivet all the way out, it should remain lodged in one of the outer plates. A small portion of the rivet left protruding on the inside of the plate can hold the chain together during reinstallation. Use the same position in the chain tool, with the chain plate furthest from the chain tool's pin supported, and push the rivet back into place. After reinstallation, the link will usually be too stiff- leading to chain skip unless loosened. The other position in two-position chain tools, with the closer plate supported by the tool, is used for loosening tight links. Force the side of the rivet that protrudes more into the link to loosen the link. Alternatively, grasping the chain on both sides of the tight link and flexing the chain in and out will loosen the link. Note. Although they're made of metal, chains seem to "stretch" as the links wear. This will cause them to not engage on the gears properly (they will hook on to the middle or top of the tooth, instead of the bottom of the groove). This will also cause the gear teeth to wear down. To test for excessive wear on a chain, open a link and remove the chain. Then try to flex the chain sideways, in the direction it is not supposed to bend. If you can make anything more than a 1/8 arc (for example, if you can make a half circle or if you can touch the ends), then your chain is worn and should be replaced. Alternatively, measure a straight section of chain under slight tension. Standard links of chain measure one inch when new- if 11 links of chain measure 11 1/8" (283 mm) or more the chain should be replaced. If you only replace the chain and not the gears, the chain may skip. For this reason, it is best to replace both at the same time (the front gears are not as affected by this because they are bigger and the chain doesn't pass over each tooth as many times). Replacing the chain more often, when 11 links measure 11 1/16" (281 mm), will allow the gears to be reused . Avoiding Chain Wear. To prevent such wear, avoid using gear combinations that stretch the chain diagonally. Also change gears only when you are turning the pedals. Remember to gear down when coming to a stop.

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Maintenance Schedules. Regular bicycle maintenance. Performing regular maintenance on a bicycle will improve its performance and longevity, and reduce the risk of breakdowns. The exact schedule for a particular bicycle will depend on how it is used: its weekly mileage, the weather conditions, road (or off road) surface conditions and so on. Most parts will need attention and possible replacement every year or two; if this is done, however, a bicycle can be maintained in good working order for decades. Bicycle inspection & maintenance can be roughly broken down into four categories. Each includes clean, inspect, adjust, lubricate and repair as necessary. The primary difference between them is the depth or level of each task and sub-task. The schedule given here is a starting point for an average bike, assuming daily or weekly use; you will soon adjust this based on your own experience. Every ride: Once a week: Quarterly: At least every two years:

Dutch/Cover. Begin the Wikibooks Dutch Language Course!

Dutch. =Welcome!= Welcome to the Dutch language course. Notice the arrows under the images of a number of cities where Dutch is spoken? Click on the arrow to hear how their names are pronounced in Dutch. There may be some surprises! Information about the course. If you want more information on the course, here are a few pages that may give you that. The lessons. If you want to jump right in and start learning: there are three types of lessons: There are three levels, each consisting of two cycles of four lessons each. Beginner level. At the end of this level learners should be able to form simple sentences in the basic tenses and possess a vocabulary of just over 1000 terms. Intermediate level. At the end of this level learners should be able to deal with complex sentences with complex verbal expressions and have a reasonable grasp of syntax. Advanced level. At the end of this level learners should have full command over Dutch grammar and syntax, including a number of special topics. Under construction. /For children/

Dutch/Introduction. Layout of the Course. This textbook is intended to be a comprehensive course in the Dutch language for English speakers, but of course people who speak English as a second language are most welcome as well. Being an Afrikaans speaker is a huge help too, as it is a daughter language of Dutch, though Afrikaans has its differences and words can have different meanings from the same ones in Dutch, and about 95% of Afrikaans vocabulary comes from Dutch. If you are an Afrikaans speaker, this course shall be significantly easier. Just remember the different dialects etc. when speaking Dutch. Early lessons emphasize conversational subjects and gradually introduce Dutch grammatical concepts and rules. In addition, sound files and illustrations accompany appropriate parts of each lesson. Structure of the course. The course is divided in three levels: beginner, intermediate and advanced. Each level consists of two cycles of 4 lessons each. At the beginner and intermediate level each lesson is accompanied by two parallel lessons: a "practice" lesson and a "cultural" lesson. That means that the beginner level comprises 2*4*3= 24 lessons in total. At the advanced level there are no parallel lessons. Starting from scratch, expect to arrive there in a year, depending on how intensively you study. By that time you should be able to start picking your own things to read, newspapers, Wikipedia articles, what have you. Parallel lessons. The main lessons aim at introducing grammatical topics by means of conversations, interspersed with some exercises. Of course that is not sufficient to actually start speaking the language. Therefore, each lesson is accompanied by: In addition there are pages intended to help build up vocabulary, some of which are interwoven in the practice lessons. Other ones are stand alone. Possible strategies. Which way the reader wishes to use the book may vary. The recommended strategy for a beginner with no experience is: Lesson 1 > Lesson 1A -> Vb. 1 -> Lesson 2 > Lesson 2A > Vb. 2 >Lesson 3 > Lesson 3A >, etc. People who have experience with other languages, grammars etc. might want to follow the order Lesson 1 > 2 > 3 > 4 > and on to the end of the basic text Others may want to start tackling the language in context of a situation and worry about grammar later might want to start with Lesson 1A or Example 1 and check back for the grammar in Lesson 1 later. But readers are encouraged to revisit pages they have worked on again and again, so the order may be more complicated than this. For people who have been learning Dutch in other ways and want to revisit a certain topic there is an Index of grammatical and syntactic topics covered. Layout within main Lessons. The following topics can typically be found in one of the main lessons: Layout in the practice lessons. There are often additional texts, many exercises of various sorts and short quizzes to practice what was taught in the main lesson or to repeat what was taught in the lessons before. To further expand vocabulary students may be asked to go to one of the vocabulary pages to study words related to a certain topic. Quizlet links provide another way to brush up on vocabulary Layout in the example lessons. In these lessons we will have a look at rhymes, poems, songs etc. Often the student is referred to a YouTube video to watch in order to practice oral understanding and expand vocabulary in the context of Dutch culture. Quizlet links provide another way to brush up on vocabulary. Quizzes. Short quizzes are integrated into the practice lessons, but there are also longer quizzes at the end of the two cycles of the Beginner Level. Rate of acquisition of vocabulary. Each lesson -its two parallel lessons included- contains on average about 120 new terms. At the end of the Beginner Level the student should know a little over one thousand terms. The Student and the Lesson. The text is designed to constitute a comprehensive course of study in the Dutch language. Each lesson should be read thoroughly and mastered before moving on. Substantial text in Dutch is included and the student should read all of it, not once, but multiple times. In most cases sound files are given as an arrow button; they should be listened to multiple times as well, both while reading the text simultaneously, and -once the content is understood- with eyes closed. Complete translations into English are included only in selected places or they are hidden in a drop down box. Most of the text should first be translated by the student using his or her acquired vocabulary and the vocabulary presented at the bottom of each lesson and/or in collapsed boxes in the right hand margin of the text. Hints about the meaning of new, underlined words can also be obtained by the . As the Dutch is read (out loud is better), the student must succeed in gaining an understanding of the meaning of each sentence, and the role each word plays in establishing that meaning. To the beginner, there will seem to be many words in a Dutch sentence that are out of place or even redundant or unnecessary. These add subtleties to the language that will make sense eventually. But it is important to experience these subtleties from the very beginning. There are exercises interspersed throughout the main lesson with additional ones in the practice lessons. They are of various nature. Translation exercises, pronunciation drills, fill-in-the-blanks, adapt a word form, swap to items etc. The Dutch Language. Dutch ("Nederlands") is a member of the western group of the Germanic languages. It is spoken primarily in the Netherlands, and in a major part of both Belgium and Surinam. It has about 23 million mother tongue speakers and another 5 million second language speakers. Continue reading about the Dutch language and its history at Wikipedia. Dialects. As a standard language Dutch is a relatively young phenomenon. The standard is based on a variety of dialects that are much older and show considerable differences not only in pronunciation but even in grammar and syntax. This holds for many languages, including for English as spoken in the UK. By urbanization, suburbanization and the influence of the mass media the standard language has been gaining ground at the cost of the dialects for over a century, so that it is now the mother tongue of most speakers. Others are typically perfectly bilingual in their regional tongue and the standard language. But in the way that the standard is spoken there are many regional and social differences in pronunciation or even in syntax and grammar. In Bruges (Flanders), Rotterdam (Netherlands) or Paramaribo (Suriname) Dutch will sound as different as English does in Edinburgh, London or Indianapolis. This course aims at teaching Dutch that would be acceptable to most if not all speakers but will point out a number of important differences that non-native speakers are likely to encounter in their interaction with native speakers. A major division in the dialects is formed by "de grote rivieren" the great rivers that run through the Netherlands from east to west on their way to the North Sea as shown in the map. The course is mostly based on Northern standard Dutch, because that is most readily accepted under all speakers, but it will point out some important differences at times and also give examples of other varieties. A dynamic language. Dutch has undergone far more sweeping changes in grammar and syntax in the last century or two than either English or German. It has lost most of its case endings and much of one of the three original genders (feminine). This has led to some interesting shifts in its grammar and syntax. Some of these developments are still taking place today. This means that Dutch grammar is less set in stone than the reader may be familiar with from other grammars. Occasionally we will have to discuss the evolution rather than the creature to explain modern Dutch usage. Dutch and English. If you are an English speaker unfamiliar with Dutch, you may be surprised to learn that English and Dutch are closely related languages and share many words that are very similar. This is particularly true for everyday words in English that are Anglo-Saxon (i.e. Germanic) in origin. After 1066 English has absorbed a lot of (Norman) French. Dutch also has been exposed to contact with first vulgar Latin and then French, but the French influence has been less pervasive. Consider the following list of English words followed by their Dutch counterparts: Many words of French origin have entered both languages and are quite recognizable: But in many cases Dutch retains a Germanic word, sometimes aside the Latin one: English spelling has conserved many now silent consonants, e.g. "gh" in "light". This may have been an obstacle when learning to write English but when learning Dutch the investment pays off. Dutch has "licht" and the "ch" is very much still pronounced as a guttural fricative /x/ like in German Bach or Scottish Loch. Some words are even completely the same. ("true friends") Of course, even words whose spelling is no different in English and Dutch may be pronounced quite differently or mean something different ("false friends"): Nevertheless, when reading Dutch you will see the kinship between the languages, even in many short words, common or not. For example, compare: These sentences consist almost entirely of "cognates": words that evolved from the same source. Dutch is indeed one of easiest languages to learn for an Anglophone. Notice however the position of the verb is in these two phrases. In Dutch it stands in front of the father. This is because Dutch has retained something that English has lost: the rather complicated word order (syntax) of the West-Germanic languages. Many English speakers who learn Dutch find that one of the most difficult aspects to learn to do correctly, but it hardly ever leads to miscommunication. In the course it is introduced bit by bit. The full picture is only described in one of the last lessons (21). Dutch and German. Both Dutch and German are West-Germanic languages and this means that there are many resemblances. However, Dutch is easier to learn for a speaker of English for a number of reasons. First of all, (High-) German underwent a major shift of almost all its consonants in the early Middle Ages. In term of its consonants Dutch has been pretty conservative. Compare: This makes a major part of Dutch vocabulary easier to memorize. Secondly, German retained its system of case endings in contrast to Dutch and English. It is not easy to master that system if your mother-tongue does not have it. Compare: Knowledge of German can certainly help in learning Dutch, but it can also be a source of confusion. A good example is the letter combination sch. In German it denotes the same consonant as sh in English (in IPA: [ʃ]), in Dutch this sound is relatively rare. It only occurs in loans from languages like Frisian, English, French etc. In Dutch 'sch' usually denotes [sx]: an [s] followed by a velar spirant [x], like in "schip". In the ending -isch the 'ch' is mute and it is pronounced as [-is] as in English 'fleece'. A topic where knowledge of German is a great help is syntax (word order), but on the other hand there are differences in how the verb tenses are used. In German the imperfect past tense, like "du gabst, sprachst, rettettest" is on its way out. In Dutch forms like "jij gaf, sprak, redde" are alive and kicking and in every day use. Dutch and Scandinavian languages. Although Danish, Swedish and Norwegian are North-Germanic languages, which means that the relationship is a bit more distant, speakers of these languages typically do not find Dutch very difficult, because many changes in the language such as the loss of the case endings and of feminine gender are quite similar. Some Scandinavians manage to speak Dutch so well without any discernible accent that people don't realize that they are not Dutch. Swedes may have to pay attention to their intonation, because that is rather different in Swedish. Dutch and French / Italian and other romance languages. For speakers of the Romance languages Dutch is by no means an easy language to learn, although if you already speak English some of the problems may already have been overcome. Dutch is a stress language like English and German. That is: every word has one syllable that is high in pitch, a bit louder, and usually a bit longer than all the other ones. In French those three qualities are not coupled and spread more evenly over the syllables of the word. In Dutch, stressed syllables have either a full vowel (one of twelve) or a diphthong; the unstressed syllables all tend to have a schwa. Intonation is therefore difficult for Romance speakers because the contrasts between the syllables is much smaller in those languages. Another problem is formed by the separable verbs. There often is no direct equivalent in French for the fine nuances imparted by the separable prefix in Dutch. Often an entirely different verb needs to be substituted, or there is none available. French speakers usually have little problem with the vowels, but they do tend to speak much more in the front of the mouth than Dutch speakers do. The placement of the sounds is different. For other Romance languages a vowel like "u" [y] or "eu" [ø] the "ui" [ʌy] diphthong might be problematic, as well as the guttural spirants "g" and "ch". Dutch and Russian / other Slavic languages. A main problem for Russian speakers lies in the vowel system of Dutch. The vowels a, e, i, o, u all occur in two different qualities. The differences are difficult to hear and reproduce for Russian speakers. Another problem is the voiced consonants like b, v, d, z. In Dutch they all get devoiced at the end of the word, but that hold for Russian too. However, they often also get devoiced when they follow a voiceless consonant, even in assimilation from the previous word. E.g. A grammatical problem is that Dutch is a "tense" language and Russian an "aspect" language. Dutch has perfect tenses, Russian perfective aspects. They cover the same territory, but one lengthwise the other in the other direction. Dutch and Mandarin. Of course the differences are very large and numerous, but one difficulty deserves mention, that of epenthesis. The syllables of Mandarin are either CV or CVn, i.e. they start with a single consonant and end in a vowel or a nasal. In Dutch they can end in other consonants and in fact multiple ones, like "herfst" is CVCCCC with no less than four consonants at the end. Mandarin speakers need to suppress the tendency to add epenthetic vowels, making it something like herefesete. Epenthetic (inserted) vowels are sometimes used by Dutch speakers too, e.g. "werken" may well be pronounced "werreke", but this is considered dialectal and non-standard and is frowned upon by most speakers. Vocabulary and Grammar. In learning to read or speak any new language, two important aspects to be mastered are "vocabulary" and "grammar" (others are pronunciation and syntax, but they usually do not stop you from being understood). Acquiring vocabulary is a "simple" matter of memorization. Learning by ear. Children do it all the time, but they are at an advantage: they memorize far easier than grown-ups. Age is a definite disadvantage in language learning. The child's learning process can be "reactivated" to some extent by immersion in a second language: a method of learning a new language by moving to a place where that language is spoken and having to get around and live without use of one's native tongue. If you do not have the opportunity of residing in a Dutch speaking area an alternative is to listen to recordings and we are in process of adding bits and pieces as .ogg files so that you can learn by ear. Use them as much as you can. More than once. These files take different forms In the Example lessons there are also links to YouTube videos where the text of a poem is recited or a song is sung. Of course there is also a drawback to the by-ear method: You do not get much immersion into reading Dutch. You as an internet user, will most likely want to be literate in Dutch. As with all languages: the "written" Dutch language and the "spoken" Dutch language are by no means identical. At times we will explain the distinction if necessary. Learning by eye. This is why this course also tries to train your eyes, but this will not work without effort from your side. This is why we often say: Your turn! (Uw beurt!) So what do you need to do? There are a variety of things. We are tackling the problem with a multi-pronged approach. Be sure to "learn"—commit to memory—all of the vocabulary words in each lesson as they are presented. Early lessons have simple sentences because it is assumed that the student's vocabulary is limited. To help you accumulate vocabulary there are a number of additional pages see: Dutch/Vocabulary. They are mostly both visual and audio in nature and there are exercises to go with them (still being created). Throughout the text, more complex discourses (e.g. as photo captions) are included to introduce the student to regular Dutch in use. It may be helpful to translate these using a Dutch-English dictionary (Wiktionary is usually on a click or two away). Other sources of Dutch, such as newspapers, magazines, web sites, etc. can also be useful in building vocabulary and developing a sense of how Dutch words are put together. The Dutch Wikipedia provides an ever-expanding source of Dutch language articles that can be used for this purpose. Further, a Dutch version of the English Wikibooks project—a library of textbooks in Dutch — is available at and there is a growing Dutch version of (WikiWoordenboek) to which a number of words in the text have been linked for direct reference. WikiWoordenboek usually has an example phrase to go with every dictionary entry to show the word in context. This too is a helpful tool for expanding your vocabulary, as context helps memorization. Learning grammar and syntax. This is where as a grown up you are at an advantage, because you may already know how grammar works from your mother tongue or other languages you are proficient in to some extent. Dutch grammar is sufficiently similar to English grammar that "reading" Dutch is possible with minimal vocabulary. The student should generally recognize the parts of a sentence. With a good dictionary, a sentence can usually be translated correctly. Of course there are some notable exceptions and "false friends", e.g. in the way that the passive voice is formed: To speak and write Dutch properly you do need to learn its grammar and syntax. Particularly the latter (word order) is rather different. We will gradually introduce it. Do not be daunted by it. Learning a language goes bit by bit, word for word, structure by structure. Just keep at it and look at what you have gained not at what you don't understand. Children don't always understand everything either, but they are not ashamed or humiliated by that. Pronunciation. A guide to pronunciation of Dutch is provided as Appendix 1. You should become familiar with this page early on, and refer to it often. Nothing can replace learning a language from a native speaker, but the text is liberally sprinkled with audio files providing the student with valuable input from hearing spoken Dutch. Analyze the spoken words carefully. Descriptions of the pronunciation as in Appendix 1 can only closely, not exactly, convey how Dutch words should be pronounced. This is why there are quite a few buttons on that page that allow you "hear" what is meant. Do compare! Of course there are variations in pronunciation. Dutch spoken in the country side of Brabant, in the cities of Amsterdam, Antwerpen or Paramaribo sound pretty different and the same thing can be said for the board room and the back alley. We do present pronunciations from different people and places in the sound files and even more so in the YouTube video links. Contact. If you have questions or want contact try the dutchgrammar forum. I often hang out there and correct people's stuff or do some exercises

Dutch/Lesson 1. Grammatica 1-1 ~ Grammar versus what children do. Why grammar? Children learn their mother tongue without knowing the parts of speech such as verbs, nouns and phrases. However these are helpful for anyone attempting to learn a second language from a book or a website. Of course the children have it right: the "best" way to learn a language is to listen to a mother tongue speaker and simply repeat. Then just use the word in a similar situation and see how people react. Children are masters at acquiring language this way and are generally smiled at when they use a word incorrectly. Being an adult, people are often not so forgiving to you and you feel foolish when people laugh and point out to you that you just said "toothbrush" while you meant "toothpick". Besides, native speakers may not always be available to you. Or if they are they are not eager to spend time playing 'child' with you. This book will try to compensate this by addition of audio files and visual information, -as the figure to the right- but that is still only a cumbersome substitute. We do recommend that you use them as much as you can. Firefox seems to give easier access to them than other browsers. So, please go ahead, push that arrow and learn to say 'toothbrush' properly. Your first Dutch word? Congrats. Although clearly children are superior in language acquisition, grown ups do have an advantage: they can analyze language better in terms of its grammar. This course therefore uses both approaches: it will deal with grammar, but it will also ask you to be a child and listen and repeat or look at some pictures while playing a sound clip. Don't be afraid to be a bit childish! It serves a purpose. One important observation about children should be mentioned: they always learn language "in a certain context". Is it all just grammar here then? No! There is much more. Audio files are inserted into the main lessons as much as possible, even though they aim at gradually introducing grammar and syntax. The parallel series of practice lessons (1A, 2A etc.) provide additional practice, vocabulary building, sound material and quizzes. The example pages (Vb. 1 etc.) follow the contextual path of learning like children do and involve nursery rhymes, poems, stories, songs and the like. And there are audio-visual vocabulary pages to help you learn more words. What is the best way? So, what is the best way to learn a language? The best way is to do something everyday. What you do is often less important than simply doing it. Children are champions in language acquisition and they never worry about what they do. Oh, and what you do, may very well be doing that same exercise again. Children love doing things "again". Ever watched the Teletubbies? "Repeating" is an important key to language acquisition. Being "efficient" and saying: "oh, I have done that before, let me skip that!" is a bad adult habit that children would never stoop to, until they get really bored with something. (Which is when they already know it). So, push that button below the toothbrush again! And tomorrow come back here and do the same. Other assets. Another thing to exploit is the other languages you already know. English speakers will find many strong parallels between their language and Dutch. German speakers even more so, but there are also differences. Where possible we will try to point out the similarities and the differences and exploit them. However, as noted in the introduction, Dutch grammar is more complex than English grammar, and identifying the meaning of words in a Dutch sentence is difficult without understanding the clues to word function that come from the grammatical rules. The basic lessons of this textbook are set up to first introduce the parts of speech, and then bring in the rules that govern these. Pay particular attention to sentence word order as you progress through the lessons. Some tricks this course uses. Hovering. Some words will be . Try to hover your mouse over such words. Topics and vocabulary. There are pages to help you build vocabulary in a visual / auditive way. Audio files. Whenever you see one of the following: Or: Please click and listen! (If you do not see any buttons now: try a different browser. Firefox and Chrome seem to work. Internet Explorer does not.) After listening, pronounce the word the best you can and then click again. Keep doing that till you are satisfied with your own result. It is useful to then leave it be for, say 20 minutes and do it again. Then perhaps once more the next day. Vocabulary / Pronunciation boxes. For many texts there is a box on the right that you can open to look at the vocabulary being trained and listen to the pronunciations. Click it to open it and start listening and reading. Using other sites. Wiktionary. Throughout the texts and in the vocabulary lists there are blue links that take you to the Dutch version of our sister project Wiktionary. It is called WikiWoordenboek. Of course the layout is in Dutch and you may not immediately understand everything, but that is not a disaster. If you want to learn a language you also should learn to be a bit of a detective: you often need to get the gist of something with a few pieces of the puzzle missing. Don't let that scare you off! Here are a few useful topics used on WikiWoordenbook: If you are really lost use the interwiki link to the English version (or any other language you know) as back up, but don't give in to it too easily! Use it to figure out what you did not quite get on the Dutch version. We encourage you to use the links to expand your vocabulary. First guess what a word means, then click! Just try it on the verb ; look at the box with three forms on the right. What is the past tense? (It is the middle one in the box) Quizlet and Memrise. There are plenty other sites that allow you to expand your growing knowledge of Dutch. They all have their pros and cons. For example Memrise and Quizlet have an interesting way to boost vocabulary, but teach zero syntax or grammar and usually little other context. But if you want a vocabulary boost it's great and we are in the process of creating practice sets dedicated to the material of the lessons here. Some already have a quizlet link on the bottom of the page. It is therefore recommended to register for Quizlet. (It is for free). YouTube. YouTube has a plethora of videos, that we will even send you to at times. Again: good for listening, vocabulary building, often less so on grammar and syntax, but plenty of other context. But do come back: the context. There is a pertinent Dutch proverb: "Verandering van spijs doet eten" - "Change of food makes you eat". Children also vary what they play with. Variety of learning is healthy. Besides children never learn a word outside context. When they learn a new word, it always goes together with the context of: One aim of this book is to provide as much of that context as possible. This is why conversations, stories, texts, poems and songs are important: they give context to the words you are learning. So, enough talk! Let's get started. And we'll start in the context of a simple conversation Gesprek 1-1 ~ Vrienden: Jan en Karel. We will put such text material in a colored box. What you are supposed to do with such material is the following. When learning a new language it is very important to be able to deduce meaning from limited information, because you will often not know all the words used. Picking up their meaning from context is an important skill. This is why the hovering is important. You may notice that Dutch sometimes strings words together a bit differently than English. Dutch word order is quite different and a difficult aspect of the language, but we will revisit that many times. So don't worry about it for the moment, just observe. Pronunciation. Dutch pronunciation varies with region and speaker, and you may have been shocked at some of the sounds of the language. You can visit Dutch/Alfabet if that is the case. Dutch spelling is not really phonetic, but pretty systematic (much more so than English) and once you learn the system you should be able to pronounce an unknown word on sight pretty well. It is not easy to render the sounds in writing, but the following rendition in IPA gives a reasonable idea. Try running the sound file again while reading the IPA version. If you prefer other renditions than IPA try this page Grammatica 1-2 ~ Forms. We will use the material in the colored boxes to point at grammatical phenomena and introduce the grammar that way, step by step. Clitic forms. Did you notice the difference between "Hoe gaat het met "je"? and "En met "jou?" in the conversation? Both translate literally into with "you", but there is a difference in emphasis. "Jou" carries emphasis, "je" does not. In Dutch, there are often two forms of the same pronoun: a strong one and a weak ('clitic') one. This is particularly true in spoken, colloquial Dutch. In the written language the clitic ones are not always shown as such. In colloquial English the same thing can be heard at times: "seeya!" instead of "see you!". In Dutch the use of clitics is very common; it already was in the Middle Dutch period before 1500. For now remember: never stress a clitic Polite forms. The above conversation was between two good friends. It utilizes the familiar form of the personal pronoun ("je", "jou") where English uses "you". However, Dutch also has a polite or formal form of the personal pronoun for the second person (you), u. Many languages have this distinction. It is e.g. comparable with in Gàidhlig, Sie in German, vous in French, usted in Spanish, Вы in Russian, or anata in Japanese. When to use one or the other is not always easy to decide. Someone unknown, particularly if older, is generally "u", an old friend typically "je, jou". The latter roughly corresponds with the 'first name basis' in English. Notice the use of "u" in the conversation below that takes place between colleagues rather than close friends. They would never say: "hoi!" to each other. Regional forms. In the South of the area where Dutch is spoken (Flanders mostly), , the familiar form when speaking in familiar fashion is "gij" (clitic: "ge", object: "u"). "Gij" is mostly used when speaking dialect, although it gets used more and more in polite situations and on tv. In the north it has become obsolete since about 1800. It is used much like "you" in English for both singular and plural. In the North "gij" is now only encountered there in archaic phrases like: "gij zult niet stelen" - "thou shalt not steal". Like "thou" the pronoun "gij" takes its own verb forms. This course is mostly based on northern usage as this is the most widely accepted, including in Suriname and the Antilles, but some important differences will be pointed out and we will see "gij" occasionally when we look at some older poetry. Gesprek 1-2 ~ Collega's: De handelaars. Push the button and listen to the following text. It is recommended to first just listen. Then read the following conversation. It is a bit more formal than the one before. If you are not sure of the meaning of a word, hover your mouse over it, if it is underlined. A translation will pop up. Or use the vocabulary box to the right. Make sure you know the gist of the story before opening the translation box. If you cheat, you cheat yourself... Finally, listen to the recording again with your eyes closed. Can you understand what is being said? <br clear="all"> Go back to the pronunciation, close your eyes and see how much you understand now. You may have to repeat the process a few times. Quiz. How are you doing so far? Do this little quiz to find out! <quiz display="simple"> -toothpick -friend +toothbrush -visit -me -sir +you (object) -you (subject) ---+- already +---- street ----+ merchant -+--- good --+-- how </quiz> Grammatica 1-3 ~ Introduction to pronouns. A is a short word that takes the place of a noun previously mentioned in the sentence, paragraph, or conversation. Recall: Kent u "meneer Standish"? Bent u "hem" al tegengekomen? "Hem" refers back to "meneer Standish". It is a "pronoun" that stands "for" (pro- !) meneer Standish. There is a variety of pronouns like personal, possessive, relative and indefinite ones. Let's look at the personal pronouns first. Personal pronouns. Both English and Dutch have had a system of case endings in the past, as languages like German and Russian still do today. In English most of the system fell into disuse starting with the Viking invasions of the 9th and 10th Centuries, and especially after the Norman invasion in 1066. The collapse of the system in spoken Dutch dates mostly from the 16th century and in the written language it was scrapped as recently as 1947. That means that Dutch has more remnants of the case system left than English and we will even devote lesson 15 to those remnants. The personal pronouns actually still show some case differences in both languages. Personal pronouns are quite familiar in English: They are words like I,you,he,she,we,you and they. <br>At least this is the case for the subject (nominative case). As object (accusative) some of them are different: "me",you,"him","us",you,"them". Compare: Notice how I turns into me when used as an object. You remains the same. Much like in English, ik (subject) turns into mij as object in Dutch, whereas je remains the same in both roles: The system in Dutch resembles the English one quite a bit, after all the languages are close relatives: Nevertheless the Dutch system is a little more involved, as we have seen there are: In addition there are Let's leave most of these complications aside for the moment and concentrate on the forms of the pronouns. There are a few more than in English. Exercises 1-1. Quizlet. This is the point where it is your turn to put in some effort yourself, because obviously you have some memorization to do. There is a Quizlet practice set (27 terms) to help you with memorizing the pronouns. But it is recommended to "first" use the above tables. Unfortunately, the pronunciation of some of the clitics with apostrophes is wrong at Quizlet. So click the arrow buttons here to listen to the pronunciation and speak it out loud yourself until you feel confident that you know them, then go to Quizlet. Do make sure you can hear sound at Quizlet.First scan through the cue cards, then do some of the other methods available. It should take you an hour or so and you will know some of the most frequently used words in the language. Woordenlijst 1. You have already encountered quite a few words above. Now make sure you own them! Listen to their pronunciation, sort the table by English and read back to Dutch, check the pronunciation again. Click on the blue link to go to the Dutch wiktionary and try to figure out what you may. If you do not understand, follow the interwiki link to go to the English wiktionary. In short: there are many ways to use this table and you can try one thing one day and come back another to try something different. <br clear="all"> Quizlet. The vocabulary of this lesson can be trained at Quizlet. (33 terms) Your turn! Building vocabulary 1. When learning a language you need to start building up your vocabulary. There are various ways of doing that. One is to study the above conversations well. Often words are easier to remember when put in context. We will add vocabulary building exercises to each lesson to make it easier for you to memorize it all. Progress made. If you have studied the above well, you should Further practice. This lesson is accompanied by two pages that are intended to practice and reinforce what you have learned above. They do that with a bit different approach It is recommended that you first work on the material in these two modules before you move on to lesson two, but of course this depends on your level of understanding and one of the nice things about the wiki-system is that one can use it whichever way you see fit. (Which is what children would do, but they are used to running into new things that they do not fully comprehend.)

Dutch/Example 1. Nursery rhymes. Children learn a lot of language skills by playing, singing, dancing. They know how to make learning fun. This is why children's songs and rhymes are a wonderful way to acquire a foreign language. Here are three examples. Enjoy being a child again! Poesje en Hondje. The following text was taken from a Mother Goose rhyme and translated into Dutch. In order to get a literal translation, the Dutch text was not made to rhyme. Note that in Dutch the word "poesje" does "not" have the same connotation as in English. It merely means "pussycat". Poesje Mauw. The following is a Dutch "volksliedje" (folk song). <br clear="all"> The meter in the Dutch version is nearly perfect and should provide hints for pronouncing the words. Lekkere is pronounced as 'le-kre' in this case, to fit the meter (but this poetic license, not non-standard pronunciation). Now that you understand the poem, go see a video of it, see here (Notice that in some dialects "ij" and "ei" are pronounced more like [ɑɪ̯] than as [ɛɪ̯].) There is a pretty astounding 'performance' of this song by (the late) Corrina Konijnenburg that was recorded in 1967 in a children's show by "Dorus" (real name Tom Manders). Note that the performer took a few liberties. Notice that she pronounces poesje as "poessie" as is usual in Hollandic dialects. Ba, ba, black sheep. This nursery rhyme is well known in English, but here is the Dutch version. <br clear="all"> Quizlet. The vocabulary of this lesson can be practiced at Quizlet (21 terms) Progress made. If you have studied the above well you should have Cumulative count: Les 1: 116 terms, Les 1A: 89 terms. Example 1: 21 terms Total 226 terms. Further learning. Please proceed to Dutch/Lesson 2

Internet Technologies/Routing. A route is the path that data takes when travelling through a network from one host to another. Routing is the process by which the path, or some subset of it, is determined. One of the characteristic features of the Internet, as compared to other network architectures, is that each node that receives a packet will typically determine for itself what the next step in the path should be. IP routing decisions are generally made based on the destination of network traffic. When an IP packet is sent from a node on the network, it will consult its "routing table" to determine the next hop device that the traffic should be sent to, in order for it to reach its final destination. The routing table on a typical home machine may look something like this (except formatted properly :): Kernel IP routing table Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface x.y.z * 255.255.255.255 UH 0 0 0 ppp0 192.168.0.0 * 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 eth0 127.0.0.0 * 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 0 lo default x.y.z 0.0.0.0 UG 0 0 0 ppp0 So, for example, when it receives a packet on interface eth0 which has a destination of 216.239.59.104, it will consult the table and see that it should send it through the default interface, the host x.y.z, which is on interface ppp0. The routing table is constructed from a combination of statically defined routes and those learned from dynamic routing protocols. Statically defined routes may be declared at system boot time, or via a command line interface. They will generally include the following parameters: Static routes may also include the following parameters: The "default route" is a special case of a statically defined route. It is the route of last resort. All traffic that does not match another destination in the routing table is forwarded to the default gateway. Dynamic routing protocols allow network attached devices to learn about the structure of the network dynamically from peer devices. This reduces the administrative effort required to implement and change routing throughout a network. Some examples of dynamic routing protocols are: ISIS and OSPF are link-state protocols, meaning each node part of the same zone, will know the state of all the link in the mesh. Due to the exponential number of link in a mesh, thoses protocols are for small mesh such as an ISP national backbone. RIP is usually used to easily announce customer's routes in a backbone. BGP is used as an external routing protocol to exchange routes with other entities. ISP use BGP extensively to "trade" their routes. It can also be used to carry customers routes across a network, in a MPLS backbone for example.

German/Lesson 7. Lektion 7 Einfache Mathematik ~ Simple Mathematics Lernen 7 ~ Zählen von 13 bis 100. Once you have memorized the numbers from 1 to 12 (see Lernen 3), counting higher in German becomes very much like counting in English. From 13 to 19, add "-zehn" (10; "-teen" in English) after the cardinal number root: 13 – "dreizehn" (irregular in English: 'thirteen')<br> 14 – "vierzehn"<br> 15 – "fünfzehn"<br> 16 – "sechzehn" (note that the 's' in "sechs" is dropped and the 'ch' is pronounced like the 'ch' in "ich")<br> 17 – "siebzehn" (note that the 'en' in "sieben" is dropped)<br> 18 – "achtzehn"<br> 19 – "neunzehn" Above 19 the counting system is constant: add "-zig" ("-ty" in English) to the cardinal root. Thus, we get: 20 – "zwanzig"<br> 21 – "einundzwanzig" (note: 'one-and-twenty')<br> 22 – "zweiundzwanzig" (note: 'two-and-twenty')<br> And the same for 30, 40, 50...etc. 30 – "dreißig" (this is an exception to the -zig Rule)<br> 40 – "vierzig"<br> 50 – "fünfzig"<br> 60 – "sechzig"<br> 70 – "siebzig"<br> 80 – "achtzig"<br> 90 – "neunzig"<br> 100 – "hundert" So, combining these, we get: 34  – "vierunddreißig" (note: 'four-and-thirty')<br> 143 – "hundertdreiundvierzig" (note: 'hundred-three-and-forty')<br> 170 – "hundertsiebzig"<br> 199 – "hundertneunundneunzig" It would be excellent practice towards learning these numbers by counting (in German, of course) from 1 to 199—or counting along any continuous sequence that comes to mind. For example, start with your age and count to 50 (count down if appropriate). Grammatik 7-1 ~ Math Calculations. The following table presents the symbols used for basic mathematics. We can use these symbols to ask and answer simple problems in mathematics. Some of the examples that follow include first a question ("Frage") and then the answer ("Antwort"): "Wieviel ist sechs und sieben?" How much is 6 and 7? "Sechs und sieben ist dreizehn" 6 and 7 is 13 "Wieviel ist fünfzig plus achtzehn?" How much is 50 + 18? "Fünfzig plus achtzehn ist gleich achtundsechzig" 50 + 18 = 68 "Wieviel ist siebzig minus zehn?" How much is 70 - 10? "Siebzig minus zehn ist gleich sechzig" 70 - 10 = 60 "Wieviel ist neun durch drei?" How much is 9 divided by 3? "Neun durch drei ist gleich drei" 9 ÷ 3 = 3 "Funf ist größer als zwei" 5 > 2 "Acht ist kleiner als siebzehn" 8 < 17 Vokabeln 7-1. Counting to 199 is also included in the vocabulary for "Lektion 7". die Antwort answer die Frage question geteilt/dividiert durch over [math] größer als greater than kleiner als smaller than geteilt/dividiert divided, forked, split gleich equal, same, even hoch tall, to the power of [math] mal times [math] minus minus plus plus wieviel? how much?

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Hubs/Cleaning and repacking a hub. Hub Bearings. Over time the bearings in the hubs of a bicycle wheel may come out of adjustment causing the wheel to wobble from side to side (this can also be the result of the wheel being out of true; a sure sign of loose bearings is that the rim can be moved laterally in the fork by hand). Additionally, road dirt and moisture infiltrate the bearings, causing rough operation and premature wear. Even if these issues do not arise, the bearings' lubrication will eventually need to be replaced in order to maintain the life and health of the hubs. These problems can be addressed by overhauling the hubs. The basic techniques are similar to maintaining any other ball bearing assemblies, whether the headset or bottom bracket on the bike, or on complete different applications. On some recent model mountain bikes, there has been a rash of rear hubs getting significant play after only a few rides; this may be due to bad cones or lock nuts. The drive side lock nut should be your number one suspect in this case if the bike is new. Parts of the hub. From the inside out: Shell. Main body of hub, holds the axle assembly and is the connection point for the spokes. Bearing Cup. Is pressed into the shell. Bearing Cone. Forms the outside bearing races, fits onto axle, usually adjustable. Bearings. There are three major types of bearings in use on bicycle hubs: Cleaning and repacking a traditional cone and cup front hub. At this point, depending on how the grease is distributed on the parts, the ball bearings may well stick to the axle, or drop out of the hub or into the axle hole through the hub, or remain in the cup. If the bearings are in a cage, they will generally remain in place unless the cage has been excessively worn. It is advisable to leave the other cone and locknut assembly undisturbed in its position on the axle, as this will allow you to maintain the original side to side alignment of the axle assembly in the hub as much as possible. (Of course, this is mandatory where this assembly is not removable). It can be cleaned and greased in this condition. (If the cone is damaged, then it will need to be disassembled and replaced). Maintaining a cartridge bearing hub. There are many different designs so this is just an overview of the basic principles that can be used to service most cartridge bearing hubs. Clean and lubricate bearings. If you ride in wet conditions you may be able to extend the life of the bearings by periodically cleaning and lubricating them. In most circumstances this is not required and the bearing will have an acceptable life with no maintenance. The idea is to remove one of the seals from the bearing so it can be cleaned and fresh grease applied. Replace bearings. Replacement bearings can be sourced from good bike shop or from any bearing supplier. Typically bearings are identified from the numbers on the side of the bearing, take the old bearings with you to make sure you get the correct replacements. Removing old bearings. Installing new bearings. Cartridge bearings are not good at absorbing side loads. When being pressed into the hub the force needs to be pushing on the outer metal ring to avoid damaging the bearing. A suitable sized socket can be used to do this.

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Cleaning parts. Cleaning parts can be done with a cleaning solution of some kind, and/or with a rag or stiff brush. A couple of notes about cleaning products: Power Washer. Using a power washer is an option in some situations, but care must be taken not to displace lubricant from parts. A high pressure stream of water is capable of displacing the grease from a bearing surface, including from sealed bearings, which are not designed to be lubricated by the user. Some very powerful power washers can also take the paint off of a bike. As such it is not recommended to clean a bike with a power washer because it is very hard to dry the water and replace the grease. Cleaning and lubricating a bicycle chain. Cleaning and lubricating your chain is one of the simplest and most important things to do to keep your bike in good working order. It is also an activity that draws intense debate with many people insisting that their way is the "Right" way to do it. The short story is, the cleaner and better lubricated your chain is the longer the entire drivetrain (the chain and gears) will last, but no drive-train lasts forever. It is worth spending time taking care of your drivetrain, it's not worth obsessing about. You need: The choice of lubricant is important. DO NOT use WD40* as it is too thin and will evaporate leaving nothing to lubricate the chain. Use special bike chain lube found at any bike store. Some lubricants are formulated for wet conditions, others for dry. The difference is the viscosity. A dry lube used in wet conditions will require more frequent applications, a wet lube used in dry conditions will gather dirt, and require more frequent cleaning. Prior to lubricating, clean the chain as well as possible. Usually a chain cleaning tool, or a toothbrush is sufficient. Remove the chain from the bicycle and soak it in a solvent such as a cycle degreaser. Hang up chain to dry off. Paraffin will also work, but is unpleasant and unhealthy to work with environmentally hazardous, and flammable; as such it is not recommended. Dirt is what causes a chain to wear out, so keeping your chain as clean as possible extends its life, and the life of the entire drivetrain. Apply the lubricant on the chain non-pressurized drip type lubes are recommended as are more accurate, and waste less lube than spray lubricants. Put a rag behind the chain so that the lube does not contaminate the tires or other parts of the bike. Rotate the pedals to move the chain and lubricate the whole length. Wipe the chain with the rag to remove the excessive lubricant, as this just gathers dirt and does not help lubricate the chain.

German/Concepts Basic. Lektion N Richtig oder falsch? 1 a Wir müssen gehen. So wir haben keine Zeit. 1 b Wir müssen gehen. Deshalb haben wir keine Zeit. 2 a Wenn wir haben Stress, machen wir oft Fehler. 2 b Wenn wir Stress haben, machen wir oft Fehler. 3 a Ich mag Leute nicht, die zu spät kommen. 3 b Ich mag Leute nicht, die kommen zu spät. Richtig sind: 1 b, 2 b, 3 a,

German/Concept Advanced. "Contributed to Lesson 1A, but concept not really introduced until Lesson 5": Beispiel an "können" (can) "gehen" (go) "sein" (to be) pronoun verb I (irreg?) verb II verb III (irregular) Basicform können gehen sein ich kann gehe bin du kannst gehst bist er/sie/es kann geht ist wir können gehen sind ihr könnt geht seid sie können gehen sind Sie (formal) können gehen sind As you can see, any verb uses the same declination for wir, sie and Sie. Also, er/sie/es uses the same declination for all three genders. NOTE: Moved to Lesson 6 "Used this story for German/Level III/Markus Studiert since it nicely followed your other Markus conversation. But I could not match "holt" or "holt aus" to any verb. Can you help? " -- holt is from holen, holt aus is from ausholen, which has another meaning, but "holen" is meant here in the sense of "fetching a book out of the shelf" (trying to match the German sentence literally) Markus ist in der Universität. Er trinkt dort einen Kaffee und ißt ein Brötchen. Danach geht er in die Bibliothek. Er sucht ein Buch über Biochemie. Er holt das Buch aus dem Regal und setzt sich an einen Tisch. Nach einer Stunde geht er in den Hof und raucht eine Zigarette. Danach geht er an den Tisch zurück. Er denkt: "Wenigstens eine Stunde..." und stellt das Buch wieder in das Regal. Heute ist nicht sein Tag. "There are already lessons completed for some of these points. However, it might be that the stories or conversations need to made easier to read in those lessons." What should be explained here? "Note that the book layout is such that the Advanced lessons add to the basic lesson (1A furthers something taught in 1), but 1A cannot be the place where anything basic is introduced, as the berginning student should not even visit Lesson 1A until later". Just wondering, but isn't this very limited for Advanced Level? I would like like some help for the Wirtschaftsdeutsch Prüfung but this isn't going to help me.

Bourne Shell Scripting. Hi there! Welcome to this Wikibook on the wonderful world of Bourne Shell Scripting! This book will cover the practical aspects of using and interacting with the Bourne Shell, the root of all shells in use in the world. That includes interacting with the shell on a day-to-day basis for the purposes of operating the computer in normal tasks, as well as grouping together commands in files (scripts) which can be run over and over again. Since it's not practical to talk about the Bourne Shell in complete isolation, this will also mean some short jaunts into the wondrous world of Unix; not far, just enough to understand what is going on and be able to make full use of the shell's very wide capabilities. There are also some things this book won't do for you. This book is not an in-depth tutorial on any kind of programming theory -- you won't learn the finer points of program construction and derivation or the mathematical backings of program development here. This book also won't teach you about or any other type of Unix or Unix itself or any other operating system any more than is necessary to teach you how to use the shell. Nothing to be found here about , joe, vi, or any other specific program. Nor will we cover firewalls and networking. We "will" cover the Bourne Shell, beginning with the basic functionality and capabilities as they existed in the initial release, through to the added functionality specified by the international POSIX standard POSIX 1003.1 for this shell. We will have to give you "some" programming knowledge, but we hope that everyone will readily understand the few simple concepts we explain. Having said that, the authors hope you will find this book a valuable resource for learning to use the shell and for using the shell on a regular basis. And that you might even have some fun along the way.

Creative Writing/Comics. This is a summary of Scott McCloud's "Understanding Comics". Chapter 1: Setting the Record Straight. Comics is a medium, not a genre. In one of the few previous books discussing comics as a medium, Will Eisner's "Comics and Sequential Art", comics is defined, unexpectedly, as Sequential Art. Here McCloud expands and formalizes that definition (in a rare panel that reduces neatly to pure text): "com.ics (kom'iks) n. plural in form, used with a singular verb. 1. Juxtaposed pictoral and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer." The definition is dense (in the book it is developed over several pages, with McCloud's cartoon avatar taking questions from an audience), but to quote another part of the chapter1 The secret is not in what the definition says but what it "doesn't" say! || For example, our definition says nothing about superheroes or funny animals. Nothing about fantasy/science fiction or reader age. No genres are listed in our definition, no types of subject matter, no styles of prose or poetry. || Nothing is said about paper and ink. No printing process is mentioned. Printing "itself" isn't even specified!2 Nothing is said about technical pens or bristol board or Windsor & Newton Finest Sable Series 7 Number 2 Brushes!3 No materials are ruled out by our definition. No tools are prohibited. || There is no mention of black lines and flat colored ink. No calls for exaggerated anatomy or for representational art of any kind. No schools of art are banished by our definition, no philosophies, no movements, no ways of seeing are out of bounds!4 Like text, comics can be used in uncountable ways; unlike text, its potential has until recently been tragically squandered. Chapter 2: The Vocabulary of Comics. Comics are built out of icons -- "For the purposes of this chapter, I'm using the word icon to mean any image used to represent a person, place, thing or idea." Letters and words are completely abstract icons, bearing no physical resemblance to their ideas; pictures have varying levels of abstraction, from the photograph of a face, full of color and shading, an ink copy of photons taken in through a shutter, to =D That smiley, that :-) , that set of dots and lines that looks like a face to us only because our brains contain a lot of face-seeing hardware (after all, no one sees eyes in solitary colons, noses in solitary dashes), is a cartoon. Cartoons focus our attention -- through simplification, by eliminating superfluous features, they amplify the features that remain -- but, McCloud explains, that is not the entirety of their drawing power: When two people interact, they usually look directly at one another, seeing their partner's features in vivid detail. || Each one also sustains a constant awareness of his or her own face, but "this" mind-picture is not nearly so vivid; just a sketchy arrangement...a sense of shape...a sense of "general placement". || Something as simple and basic as a cartoon. || Thus, when you look at a photo or a realistic drawing of a face, you see it as the face of another. || But when you enter the world of the "cartoon", you see "yourself". ... The cartoon is a vacuum into which our identity and awareness are pulled, || an empty shell that we inhabit which enables us to travel into another realm. We don't just observe the cartoon, we "become" it! The spectrum as described thus far: real face --> photograph of a face --> realistic drawing --> cartoony drawing --> smiley The photograph requires little cognition; it is received as pure visual input. The smiley requires an effort, if an unconscious one, a piecing together of the abstract lines. Continuing the spectrum to the right, McCloud argues, we arrive at the word FACE -- bold and distinct, with relatively few letters, reminiscent of prehistoric times, when words and pictures were one -- then at a more detailed description ("Two eyes, one nose, one mouth" is the example given), then at still higher levels of abstraction ("Thy youth's proud livery, as gazed on now..."). reality --> photo --> Batman --> Charlie Brown --> =D --> FACE --> Two eyes, one nose, one mouth --> "Thy youth's proud livery, as gazed on now..." Our need for a unified "language" of comics sends us toward the center where words and pictures are like one side of the same coin! || But our need for "sophistication" in comics seems to lead us outwards, where words and pictures are most separate. In addition to iconic abstraction, there exists abstraction of the more traditional sense, the abstraction of abstract art. Thus, the spectrum becomes a pyramid: The Picture Plane/Art Object / .\ \ / \ \ / . \ .| / . \ / language reality The pyramid has limitations, of course (Where do The Treachery Of Images and Fountain fall? Does the horizontal axis along the verbal edge dictate how the words are displayed on the page or how they describe things?) but it is a cool little invention. Chapter 3: Blood in the Gutter. As part of normal life, everyone learns to assume certain things (or so one assumes) -- that the world doesn't disappear when you're not looking, for example, that the house across the street has furniture and interior walls. "As infants, we're unable to commit that act of faith. If we can't see it, hear it, smell it, taste it or touch it, it isn't there! The game "Peek-A-Boo" plays on this idea. Gradually, we learn that even though the sight of mommy comes and goes, mommy remains. || This phenomenon of observing the parts and perceiving the whole has a name. It's called closure." You performed closure when you saw the lines at the top of this section as two anime smilies; more to the point of the chapter, you performed closure when you saw the two smileys as a single "winking" smiley. "See that space between the panels? That's what comics aficionados have named "the gutter!" And despite its unceremonious title, the gutter plays host to much of the magic and mystery that are at the very heart of comics...If visual iconography is the vocabulary of comics, closure is its grammar." Of course, other media make use of closure as well -- in movies, our minds effortlessly connect each frame to those preceding and following it -- but comics requires conscious (or semiconscious), high-level closure between every frame. McCloud has categorized panel-to-panel transitions into six classes: Looking at how often each panel transition is used in a particular comic can reveal some interesting things. Jack Kirby's pioneering style, as invoked in a Fantastic Four comic from 1966, breaks down as follows: 65% action-to-action (type 2), 20% subject-to-subject (type 3), 15% scene-to-scene (type 4); the remaining transitions are unused. Here's the bar graph McCloud makes of the data: |1|2|3|4|5|6| 90%| | | | | | | | |.| | | | | | |M| | | | | 50%| |M| | | | | | |M| | | | | | |M| | | | | | |M|M|.| | | 10%| |M|M|M| | | As it turns out, almost every American comic -- regardless of storytelling style, regardless of genre (with a few experimental exceptions like Art Spiegelman's early work) -- charts similarly, from issue 1 of X-Men to Heartbreak Soup to Betty and Veronica to Naughty Bits to Frank in the River to A Contract With God to Maus to Donald Duck. A similar survey of European comics (Squeak the Mouse, Asterix, Welcome to Alflolol, The Long Tomorrow, Manhattan, Clik!, The Black Island, The Clock Strikes) yields similar results. But here's a popular mainstream Japanese comic from Osamu Tezuka: |1|2|3|4|5|6| 90%| | | | | | | | | | | | | | 50%| | | | | | | | |M| | | | | | |M|M| | | | | |M|M| |L| | 10%|L|M|M|M|M| | In Japan, where comics developed mostly in isolation following World War II, where they are often published in gigantic anthologies rather than tiny magazines (lessening the premium on space and thus the emphasis on concise, action-oriented transitions 2-4) the charts look quite different. More important still, eastern culture has bequeathed an emphasis on holism and contemplation (aspect-to-aspect works well for setting a mood), an emphasis on the power of intervals -- of silence in a song, of negative space in a painting. In comics this means a renewed emphasis on the power of closure, on the strange alchemy that occurs in the gutter. The effect is to spark the imagination, to engage every one of the five senses, rather than simply sight. (Sadly, replicating McCloud's demonstration of this in ASCII art is prohibitively difficult.) The comics creator asks us to join in a silent dance of the seen and unseen. The visible and invisible. || This dance is unique to comics. No other artform gives so much to its audience while asking so much from them as well. || This is why I think it's a mistake to see comics as a mere hybrid of graphic arts and prose fiction. What happens between these panels is a kind of magic only comics can create. Chapter 4: Time Frames. We've been trained to see a picture as a snapshot, as a single moment in time, but any student of visual physiology can tell you that the vast majority of information is taken in by a small area at the center of the field of vision; our eyes compensate for this porthole effect by darting continually around and our brains compensate by maintaining the illusion of detailed peripheral vision (for a demonstration, try reading this sentence while keeping your eyes fixed on one of its component words). Much modern art acknowledges this (, for example, incorporates many perspectives into one image), and so do many comics. McCloud's example is a long panel containing several chatting family members; reading from left to right, the conversation takes maybe 15 seconds to unfold, and the expression and pose of each person matches the moment his or her particular statement is made -- "one panel, containing several panels". To some extent, then, space in comics translates into time; as your eyes cross the page they also pass through the seconds (or the hours, or the years) and while a frame generally denotes a particular moment (in addition to serving other purposes beyond the scope of this entry), "moment" is a slippery thing that in practice can be any length at all; in determining a more specific time period, the reader relies heavily on context, on a page's particular content, and, especially, on the sounds portrayed in the text, which we have not been conditioned to think of as having a duration of zero. And then there's motion. It can, of course, be portrayed through the frame transitions described in chapter 3, but shortly after the era of futurism had ended, shortly after the invention of the motion picture, comics invented the motion line, which lies "somewhere between the futurists' "dynamic" movement and Duchamp's diagrammatic "concept" of movement." Over a period of decades, motion lines evolved from "wild, messy, almost desperate attempts to chart the paths of moving objects through space" to something "more refined and stylized, even "diagrammatic"", then, eventually, "became "so" stylized as to almost have a life and physical presence all their own!" I've been trying to figure out what makes comics tick for years and I'm still amazed at the strangeness of it all. || But no matter how bizarre the workings of time in comics is -- || -- the face it presents to the reader -- || -- is one of simple normalcy. || Or the illusion of it, anyway. || It all depends on your frame of mind. Chapter 5: Living in Line. This chapter relies very heavily on visual examples, so is difficult to summarize here. Chapter 6: Show and Tell. In the beginning, pictures and words were two sides of the same coin. In school, at show-and-tell, you show, and you tell, interchangeably -- "This is my robot...it's got one of "these" things"; in picture books, simple words combine similarly with images. As we grow up, we learn to separate "show" and "tell" from each other -- we paint pictures without words, and read books without pictures. A similar progression can be traced through history. In cave paintings, the people shown were iconic, symbol-esqe, almost like letters, as were the flat, bright images of the early Greeks and Creteans and the line-drawings of ancient Egypt; early written language, likewise, was full of the descendants of those cave paintings, letters that were pictures. Words and images were side by side, at the lower-left vertex of McCloud's great pyramid. Over the course of the next few thousand years, they diverged. Letters sacrificed visual representation for writing ease (and, later, printing ease) and pictures grew richer and more complex until looking at them was more like looking at reality than at thoughts.

Modern Physics/Waves in Spacetime. Applications of Special Relativity. In this chapter we continue the study of special relativity by applying the ideas developed in the previous chapter to the study of waves. First, we shall show how to describe waves in the context of spacetime. We then see how waves which have no preferred reference frame (such as that of a medium supporting them) are constrained by special relativity to have a dispersion relation of a particular form. This dispersion relation turns out to be that of the relativistic matter waves of quantum mechanics. Second, we shall investigate the Doppler shift phenomenon, in which the frequency of a wave takes on different values in different coordinate systems. Third, we shall show how to add velocities in a relativistically consistent manner. This will also prove useful when we come to discuss particle behaviour in special relativity. A new mathematical idea will be presented in the context of relativistic waves, namely the spacetime vector or four-vector. Writing the laws of physics totally in terms of relativistic scalars and four-vectors ensures that they will be valid in all inertial reference frames. Waves in Spacetime. Waves in Spacetime We now look at the characteristics of waves in spacetime. Recall that a wave in one space dimension can be represented by formula_1 where formula_2 is the (constant) amplitude of the wave, formula_3 is the wavenumber, and formula_4 is the angular frequency, and that the quantity formula_5 is called the phase of the wave. For a wave in three space dimensions, the wave is represented in a similar way, formula_6 where formula_7 is now the position vector and formula_8 is the wave vector. The magnitude of the wave vector, formula_9 is just the wavenumber of the wave and the direction of this vector indicates the direction the wave is moving. The phase of the wave in this case is formula_10. <br>Figure 5.1: Sketch of wave fronts for a wave in spacetime. The large arrow is the associated wave four-vector, which has slope formula_11. The slope of the wave fronts is the inverse, formula_12. In the one-dimensional case formula_5. A wave front has constant phase formula_14, so solving this equation for formula_15 and multiplying by formula_16, the speed of light in a vacuum, gives us an equation for the world line of a wave front: formula_17 The slope of the world line in a spacetime diagram is the coefficient of formula_18, or formula_19, where formula_20 is the phase speed.

Dutch/Lesson 2. Grammatica 2-1 ~ Introduction to Verbs. A (in Dutch: "werkwoord") is that part of speech that describes an action. Verbs come in an almost bewildering array of tenses, moods, voices and aspects, and there are several major types: intransitive, transitive, ditransitive, and ergative verbs. Fortunately, the Dutch verb is not too different from the English one, although it does have a few more forms. I am called Standish "Ik heet Standish" What are you called (named)? "Hoe heet u?" ...that she is named (called) 'Alice' "...dat ze 'Alice' heet" We are both called Robert "Wij heten allebei Robert" The Dutch verb "heten" can best be translated as "to be named" or "to be called" and we see two forms of it here Actually there are usually three forms. This can be seen from: In the case of "heten" the extra -t does not get added because the stem already ends in a "-t". In a later lesson we will revisit the verb forms associated with each person. The irregular verb "to be"-"zijn" has a few more forms in both languages. Gesprek 2-2 ~ De Engelsman. First push the arrow button to listen to the following conversation. Then inspect the translation and hover over each word you do not know to find out what it means. Once you understand the narrative run the audio again, following along, making sure you know what is being said. Use the pronunciation box on the right to further strengthen your comprehension both in listening and in reading. Fill in the blank 2-2-F. Say the word you think that belongs in the blank and use the hover method to check your choice Vocabulary drill 2-1. Of course memorizing words and expressions is an important part of learning any language and there are various ways of doing that. Have a look at the vocabulary pages. They are designed to help you acquire more words in a playful manner. Grammatica 2-2 ~ Inversion in questions and negations. You may have wondered about the order of the words in Even though Dutch verbs are not so much more complicated than English ones, word order is. In fact it is quite a bit more complicated than in English. For the moment let's just leave the above sentence for what it is and start with questions. Questions. A question sentence in Dutch simply reverses the order of subject and verb. Recall: "U heet meneer Standish" ('You are named Mr. Standish). It became: "Hoe heet u?" as a question The normal word order of subject ("u" or "you") then verb ("heten") is "reversed" and, in this case, an interrogative ("hoe" or "how") added. Additional examples: English does the same thing when using the verb "to be": Dutch does not use the auxiliary "to do" as English requires in most other cases: Negations. The negative is formed by simply adding "niet" at the end: Again, Dutch does "not" use the auxiliary "to do". (In fact using it sounds very foreign.) Even a negative question does not use "to do": Gesprek 2-3 ~ Het nieuwe meisje. In this conversation, the parties are close friends. Fill in the blank 2-3-F. Use the hover method to check your answer. Grammatica 2-2 Adjectives, demonstratives and articles. Gender. Where English uses the demonstrative pronoun "that", Dutch uses either "dat" or "die", recall: Similarly, where English uses the article "the", Dutch has two possibilities: "de" or "het", recall: We will revisit this phenomenon (gender) in the next lesson more extensively. There is a bit of a problem with it in Dutch. For the moment it is enough to realize that there are two kinds of words, For this reason it is advisable to always memorize a word "together" with its definite article, e.g. as "de boekhouding", not simply as "boekhouding". Both articles and demonstrative pronouns are a special kind of adjectives: words that are added to make the meaning of another word more precise, like "new", "small" or "exciting" Inflection. Recall that some adjectives in the dialogue ended in -e (mooi"e" meid), sometimes they did not (is erg mooi). Adjectives can be used in two ways: in front of a noun and after a verb like "is" (a copula). In English the adjective remains the same regardless: Behind a copula (as "predicate") this is true in Dutch as well: But in Dutch they are "inflected" if they occur in front of a noun (as "attribute"). Compare: Neuter words are the ones that carry the definite article "het" and the demonstrative "dat". They are a bit different (Again: we will revisit them in the next lesson.) As you see the adjective is not inflected after the indefinite article "een". This also holds if there is no article: But: Thus, apart from the indefinite neuter an attributive adjective is usually inflected with -e. There are a few exceptions, compare e.g.: Making nouns out of adjectives. Adjectives can be turned into nouns, by assuming their inflected form: Notice that Dutch does not use 'one' in such cases. There are a number of adjectives that can be turned into nouns by adding -te. They all carry de. In English the corresponding suffix is -th: More about nouns in the next lesson. Woordenlijst 2. <br clear="all"> Quizlet. The vocabulary can be practiced as Quizlet (30 terms) Progress made. If you have studied the above lesson well you should have Cumulative vocabulary count:

Bourne Shell Scripting/Comparing Shells. Almost all books like this one have a section on (or very similar to) "why you should use the shell/program flavor/language/etc. discussed in this book and not any of the others that perform the same tasks in a slightly different way". It seems to be pretty well mandatory. However, this book will not do that. We'll talk a bit about "why Bourne Shell" of course. But you'll soon see that doesn't preclude other shells at all. And there's no good reason not to use another shell either, as we will explain a little further down. Bourne shell and other Unix command shells. There are many Unix command shells available today. Bourne Shell is just one drop in a very large ocean. How do all these shells relate? Do they do the same things? Is one better than the other? Let's take a look at what makes a shell and what that means for all the different shells out there. How it all got started.... The Unix operating system has had a unique outlook on the world ever since it was created back in the 1970s. It stands apart from most other operating systems in that its focus has always been towards "power users": people who want to squeeze every drop of performance out of their system and have the technical knowledge to do so. Unix was designed to be programmed and modified to the desires of the user. At its core, Unix does not have a user interface; instead it is comprised of a stable OS kernel and a versatile C library. If you're not trying to do actual hard-core programming but rather are trying to do day-to-day tasks (or even just want to put a little program together quickly), pure Unix is a tremendous pain in the backside. In other words, it was clear from the start that a tool would be needed that would allow a user to make use of the functions offered him by the coding library and kernel without actually doing serious programming work. A tool in other words that could pass small commands on to the lower-level system quickly and easily. Without the need for a compiler or other fancy editor, but with the ability to tap into the enormous power of the underlying system. Stephen Bourne set himself to the task and came up with what he called a "shell": a small, on-the-fly compiler that could take one command at a time, translate it into the sequence of bits understood by the machine and have that command carried out. We now call this type of program an interpreter, but at the time, the term "shell" was much more common (since it was a shell over the underlying system for the user). Stephen's shell was slim, fast, and though a bit unwieldy at times, its power is still the envy of many current operating system command-line interfaces today. Since it was designed by Stephen Bourne, this shell is called the Bourne Shell. The executable is simply called "sh" and use of this shell in scripting is still so ubiquitous, there isn't a Unix-based system on this earth that doesn't offer a shell whose executable can be reached under the name sh. ...And how it ended up. Of course, everyone's a critic. The Bourne Shell saw tremendous use (indeed, it still does) and as a result, it became the de facto standard among Unix shells. But all sorts of people almost immediately (as well as with use) wanted new features in the shell, or a more familiar way of expressing commands, or something else. Many people built new shells that they felt continued where Bourne Shell ended. Some were completely compatible with Bourne Shell, others were less so. Some became famous, others flopped. But pretty much all of them look fondly upon Bourne Shell, the shell they call "Dad..." A number of these shells can be run in sh-like mode, to more closely emulate that very first sh, though most people tend just to run their shells in the default mode, which provides more power than the minimum sh. It's Bourne Shell, but not as we know it.... So there are a lot of shells around but you can find Bourne Shell everywhere, right? Good old "sh", just sitting there faithfully until the end of time... Well, no, not really. Most of the sh executables out there nowadays aren't really the Bourne Shell anymore. Through a bit of Unix magic called a link (which allows one file to masquerade as another) the sh executable you find on any Unix system is likely actually to be one of the shells that is based on the Bourne shell. One of the most frequently used shells nowadays (with the ascent of free and open-source operating systems like GNU and Linux) is a heavily extended form of the Bourne Shell produced by the Free Software Foundation, called Bash. Bash hasn't forgotten its roots, though: it stands for the Bourne Again SHell. Another example of a descendant shell standing in for its ancestor is the Korn Shell (ksh). Also an extension shell, it is completely compatible with sh -- it simply adds some features. Much the same is true for zsh. Finally, a slightly different category is formed by the C Shell (csh) and its descendant tcsh, native on BSD systems. These shells do break compatibility to some extent, using different syntax for many commands. Systems that use these shells as standard shells often provide a real Bourne Shell executable to run generic Bourne Shell scripts. Having read the above, you will understand why this book doesn't have to convince you to use Bourne Shell instead of any other shell: in most cases, there's no noticeable difference. Bourne Shell and its legacy have become so ingrained in the heart and soul of the Unix environment that you are using Bourne Shell when you are using practically any shell available to you. Why Bourne Shell. So only one real question remains: now that you find yourself on your own, cozy slice of a Unix system, with your own shell and all its capabilities, is there any real reason to use Bourne Shell rather than using the whole range of your shell's capabilities? Well, it depends. Probably, there isn't. For the most part of course, you "are" using Bourne Shell by using the whole potential of your shell -- your shell is probably "that" similar to the Bourne Shell. But there is one thing you might want to keep in mind: someday, you might want to write a script that you might want to pass around to other people. Of course you can write your script using the full range of options that your shell offers you; but then it might not work on another machine with another shell. This is where the role of Bourne Shell as the lingua franca of Unix command shells comes in -- and also where it is useful to know how to write scripts targeted specifically at the Bourne Shell. If you write your scripts for the Bourne Shell and nothing but the Bourne Shell, chances are far better than equal that your script will run straight out of the mail attachment (don't tell me you're still using boxes to ship things -- come on, get with the program) on any command shell out there.

German/Level III/Markus Studiert. Lektion Eins für Fortgeschrittene Geschichte 1-3 ~ "Markus studiert". This short story ("Geschichte") is told in the 3rd person (see Grammatik 1-3). Note how this is apparent from both the pronoun ("Er" or "he") and verb forms. Vokabeln 1-3. die Bibliothek library die Biochemie biochemistry das Brötchen roll, biscuit das Buch book der Fortgeschrittene advancer die Fortgeschrittenen advancers (pl.) die Geschichte story der Hof courtyard; also court der Kaffee coffee die Stunde hour der Tisch table das Regal shelf die Zigarette cigarette denken think (Er denkt = He thinks) essen eat (Er isst = He eats) holen fetch, get (Er holt = He gets/fetches) rauchen smoke (a cigarette) (Er raucht = He smokes) sich setzen sit (oneself) down (Er setzt sich = He sits) stellen place (Er stellt = He places) suchen seek, search for (Er sucht = He looks for) trinken drink (Er trinkt = He drinks) aus out danach afterwards dort there in in nach after über about wenigstens at least, at any rate wieder again Grammatik 1-3 ~ Personal Pronouns. As in English, personal pronouns exist in three grammatical persons, each with singular and plural number. In Gespräch 1-1 and 1-2, you see only the singular versions. The table here gives also the plural (nominative case only): Grammatik 1-3 ~ Incomplete Sentences. What are we to make of short, incomplete sentences such as that in Gespräch 1-1: 'Und dir?'? This translates as: 'And for you?'. In English and German it is not always necessary to express every part of a sentence, especially in conversation where the words left out are easily understood by both or all parties. Walk up to a stranger and say 'And you?' and a possible response is a hostile 'Out of my face, fool'. But in the conversation between Heinrich and Karl, Heinrich knows that Karl is really meaning: "Und wie geht es dir?", with that part underlined left out of the conversational statement. Note especially that the pronoun 'you' retains its case—its relation to the missing verb from the implied sentence—distinctive in German (that is, "dir" instead of "du") but not so in English (the form "you" covers both cases). Übersetzung 1-2. Although these sentences involve many grammatical concepts that have not been covered, each can be written in German by referring to the example sentences and vocabularies in Lessons 1 and 1A. Using a piece of paper and pencil, translate each of these sentences into German:

Dutch/Alfabet. Het alfabet ~ The alphabet. The Dutch alphabet, like English, consists of 26 basic letters. However, there are also a number of letter combinations. The following table includes a listing of all these letters and a guide to their pronunciation. As in English, letter sounds can differ depending upon where within a word the letter occurs. The first pronunciation given below (second column) is that in English of the letter (or combination) itself. Reading down this column and pronouncing the "English" words will recite the alphabet "in het Nederlands" (in Dutch). Note that letter order is exactly the same as in English, but pronunciation is not the same for many of the letters. Trouble areas for Anglophones are marked in red Diacritics. Diacritics are not very numerous in Dutch and they are mostly limited to loans, but the orthography does for example demand a diaeresis, mostly on ë and ï in words like "geërgerd, geïnteresseerd". It marks the boundary of two syllables and is fairly common. It is not to be confused with the German umlaut that only occurs on a few German loans like "überhaupt". Less commonly, the orthography also allows stress marks to be added. Acute accents can be used for that purpose, but only then if: There are some 200 words and word forms that occur in two forms that only differ in stress pattern, where that can be an issue. For diphthongs and doubled vowels both vowels are marked as in "áúto". In principle this holds for the digraph "ij" as well. The "j" should also get an acute, but computers usually do not facilitate that. Here we will write "íj" if the need arises. A stress mark is not be confused with an accent grave, aigu or circonflex as it can occur on the more numerous French loans like "café", "à propos" or "maîtresse". Interestingly Dutch orthography maintains the "î" in the latter, although French dropped it in 1990. The grave is also used on the verb "blèren". It is an indigenous onomatopoeia that mimics the bleating of sheep with an unusual long [ɛ:] sound. The cedille is rare but occurs in a few French and Portuguese loans like "façade, Curaçao" A useful tip is to install a Dutch international keyboard. For Microsoft operating systems this will tell you how to proceed. Nederlandse uitspraak ~ Dutch Pronunciation Guide. Klinkers. Dutch has quite a few vowels (13). To be well understood by a native speaker it is imperative to master them, which can be quite challenge for native speakers of languages that rely more on their many consonants such as Russian. One general observation is that they are always pronounced as more or less "pure" (or only slightly diphthongized) vowels as in French, never quite as drawled or 'chewed upon' as in many varieties of English. Admittedly this does vary from speaker to speaker and region to region, but for Anglophones it is certainly advisable to limit the 'drawling'. Most vowels occur in "pairs" that are traditionally indicated by the terms short and long. Unfortunately, this nomenclature is rather misleading because the difference is not so much a matter of length, but rather a difference in the position of the tongue root (lax vs. tense, or in Dutch: gedekt and open, covered and open). Which variety occurs in a word is shown pretty systematically in Dutch spelling, using the spelling rule a described below. In addition there is a neutral vowel that occurs in almost all unstressed syllables, the schwa /ə/ as is does more or less in English as well. It is spelled with an 'e', so that this letter has three meanings: the above two in stressed syllables, the schwa in unstressed ones. The spelling rule. The vowels oe and eu are single, but as we saw above five vowels occur in open/covered pairs: a, e, i, o, u. There is a systematic way in the spelling to indicate which of the two varieties is intended. If a conflict arises, either the vowel or the consonant is doubled: Notice how the formation of the plural necessitates a good mastery of this principle. The vowels oe and eu do not exhibit the dual quality of the other vowels. The case of the letter i is a bit special. There has been a double "ii" in the past but to avoid confusion with a hand-written u it was replaced by "ij". Afterwards the long /i:/ sound it represented became a diphthong /ɛɪ̯/ (although many dialects retain /i/). To write the /i/ sound Dutch mostly uses -ie. The covered version as in "rit" corresponds more to the English sound in "will" or "rid", than to the German sound in "mit" or "Kind". As said above, the distinction 'short'-'long' has little to do with pure length, because the change from open to closed is much more important. There is an exception. In front of -r the long vowel may indeed just be the same vowel held a bit longer: In front of -r there are a few other oddities: The u. Notice the value of the open letter 'u' in Dutch. As in French it denotes the /y/ sound. Thus, in German it corresponds to ü. Open variety It is relatively rare in Dutch because most words that used to have it have shifted it to the diphthong "ui". It occurs mostly at the end of words like "u", "nu" or in front of a w or r: "ruw", "stuur". Closed variety The oe. This combination represents the [u] sound in German Mut or Spanish tu. Most languages use 'u' as German and Latin. (French uses 'ou', English often used 'oo', although it does have words like "shoe"). The Dutch /u/ sound is strongly rounded and dark with the tongue pretty far retracted back in the mouth. American 'oo' sounds tend to be intermediary between /u/ and /y/ and that is a problem. Compare: The eu. This combination represents another difficult vowel for Anglophones. In German it is written as ö as in Möwe. In IPA as [ø]. Before "r" vowels have a tendency to be modified: Diphthongs. Diphthongs like /ɔɪ̯/ (as in English "toy") or /ɑɪ̯/ (as in English "my") are not used in the standard language. In various dialects they do occur and producing them is often frowned upon. They are considered 'lower class' in many circles. In unstressed syllables like the suffix -lijk the ij represents a schwa. Medeklinkers. Most consonants in Dutch are pronounced more or less the same way as in English but there are a number of notable exceptions. First of all a number of phonemes that English has are simply missing in Dutch. Phonemes are sounds that suffice in marking one word as different from the other. Missing phonemes. Please avoid these sounds when speaking Dutch. Even /ʃ/ : "sh" as in "sh"ip is not really a native Dutch sound, but it occurs in quite a few loans from various sources (Frisian, English, German, French) and as most Dutch people learn English these days they are quite familiar with it. The same thing goes for /ʒ/ as in garage and their affricate versions as in /ʧ/ in church or /ʤ/ George. None of them are native to Dutch. The g, ch and sch problem. The spelling sch- can be rather confusing for people familiar with some German. In German it is used to write the /ʃ/ sound, where English uses sh-. In Dutch the sch- combination also occurs quite frequently but is pronounced rather differently. In most cases it presents a combination of s+ch where the latter is the voiceless velar fricative /x/ as heard in German "Bach" or Scottish "loch". In older versions of the orthography (prior to 1947) the combination -sch represented a simple /s/ sound in final position. The guttural ch at the end had gone mute. (Originally it represented a k- sound as it still does in some dialects and in Frisian). The final -sch spelling is still used for one rather common ending: -isch and also in numerous geographical names as they have never been altered in spelling: In principle Dutch has both a voiceless and a voiced velar fricative and the letter 'g' represents the voiced one and the combination 'ch' the voiceless one. However, the number of words where this creates a phonemic distinction is very small: It depends on the region whether this distinction is actually made in the spoken language. Around Amsterdam it would not be, further south the phoneme 'g' is often pronounced as a voiced palatal fricative, so that the difference becomes more pronounced. Worldwide, the voiced /ɣ/ sound is pretty rare. It only occurs in a few languages like Arabic and Gaelic. As many native speakers do not use it either, it is recommended not to bother about it and use the voiceless /x/ for both, unless your mother tongue happens to have the difference. The Dutch "r". Another, similar, problem for English-speaking learners is the Dutch "r". Essentially there are two, both of which were historically trilled. Alveolar. The first, alveolar /r/, is the "rolling" trilled "r" also used in Spanish, produced with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. This sound was considered standard only a few decades ago and is still used by quite a few speakers. That includes the author of this book, who grew up at the southern edge of the Randstad, the Drechtsteden region, as well as many people outside the Randstad, including Flanders. Uvular. However, particularly in the Randstad, the rolling alveolar /r/ is gradually replaced by a voiced velar or uvular trill [ʁ], which is also used in many dialects of German; it is also similar to the French "r", but is voiced and articulated somewhat further forward (it is less "throaty"). Both /r/ and /ʁ/ sounds are often not trilled when spoken by native speakers; the alveolar [r] is more often a light tap, while the uvular /ʁ/ can turn into a fricative or approximant. This also presents a considerable challenge for those unaccustomed to the sound when they are confronted with words like "groot" ("big"). The first two sounds tend to blend to one lengthy velar/uvular /xoːt/ or /ɣoːt/, which may cause confusion with words like "rood" (red) and "goot" (gutter). Approximant. A third type of r currently making inroads into Dutch is "Gooise R" (/ɹ/), named after the Gooi area in the Netherlands, where Dutch television is produced (Hilversum) and this speech feature is popularly thought to have originated. This concerns an approximant sound, not unlike American /ɹ/ in words such as "bar", without trilling or friction. Voiceless consonants. The latter word also contains an exception on the rule that t represents /t/. In the ending -tie (corresponding to -tion) it is pronounced as a quick /ʦ/ combination, as in Russian "ц". In contrast to English it is not silent in combinations like kn-: "knie"' /kni/ Devoicing and assimilation. As in German, but unlike English all consonants at the ends of words are devoiced ("..at the ents off worts are devoist..."). You may hear that phenomenon when people speak English with a strong Dutch accent. Assimilation with the previous word often devoices the consonant in initial position as well: The neutral article "het" is often reduced to a prefixed t-sound in the spoken language and occasionally rendered as such in the written language as: 't. Het zaad -> 't zaad. Notice however that both the /z/ and the /d/ reappear in the plural: Contrary to d, the letters v and z are not written in the final position in such cases: Voiced consonants. Apart from the devoicing effects Dutch has the following voiced consonants: Around Amsterdam the tendency to devoice is so strong that /v/ /ɣ/ and /z/ are seldom heard in any position. People use /f/, /x/ and /s/ instead. Liquids, nasals, clusters. Thus, in the Netherlands f, v and w are all pronounced with the upper teeth resting on the lower lips but there is a distinction in voicing and in aspiration (blowing) In "erwt" /ɛrt/ (pea) the w is silent for most speakers, but in initial wr- ("wraak" /vraːk/ or /ʋraːk/) w tends to sound more like /v/. Although the pronunciation of "w" varies, it is "not silent" as in English. For the combination kn- the same holds: the 'k' is clearly pronounced: Many plurals (including the plural forms of the verb) have an ending -en. For many speakers this is pronounced as /-ə/ and the final n is dropped, but this is not true for all speakers. It depends strongly on the region of the speech area you are in. Around Amsterdam it is certainly /-ə/, but in Groningen or in West-Flanders it is a syllabic /-n/ instead. It also depends on how well people are trying to articulate or on the next word. If the latter starts with a vowel the -n is more likely to be pronounced. Even in loans the /ŋg/ tends to be avoided: mango : [ˈmɑnɣo] or [ˈmɑŋɣo] In combination with i it forms a diphthong: ij. Although this is a two letter combination, both letters get capitalized at the beginning of a sentence: ijs -> IJs (ice). /ɛis/. The suffix -je that forms the rather ubiquitous diminutives tends to palatellize the previous consonants or even fuse to a palatal stop all together in rapid speech. It is much less used than in German, e.g. theater: /teˈjatər/ rather than /teˈʔatər/. Clusters of consonants are common in Dutch although perhaps less so than in language like Russian. Usually speakers will pronounce all the consonants in the cluster, but if clusters are consecutive, e.g. in compound words, some elision may occur. E.g. in the compound "vaststellen" typically only one 'st' is actually pronounced. Clusters can occur both initially and finally in a syllable: Common initial clusters: bl-, br-, chl- chr-, dr-, dw-, fl-, fn-, fr-, gl-, gn-, gr-, kl-, kn-, kr-, kw-, pl-, pr-, sch-, schr-, sf-, sj-, sk-, sl-, sm-, sn-, sp-, spl-, spr-, tr-, tw-, vl-, vr-, wr-, zw- Syllable Stress. Dutch is -like English and German but unlike French- a typical stress language. One syllable tends to get all the attention. It is at the same time loud, long and high in pitch and it never has a schwa ə. Instead it has a full vowel or a diphthong. Unstressed syllables tend to be short, low, soft and usually have a schwa, although there are exceptions. Stress is not represented in the spelling unless ambiguity can arise for native speakers. In that case acutes can be added, otherwise orthographic rules demand that they be omitted. For non-native speakers this is a bit of a problem, but often an educated guess can be made which syllable is the stressed one. Because the schwa is written as a "e" in the orthography it is often quite clear where the stress falls in a word: Unfortunately for the non-native speaker the letter e is also used for other purposes. The middle -e represent a full /e/ sound (as the ai in bait), but that is only clear for a native speaker. But with a bit of knowledge of grammar it will be clear that /led/ is the root of a verb (lijden actually) and that ver- is a prefix and -en the suffix. In general, the root of a verb (or noun) will get the stress in Dutch. Of course, there are complicated cases: It's a word which has three e's, each pronounced differently. The first syllable has a full [e] even though it is not stressed. Of course there are cases where stress is not clear even for native speakers; a good example are the separable and non-separable verbs, e.g. the verb doorlopen can be either dóórlopen or doorlópen with a different conjugation and different meaning. In such cases Dutch spelling does allow stress patterns to be written with an acute, but only if otherwise confusion might arise. Some words and names can have rather surprising stress patterns: Capitalization. The rules for capitalization in Dutch are similar to those in English. Capitalization occurs at the beginning of a sentence. "Eigennamen" (proper names, e.g., of persons, organisations, countries etc.) are capitalized, but "soortnamen" (generic names) are not. As mentioned above, when a word beginning with ij has to be capitalized, both letters become capitals, e.g. IJsselmeer.

XML - Managing Data Exchange/A single entity. Introduction. In this chapter, we start to practice working with XML using XML documents, schemas, and stylesheets. An XML document organizes data and information in a structured, hierarchical format. An XML schema provides standards and rules for the structure of a given XML document. An XML schema also enables data transfer. An XSL (XML stylesheet) allows unique presentations of the material found within an XML document. In the first chapter, "Introduction to XML", you learned what XML is, why it is useful, and how it is used. So, now you want to create your very own XML documents. In this chapter, we will show you the basic components used to create an XML document. This chapter is the foundation for all subsequent chapters--it is a little lengthy, but don't be intimidated. We will take you through the fundamentals of XML documents. This chapter is divided into three parts: As you learned in the previous chapter, the XML Schema and Stylesheet are essentially specialized XML Documents. Within each of these three parts we will examine the layout and components required to create the document. There are links at the end of the XML document, schema, and stylesheet sections that show you how to create the documents using an XML editor. At the bottom of the page there is a link to Exercises for this chapter and a link to the Answers. The first thing you will need before starting to create XML documents is a problem--something you want to solve by using XML to store and share data or information. You need some entity you can collect information about and then access in a variety of formats. So, we created one for you. To develop an XML document and schema, start with a data model depicting the reality of the actual data that is exchanged. Once a high fidelity model has been created, the data model can be readily converted to an XML document and schema. In this chapter, we start with a very simple situation and in successive chapters extend the complexity to teach you more features of XML. Our starting point is a single entity, CITY, which is shown in the following figure. While our focus is on this single entity, to map CITY to an XML schema, we need to have an entity that contains CITY. In this case, we have created TOURGUIDE. Think of a TOURGUIDE as containing many cities, and in this case TOURGUIDE has no attributes nor an identifier. It is just a container for data about cities. Exhibit 1: Data model - Tourguide XML document. An XML document is a file containing XML code and syntax. XML documents have an .xml file extension. We will examine the features & components of the XML document. Below is a sample XML document using our TourGuide model. We will refer to it as we describe the parts of an XML document. Exhibit 2: XML document for city entity <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <tourGuide xmlns:xsi='http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance' xsi:noNamespaceSchemaLocation='city.xsd'> <city> <cityName>Belmopan</cityName> <adminUnit>Cayo</adminUnit> <country>Belize</country> <population>11100</population> <area>5</area> <elevation>130</elevation> <longitude>88.44</longitude> <latitude>17.27</latitude> <description>Belmopan is the capital of Belize</description> <history>Belmopan was established following the devastation of the former capital, Belize City, by Hurricane Hattie in 1965. High ground and open space influenced the choice and ground-breaking began in 1966. By 1970 most government offices and operations had already moved to the new location. </history> </city> <city> <cityName>Kuala Lumpur</cityName> <adminUnit>Selangor</adminUnit> <country>Malaysia</country> <population>1448600</population> <area>243</area> <elevation>111</elevation> <longitude>101.71</longitude> <latitude>3.16</latitude> <description>Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia and the largest city in the nation</description> <history>The city was founded in 1857 by Chinese tin miners and preceded Klang. In 1880 the British government transferred their headquarters from Klang to Kuala Lumpur, and in 1896 it became the capital of Malaysia. </history> </city> <city> <cityName>Winnipeg</cityName> <adminUnit>St. Boniface</adminUnit> <country>Canada</country> <population>618512</population> <area>124</area> <elevation>40</elevation> <longitude>97.14</longitude> <latitude>49.54</latitude> <description>Winnipeg has two seasons. Winter and Construction.</description> <history>The city was founded by people at the forks (Fort Garry) trading in pelts with the Hudson Bay Company. Ironically, The Bay was bought by America. </history> </city> </tourGuide> Prologue (XML declaration). The XML document starts off with the prologue. The prologue informs both a reader and the computer of certain specifications that make the document XML compliant. The first line is the XML declaration (and the only line in this basic XML document). Exhibit 3: XML document - prologue <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> xml   =   this is an XML document version="1.0"   =   the XML version (XML 1.0 is the W3C-recommended version) encoding="UTF-8"   =   the character encoding used in the document - UTF 8 corresponds to 8-bit encoded Unicode characters (i.e. the standard way to encode international documents) - Unicode provides a unique number for every character. Another potential attribute of the XML declaration: standalone="yes"   =   the dependency of the document ('yes' indicates that the document does not require another document to complete content) Elements. The majority of what you see in the XML document consists of XML elements. Elements are identified by their tags that open with < or </ and close with > or />. The start tag looks like this: <element attribute="value">, with a left angle bracket (<) followed by the element type name, optional attributes, and finally a right angle bracket (>). The end tag looks like this: </element>, similar to the start tag, but with a slash (/) between the left angle bracket and the element type name, and no attributes. When there's nothing between a start tag and an end tag, XML allows you to combine them into an empty element tag, which can include everything a start tag can: <img src="Belize.gif" />. This one tag must be closed with a slash and right angle bracket (/>), so that it can be distinguished from a start tag. The XML document is designed around a major theme, an umbrella concept covering all other items and subjects; this theme is analyzed to determine its component parts, creating categories and subcategories. The major theme and its component parts are described by elements. In our sample XML document, 'tourGuide' is the major theme; 'city' is a category; 'population' is a subcategory of 'city'; and the hierarchy may be carried even further: 'males' and 'females' could be subcategories of 'population'. Elements follow several rules of syntax that will be described in the Rules to Follow section. We left out the attributes within the <tourGuide> start tag — that part will be explained in the XML Schema section. Exhibit 4: Elements of the city entity XML document <tourGuide> <city> <cityName>Belmopan</cityName> <adminUnit>Cayo</adminUnit> <country>Belize</country> <population>11100</population> <area>5</area> <elevation>130</elevation> <longitude>88.44</longitude> <latitude>17.27</latitude> <description>Belmopan is the capital of Belize</description> <history>Belmopan was established following the devastation of the former capital, Belize City, by Hurricane Hattie in 1965. High ground and open space influenced the choice and ground-breaking began in 1966. By 1970 most government offices and operations had already moved to the new location. </history> </city> </tourGuide> Element hierarchy. <br> Attributes. Attributes aid in modifying the content of a given element by providing additional or required information. They are contained within the element's opening tag. In our sample XML document code we could have taken advantage of attributes to specify the unit of measure used to determine the area and the elevation (it could be feet, yards, meters, kilometers, etc.); in this case, we could have called the attribute 'measureUnit' and defined it within the opening tag of 'area' and 'elevation'. <adminUnit class="state">Cayo</adminUnit> <adminUnit class="region">Selangor</adminUnit> The above attribute example can also be written as: 1. using child elements <adminUnit> <class>state</class> <name>Cayo</name> </adminUnit> <adminUnit> <class>region</class> <name>Selangor</name> </adminUnit> 2. using an empty element <adminUnit class="state" name="Cayo" /> <adminUnit class="region" name="Selangor" /> Attributes can be used to: Attributes can, however, be a bit more difficult to manipulate and they have some constraints. Consider using a child element if you need more freedom. Rules to follow. These rules are designed to aid the computer reading your XML document. (e.g. <element>data stuff</element>). => the parent element's opening and closing tags must contain all of its child elements' tags; in this way, you close first the tag that was opened last: <parentElement>       <childElement1>data</childElement1>       <childElement2>               <subChildElementA>data</subChildElementA>               <subChildElementB>data</subChildElementB>       </childElement2>       <childElement3>data</childElement3> </parentElement> XML Element Naming Convention. Any name can be used but the idea is to make names meaningful to those who might read the document. XML documents often have a corresponding database. The database will contain fields which correspond to elements in the XML document. A good practice is to use the naming rules of your database for the elements in the XML documents. DTD (Document Type Definition) Validation - Simple Example. Simple Internal DTD. <?xml version="1.0"?> <!DOCTYPE cdCollection [ <!ELEMENT cdCollection (cd)> <!ELEMENT cd (title, artist, year)> <!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT artist (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT year (#PCDATA)> <cdCollection> <cd> <title>Dark Side of the Moon</title> <artist>Pink Floyd</artist> <year>1973</year> </cd> </cdCollection> Every element that will be used MUST be included in the DTD. Don’t forget to include the root element, even though you have already specified it at the beginning of the DTD. You must specify it again, in an <!ELEMENT> tag. <!ELEMENT cdCollection (cd)> The root element, <cdCollection>, contains all the other elements of the document, but only one direct child element: <cd>. Therefore, you need to specify the child element (only direct child elements need to be specified) in the parentheses. <!ELEMENT cd (title, artist, year)> With this line, we define the <cd> element. Note that this element contains the child elements <title>, <artist>, and <year>. These are spelled out in a particular order. This order must be followed when creating the XML document. If you change the order of the elements (with this particular DTD), the document won’t validate. <!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA)> The remaining three tags, <title>, <artist>, and <year> don’t actually contain other tags. They do however contain some text that needs to be parsed. You may remember from an earlier lecture that this data is called Parsed Character Data, or #PCDATA. Therefore, #PCDATA is specified in the parentheses. So this simple DTD outlines exactly what you see here in the XML file. Nothing can be added or taken away, as long as we stick to this DTD. The only thing you can change is the #PCDATA text part between the tags. Adding complexity. There may be times when you will want to put more than just character data, or more than just child elements into a particular element. This is referred to as mixed content. For example, let’s say you want to be able to put character data OR a child element, such as the tag into a <description> element: <!ELEMENT description (#PCDATA | b | i )*> This particular arrangement allows us to use PCDATA, the tag, or the tag all at once. One particular caveat though, is that if you are going to mix PCDATA and other elements, the grouping must be followed by the asterisk (*) suffix. This declaration allows us to now add the following to the XML document (after defining the individual elements of course) <cd> <title>Love. Angel. Music. Baby</title> <artist>Gwen Stefani</artist> <year>2004</year> <genre>pop</genre> <description> This is a great album from former <nowiki><i>No Doubt</i> singer <b>Gwen Stephani</b>.</nowiki> </description> </cd> With attributes this is done a little differently than with elements. Please see following example: <cd remaster_date=”1992”> <title>Dark Side of the Moon</title> <artist>Pink Floyd</artist> <year>1973</year> </cd> In order for this to validate, it must be specified in the DTD. Attribute content models are specified with: <!ATTLIST element_name attribute_name attribute_type default_value> Let’s use this to validate our CD example: <!ATTLIST cd remaster_date CDATA #IMPLIED> Choices. <ATTLIST person gender (male|female) “male”> Grouping Attributes for an Element. If a particular element is to have many different attributes, group them together like so: <!ATTLIST car horn CDATA #REQUIRED seats CDATA #REQUIRED steeringwheel CDATA #REQUIRED price CDATA #IMPLIED> Adding STATIC validation, for items that must have a certain value. <!ATTLIST classList classNumber CDATA #IMPLIED building (UWINNIPEG_DCE|UWINNIPEG_MAIN) "UWINNIPEG_MAIN" originalDeveloper CDATA #FIXED "Khal Shariff"> Suffixes. So what happens with our last example with the CD collection, when we want to add more CDs? With the current DTD, we cannot add any more CDs without getting an error. Try it and see. When you specify a child element (or elements) the way we did, only one of each child element can be used. Not very suitable for a CD collection is it? We can use something called suffixes to add functionality to the <!ELEMENT> tag. Suffixes are added to the end of the specified child element(s). There are 3 main suffixes that can be used: Validating for multiple children with a DTD. So in the case of our CD collection XML file, we can add more CDs to the list by adding a + suffix: <!ELEMENT cd_collection(cd+)> Using more internal formatting tags. Bold tags, B's for example are also defined in the DTD as elements, that are optional like thus: <ELEMENT notes (#PCDATA | b | i)*> <!ELEMENT b (#PCDATA)*> <!ELEMENT i (#PCDATA)*> _______________ <classList classNumber="303" building="UWINNIPEG_DCE" originalDeveloper="Khal Shariff"> <student> <firstName>Kenneth </firstName> <lastName>Branaugh </lastName> <studentNumber> </studentNumber> <notes>Excellent , Kenneth is doing well. </notes> etc ONLINE Validator. GIYBF Well-formed and valid XML. Well-formed XML  -  An XML document that correctly abides by the rules of XML syntax. Valid XML  -  An XML document that adheres to the rules of an XML schema (which we will discuss shortly). To be valid an XML document must first be well-formed. A Valid XML Document must be Well-formed. But, a Well-formed XML Document might not be valid - in other words, a well-formed XML document, that meets the criteria for XML syntax, might not meet the criteria for the XML schema, and will therefore be invalid. For example, think of the situation where your XML document contains the following (for this schema): <city> <cityName>Boston</cityName> <country>United States</country> <adminUnit>Massachusetts</adminUnit> : </city> Notice that the elements do not appear in the correct sequence according to the schema (cityName, adminUnit, country). The XML document can be validated (using validation software) against its declared schema – the validation software would then catch the out of sequence error. Using an XML Editor. Check chapter ../XML Editor/ for instructions on how to start an XML editor. Once you have followed the steps to get started you can copy the code in the sample XML document and paste it into the XML editor. Then check your results. Is the XML document well-formed? Is the XML document valid? (you will need to have copied and pasted the schema in order to validate - we will look at schemas next) XML schema. An XML schema is an XML document. XML schemas have an .xsd file extension. An XML schema is used to govern the structure and content of an XML document by providing a template for XML documents to follow in order to be valid. It is a guide for how to structure your XML document as well as indicating your XML document's components (elements and attributes - and their relationships). An XML editor will examine an XML document to ensure that it conforms to the specifications of the XML schema it is written against - to ensure it is valid. XML schemas engender confidence in data transfer. With schemas, the receiver of data can feel confident that the data conforms to expectations. The sender and the receiver have a mutual understanding of what the data represent. Because an XML schema is an XML document, you use the same language - standard XML markup syntax - with elements and attributes specific to schemas. A schema defines: For more detailed information on XML schemas and reference lists of: Common XML Schema Primitive Data Types, Summary of XML Schema Elements, Schema Restrictions and Facets for data types, and Instance Document Attributes, click on this wikibook link => http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/XML_Schema Schema reference. This is the part of the XML Document that references an XML Schema: Exhibit 5: XML document's schema reference <tourGuide xmlns:xsi='http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance' xsi:noNamespaceSchemaLocation='city.xsd'> This is the part we left out when we described the root element in the basic XML document from the previous section. The additional attributes of the root element <tourGuide> reference the XML schema (it is the schemaLocation attribute). xmlns:xsi='http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance'  -  references the W3C Schema-instance namespace xsi:noNamespaceSchemaLocation='city.xsd'  -  references the XML schema document (city.xsd) Schema document. Below is a sample XML schema using our TourGuide model. We will refer to it as we describe the parts of an XML schema. Exhibit 6: XML schema document for city entity <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <xsd:schema xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema" elementFormDefault="unqualified"> <xsd:element name="tourGuide"> <xsd:complexType> <xsd:sequence> <xsd:element name="city" type="cityDetails" minOccurs = "1" maxOccurs="unbounded" /> </xsd:sequence> </xsd:complexType> </xsd:element> <xsd:complexType name="cityDetails"> <xsd:sequence> <xsd:element name="cityName" type="xsd:string"/> <xsd:element name="adminUnit" type="xsd:string"/> <xsd:element name="country" type="xsd:string"/> <xsd:element name="population" type="xsd:integer"/> <xsd:element name="area" type="xsd:integer"/> <xsd:element name="elevation" type="xsd:integer"/> <xsd:element name="longitude" type="xsd:decimal"/> <xsd:element name="latitude" type="xsd:decimal"/> <xsd:element name="description" type="xsd:string"/> <xsd:element name="history" type="xsd:string"/> </xsd:sequence> </xsd:complexType> </xsd:schema> Note: Latitude and Longitude are decimal data types. The conversion is from the usual form (e.g., 50º 17' 35") to a decimal by using the formula degrees+min/60+secs/3600. Prolog. Remember that the XML schema is essentially an XML document and therefore must begin with the prolog, which in the case of a schema includes: <br> The XML declaration: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> The schema element declaration: <xsd:schema xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema" elementFormDefault="unqualified"> The schema element is similar to a root element - it contains all other elements in the schema. Attributes of the schema element include: xmlns  -  XML NameSpace - the URL for the site that describes the XML elements and data types used in the schema. You can find more about namespaces here => ../Namespace/. xmlns:xsd  -  All the elements and attributes with the 'xsd' prefix adhere to the vocabulary designated in the given namespace. elementFormDefault  -  elements from the target namespace are either required or not required to be qualified with the namespace prefix. This is mostly useful when more than one namespace is referenced. In this case, 'elementFormDefault' must be "qualified", because you must indicate which namespace you are using for each element. If you are referencing only one namespace, then 'elementFormDefault' can be "unqualified". Perhaps, using "qualified" as the default is most prudent, this way you do not accidentally forget to indicate which namespace you are referencing. Element declarations. Define the elements in the schema. Include: Basic element declaration format: <xsd:element name="name" type="type"> Simple type. declares elements that: example: <xsd:element name="cityName" type="xsd:string" /> Default Value If an element is not assigned a value then the default value is assigned. example: <xsd:element name="description" type="xsd:string" default="really cool place to visit!" /> Fixed Value An attribute that is defined as fixed must be empty or contained the specified fixed value. No other values are allowed. example: <xsd:element name="description" type="xsd:string" fixed="you must visit this place - it is awesome!" /> Complex type. declares elements that: examples: 1. The root element 'tourGuide' contains a child element 'city'. This is shown here: Nameless complex type <xsd:element name="tourGuide"> <xsd:complexType> <xsd:sequence> <xsd:element name="city" type="cityDetails" minOccurs = "1" maxOccurs="unbounded" /> </xsd:sequence> </xsd:complexType> </xsd:element> Occurrence Indicators: 2. The parent element 'city' contains many child elements: 'cityName', 'adminUnit', 'country', 'population', etc. Why does this complex element set not start with the line: <xsd:element name="city" type="cityDetails">? The element 'city' was already defined above within the complex element 'tourGuide' and it was given the type, 'cityDetails'. This data type, 'cityDetails', is utilized here in identifying the sequence of child elements for the parent element 'city'. Named Complex Type - and therefore can be reused in other parts of the schema <xsd:complexType name="cityDetails"> <xsd:sequence> <xsd:element name="cityName" type="xsd:string"/> <xsd:element name="adminUnit" type="xsd:string"/> <xsd:element name="country" type="xsd:string"/> <xsd:element name="population" type="xsd:integer"/> <xsd:element name="area" type="xsd:integer"/> <xsd:element name="elevation" type="xsd:integer"/> <xsd:element name="longitude" type="xsd:decimal"/> <xsd:element name="latitude" type="xsd:decimal"/> <xsd:element name="description" type="xsd:string"/> <xsd:element name="history" type="xsd:string"/> </xsd:sequence> </xsd:complexType> The <xsd:sequence> tag indicates that the child elements must appear in the order, the sequence, specified here. Compare the sample XML Schema and the sample XML Document - try to observe patterns in the code and how the XML Schema sets up the XML Document. 3. Elements that have attributes are also designated as complex type. a. this XML Document line: <adminUnit class="state" name="Cayo" /> would be defined in the XML Schema as: <xsd:element name="adminUnit"> <xsd:complexType> <xsd:attribute name="class" type="xsd:string" /> <xsd:attribute name="name" type="xsd:string" /> </xsd:complexType> </xsd:element> b. this XML Document line: <adminUnit class="state">Cayo</adminUnit> would be defined in the XML Schema as: <xsd:element name="adminUnit"> <xsd:complexType> <xsd:simpleContent> <xsd:extension base="xsd:string"> <xsd:attribute name="class" type="xsd:string" /> </xsd:extension> </xsd:simpleContent> </xsd:complexType> </xsd:element> Attribute declarations. Attribute declarations are used in complex type definitions. We saw some attribute declarations in the third example of the Complex Type Element. <xsd:attribute name="class" type="xsd:string" /> Data type declarations. These are contained within element and attribute declarations as: type=" " . Common XML Schema Data Types XML schema has a lot of built-in data types. The most common types are: For an entire list of built-in simple data types see http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-2/#built-in-datatypes Using an XML Editor => ../XML Editor/ This link will take you to instructions on how to start an XML editor. Once you have followed the steps to get started you can copy the code in the sample XML schema document and paste it into the XML editor. Then check your results. Is the XML schema well-formed? Is the XML schema valid? XML stylesheet (XSL). An XML Stylesheet is an XML Document. XML Stylesheets have an .xsl file extension. The eXtensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) provides a means to transform and format the contents of an XML document for display. Since an XML document does not contain tags a browser understands, such as HTML tags, browsers cannot present the data without a stylesheet that contains the presentation information. By separating the data and the presentation logic, XSL allows people to view the data according to their different needs and preferences. The XSL Transformation Language (XSLT) is used to transform an XML document from one form to another, such as creating an HTML document to be viewed in a browser. An XSLT stylesheet consists of a set of formatting instructions that dictate how the contents of an XML document will be displayed in a browser, with much the same effect as Cascading Stylesheets (CSS) do for HTML. Multiple views of the same data can be created using different stylesheets. The output of a stylesheet is not restricted to a browser. During the transformation process, XSLT analyzes the XML document and converts it into a node tree – a hierarchical representation of the entire XML document. Each node represents a piece of the XML document, such as an element, attribute or some text content. The XSL stylesheet contains predefined “templates” that contain instructions on what to do with the nodes. XSLT will use the match attribute to relate XML element nodes to the templates, and transform them into the resulting document. Exhibit 7: XML stylesheet document for city entity <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform"> <xsl:output method="html"/> <xsl:template match="/"> <html> <head> <title>Tour Guide</title> </head> <body> <h2>Cities</h2> <xsl:apply-templates select="tourGuide"/> </body> </html> </xsl:template> <xsl:template match="tourGuide"> <xsl:for-each select="city"> <br/><xsl:value-of select="continentName"/><br/> <xsl:value-of select="cityName"/><br/> <xsl:text>Population: </xsl:text> <xsl:value-of select='format-number(population, "##,###,###")'/><br/> <xsl:value-of select="country"/> <br/> </xsl:for-each> </xsl:template> </xsl:stylesheet> The output of the city.xsl stylesheet in Table 2-3 will look like the following: You will notice that the stylesheet consists of HTML to inform the media tool (a web browser) of the presentation design. If you do not already know HTML this may seem a little confusing. Online resources such as the W3Schools tutorials can help with the basic understanding you will need =>(http://www.w3schools.com/html/default.asp). Incorporated within the HTML is the XML that supplies the data, the information, contained within our XML document. The XML of the stylesheet indicates what information will be displayed and how. So, the HTML constructs a display and the XML plugs in values within that display. XSL is the tool that transforms the information into presentational form, but at the same time keeps the meaning of the data. Prolog. <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform"> <xsl:output method="html"/> The XML declaration <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> The stylesheet & namespace declarations <xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform"> The output document format <xsl:output method="html"/> This element designates the format of the output document and must be a child element of <xsl:stylesheet> Templates. The <xsl:template> element is used to create templates that describe how to display elements and their content. Above, in the XSL introduction, we mentioned that XSL breaks up the XML document into nodes and works on individual nodes. This is done with templates. Each template within an XSL describes a single node. To identify which node a given template is describing, use the 'match' attribute. The value given to the 'match' attribute is called a pattern. Remember: (node tree – a hierarchical representation of the entire XML document. Each node represents a piece of the XML document, such as an element, attribute or some text content). Wherever there is branching in the node tree, there is a node. <xsl:template> defines the start of a template and contains rules to apply when a specified node is matched. the match attribute <xsl:template match="/"> This template match attribute associates the XML document root (/), the whole branch of the XML source document, with the HTML document root. Contained within this template element is the typical HTML markup found at the beginning of any HTML document. This HTML is written to the output. The XSL looks for the root match and then outputs the HTML, which the browser understands. <xsl:template match="tourGuide"> This template match attribute associates the element 'tourGuide' with the display rules described within this element. Elements. Elements specific to XSL: For more XSL elements => http://www.w3schools.com/xsl/xsl_w3celementref.asp . Language-Specific Validation and Transformation Methods. PHP Methods of XML Dom Validation. Using the DOM DocumentObjectModel to validate XML and with a DTD DocumentTypeDeclaration and the PHP language on a server and more http://wiki.cc/php/Dom_validation Browser Methods. Place this line of code in your .xml document after the XML declaration (prologue). <?xml-stylesheet type="text/xsl" href="tourGuide.xsl"?> PHP XML Production. <?php $xmlData = ""; mysql_connect('localhost','root',") or die('Failed to connect to the DBMS'); // make connection to database mysql_select_db('issd') or die('Failed to open the requested database'); $result = mysql_query('SELECT * from students') or die('Query to like get the records failed'); if (mysql_num_rows($result)<1){ die ("); $xmlString = "<classlist>\n"; $xmlString .= "\t<student>"; while ($row = mysql_fetch_array($result)) { $xmlString .= " \t<firstName> ".$row['firstName']." </firstName>\n \t<lastName> ".$row['lastName']." \t</lastName>\n"; $xmlString .= "</student>\n"; $xmlString .= "</classlist>"; echo $xmlString; $myFile = "classList.xml"; //any file $fh = fopen($myFile, 'w') or die("can't open file"); //create filehandler fwrite($fh, $xmlString); //write the data into the file fclose($fh); //ALL DONE! PHP Methods of XSLT Transformation. This one is good for PHP5 and wampserver (latest). Please ensure that *xsl* is NOT commented out in the php.ini file. <?php // Load the XML source $xml = new DOMDocument; $xml->load('tourguide.xml'); $xsl = new DOMDocument; $xsl->load('tourguide.xsl'); // Configure the transformer $proc = new XSLTProcessor; $proc->importStyleSheet($xsl); // attach the xsl rules echo $proc->transformToXML($xml); Example 1, Using within PHP itself (use phpInfo() function to check XSLT extension; enable if needed) This example might produce XHTML. Please note it could produce anything defined by the XSL. <?php $xhtmlOutput = xslt_create(); $args = array(); $params = array('foo' => 'bar'); $theResult = xslt_process( $xhtmlOutput, 'theContentSource.xml', 'theTransformationSource.xsl', null, $args, $params xslt_free($xhtmlOutput); // free that memory // echo theResult or save it to a file or continue processing (perhaps instructions) Example 2: <?php if (PHP_VERSION >= 5) { // Emulate the old xslt library functions function xslt_create() { return new XsltProcessor(); function xslt_process($xsltproc, $xml_arg, $xsl_arg, $xslcontainer = null, $args = null, $params = null) { // Start with preparing the arguments $xml_arg = str_replace('arg:', ", $xml_arg); $xsl_arg = str_replace('arg:', ", $xsl_arg); // Create instances of the DomDocument class $xml = new DomDocument; $xsl = new DomDocument; // Load the xml document and the xsl template $xml->loadXML($args[$xml_arg]); $xsl->loadXML($args[$xsl_arg]); // Load the xsl template $xsltproc->importStyleSheet($xsl); // Set parameters when defined if ($params) { foreach ($params as $param => $value) { $xsltproc->setParameter("", $param, $value); // Start the transformation $processed = $xsltproc->transformToXML($xml); // Put the result in a file when specified if ($xslcontainer) { return @file_put_contents($xslcontainer, $processed); } else { return $processed; function xslt_free($xsltproc) { unset($xsltproc); $arguments = array( '/_xml' => file_get_contents("xml_files/201945.xml"), '/_xsl' => file_get_contents("xml_files/convertToSql_new2.xsl") $xsltproc = xslt_create(); $html = xslt_process( $xsltproc, 'arg:/_xml', 'arg:/_xsl', null, $arguments xslt_free($xsltproc); print $html; PHP file writing code. $myFile = "testFile.xml"; //any file $fh = fopen($myFile, 'w') or die("can't open file"); //create filehandler $stringData = "<foo>\n\t<bar>\n\thello\n"; // get a string ready to write fwrite($fh, $stringData); //write the data into the file $stringData2 = "\t</bar>\n</foo>"; fwrite($fh, $stringData2); //write more data into the file fclose($fh); //ALL DONE! XML Colors. For use in your stylesheet: these colors can be used for both background and font http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_colors.asp http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_colorsfull.asp http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_colornames.asp Using an XML Editor => ../XML Editor/ This link will take you to instructions on how to start an XML editor. Once you have followed the steps to get started you can copy the code in the sample XML stylesheet document and paste it into the XML editor. Then check your results. Is the XML stylesheet well-formed? /Definitions/. XML SGML Dan Connelly RSS XML Declaration parent child sibling element attribute *Well-formed XML PCDATA /Exercises/. Exercise 1. a)Using "tourguide" above as a good example, create an XML document whose root is "classlist" . This CLASSLIST is created from a starting point of single entity, STUDENT. Any number of students contain elements: firstname, lastname, emailaddress.

Invertebrate Zoology. Table of Contents. Chapters. __NOEDITSECTION__

Invertebrate Zoology/Guide Introduction. « Contents Page Introduction to the Invertebrate Zoology Study Guide. This "Study Guide to Invertebrate Zoology" is a textbook at Wikibooks shelved at the section and intended to establish a course of study in the subject of Invertebrate Zoology, mostly utilizing articles found in Wikipedia, with links to other relevant web sites as appropriate. In some cases, portions of the text from "Wikipedia" articles have been used to materially develop introductory text within the Guide. For the new user, it need be pointed out that "Wikipedia" differs from a standard encyclopedia in two important respects: 1) it is a hypertext document, and 2) it is open and editable, and therefore constantly changing. For the student following this or any guide through "Wikipedia" to cover a specific subject, it is recommended that each article (page) be read first in its entirety, before any hyperlinks are followed to other topics or explanations. It is too easy, otherwise, to simply become lost in a maze of links, and miss the main thrust of an article presented as an assignment from the Guide. Because "Wikipedia" is constantly changing (and, it is hoped, improving) the quality of each article encountered will be variable. Some articles are well written and go to adequate depth, whereas others, lacking a proponent, are shallow and incomplete. This short-coming should diminish with time, but can be a problem. One clear advantage to using this Guide linked to a hypertext like "Wikipedia" is the "circular redundancy with serendipity" factor that arises when an article is read and its hyperlinks followed; this factor can be a powerful learning tool. The persistent reader is subjected to a fairly high degree of repetitive reading, often presenting slightly different perspectives on the same general topic, with the result that learning comes from redundancy. At the same time, some hyperlinks lead down less relevant paths, bringing new and unanticipated knowledge.

Invertebrate Zoology/Authors. This study guide to invertebrate zoology is a textbook at "Wikibooks" filed under and intended to establish a course of study in the subject of Invertebrate Zoology, mostly utilizing articles found in "Wikipedia", with links to other relevant web sites as appropriate. Contributors are encouraged to spend time developing the relevant articles at "Wikipedia", maintaining this textbook as a "guide" to those articles. At some future time, it may be desirable to simply import whole articles over to build a Zoology textbook rather than a "guide book", however the present approach seems to be a good one for getting a useful text at "Wikibooks" based upon the initial author's experience with "Botany". Another Wikibook, "Ecology", follows a similar approach, but requires more text per page, because of less congruence between chapter material and articles at "Wikipedia". The contributors to this book included:

Spanish/Verb Tenses. ../Verbs/ | ../Verbs List/ Vosotros. = Los tiempos de los verbos: por simples y compuestos = Siete tiempos compuestos. = Los tiempos de los verbos: por modos = Gramatically, there are different ways of classifying Spanish verb forms (as well as the verbs of any language). The one most people understand is "tense", but another very important classification is the "mood." A "mood" is differentiated from a "tense" in that it does not express time per se (which is what "tense" really means). Unfortunately, "mood" is not really a very good name either because moods do not express moods of the speaker (happy, sad, etc.) The mood is used to classify how the verb is used grammatically in the sentence; that is, how the verb usage works together with the other parts of the sentence. Spanish has the following verb moods: In many cases, along with the name of the mood also goes a tense. A given form of a verb normally has both mood and tense, although when the mood is indicative usually the name of the mood is not stated. This is one thing that makes the concept of moods hard to understand. When we talk about the "present tense" of a verb, we really should say "indicative mood, present tense". This would make it clear that when we say "subjunctive mood, present tense" we're not dealing with anything particularly strange, only a little different. El modo imperativo. Spanish | ../Verbs/ | ../Verbs List/

Spanish/Imperfect. ../Verbs/ The imperfect tense communicates: Verbs are conjugated to the imperfect by taking off the last two letters of the infinitive and replacing them with an ending based on -ía or -aba. Conjugating regular verbs in the imperfect. This is probably the easiest verb tense to conjugate. -AR verbs take on the -aba endings. Here is an example: Bailar (to dance) bailaba: I danced<br> bailabas: you danced<br> bailaba: he, she, it, you (formal) danced<br> bailábamos: we danced <br> bailabais: you danced <br> bailaban: they, you (plural, formal) danced <br> -IR and -ER verbs take on -ía endings. Examples: Venir (to come) venía: I came <br> venías: you came <br> venía: he, she, it, you came <br> veníamos: we came <br> veníais: you came<br> venían: they, you (formal) came <br> Comer (to eat) comía: I ate <br> comías: you ate <br> comía: he, she, it, you ate <br> comíamos: we ate <br> comíais: you ate<br> comían: they, you (formal) ate <br> Irregular verbs. There are only three. Ser (to be) era: I was <br> eras: you were <br> era: he, she, it was, you were <br> éramos: we were <br> erais: you were <br> eran: they were <br> Notice the accent in the "nosotros" form of "ser" and "ir." Ir (to go) iba: I used to go<br> ibas: you used to go <br> iba: he, she, it, you used to go <br> íbamos: we used to go <br> ibais: you used to go <br> iban: they used to go <br> Ver (to see) veía: I used to see<br> veías: you used to see <br> veía: he, she, it, you used to see <br> veíamos: we used to see<br> veíais: you used to see<br> veían: they used to see <br> That's it! Those are all the irregulars.

Spanish/Preterite. ../Verbs/ The preterite verb form describes past actions that have begun or completed. The preterite sets something in the past as an event, with a beginning and an end. Spanish has another past tense form, the imperfect, that is used for past actions that are continuing, or for which its beginning or its end is not important. Conjugate regular verbs in the preterite. -AR verbs Eliminate the "-ar" and replace it with one of the following endings: -é <br> -aste <br> -ó <br> -amos <br> -asteis<br> -aron <br> Patinar (to skate) becomes: patiné: I skated <br> patinaste: you skated <br> patinó: he skated <br> patinamos: we skated <br> patinasteis: you skated<br> patinaron: they skated <br> Notice that the "nosotros" form conjugates the same as it does in the present tense. This can cause confusion so look for context tools to make sure you have the right tense. -ER and -IR verbs Eliminate the "-er" or "-ir" and replace it with one of the following endings: -í <br> -iste <br> -ió <br> -imos <br> -isteis<br> -ieron <br> Vender (to sell) becomes: vendí: I sold <br> vendiste: you sold <br> vendió: he sold <br> vendimos: we sold <br> vendisteis: you sold <br> vendieron: they sold <br> Conjugate irregular verbs in the preterite. There are 2 types of irregular verbs in the preterite tense. We will start with the more regular of the 2.<br><br> The endings of these irregulars are all the same, which is why I am referring to them as more regular. The endings are:<br> -e<br> -iste<br> -o<br> -imos<br> -isteis<br> -ieron<br> <br> The stems of these verbs also change as follows:<br> estar --> estuv<br> andar --> anduv<br> tener --> tuv<br> poder --> pud<br> poner --> pus<br> saber --> sup<br> caber --> cup<br> hacer --> hic (exception: 'hizo')<br> venir --> vin<br> querer --> quis<br> decir --> dij<br> traer --> traj<br> and any verb that ends in -ducir --> -duj<br> Note that for stems ending in j the ending 'ieron' is shortened to 'eron'<br><br> The more irregular verbs conjugate as follows:<br> "Ir" and "Ser"<br> fui<br> fuiste<br> fue<br> fuimos<br> fuisteis<br> fueron<br><br> "Dar"<br> di<br> diste<br> dio<br> dimos<br> disteis<br> dieron<br><br> "Haber"<br> hube<br> hubiste<br> hubo<br> hubimos<br> hubisteis<br> hubieron<br><br> "Reír"<br> reí<br> reíste<br> rió<br> reímos<br> reísteis<br> rieron<br><br> "Leer" (similarly Creer)<br> leí<br> leíste<br> leyó<br> leímos<br> leísteis<br> leyeron<br> "Dormir" (similarly Morir)<br> dormí<br> dormiste<br> durmió<br> dormimos<br> dormisteis<br> durmieron<br><br> "Ver"<br> vi<br> viste<br> vio<br> vimos<br> visteis<br> vieron<br>

Spanish/Present Progressive. ../Verbs/ "He is running. They are dancing. I am liking ... " The above are examples of the present progressive tense, which is used for continuous actions that are taking place right now. This tense works the same way in English and in Spanish. Take the verb "to be" (estar) and conjugate it in the present tense, then add the present participle on the tail end. Estoy caminando. " I am walking." <br> Estamos jugando. " We are playing." <br> Estas fingiendo. " You are faking." <br>

Spanish/Present Participle. ../Verbs/ Running, jumping, skiing, thinking, talking, ... Corriendo, brincando, esquiando, pensando, hablando ... The present participle is formed by taking off the last two letters of a Spanish verb (-ar, -er, or -ir) and replacing it with -ando (-ar verbs) or -iendo (-er and -ir verbs). Estar > " estando" <br> Comer > " comiendo" <br> Ser > " siendo" <br> Contar > " contando" <br> The slightly irregular ir > "yendo"

Spanish/Past Participle. ../Verbs/ Broken, thought, gone, ... Roto, pensado, ido, ... The past participle in Spanish is usually the same as the past tense. I thought, I had thought. But sometimes it is the same. I broke, I had broken. In English it is a different conjugation as a rule. Take the -ar, -er, and -ir ending off of the infinitive and replace it with -ado (-ar verbs) or -ido (-er and -ir verbs). Regular conjugation examples. Pensar » "pensado" Comer » "comido" Venir » "venido" Irregular conjugation examples. Romper » "roto" Morir » "muerto"

Spanish/Future. Spanish/Verbs I will think, he will shout, you will die, ... Pensaré, gritará, morirás, ... — " or " — Voy a pensar, va a gritar, vas a morir, ... There are two ways to communicate future events in Spanish. In the first one, add an ending to the unchanged infinitive form of the verb. These same endings are used for all three types of verbs (-AR, -ER and -IR), which makes learning them easier: -é <br> -ás <br> -á <br> -emos <br> -án <br> Pensaré: "I will think" <br> Pensarás: "you will think" <br> Pensará: "it will think" <br> Pensaremos: "we will think" <br> Pensarán: "they will think" <br> Iré: "I will go" <br> Irás: "you will go" <br> Irá: "she will go" <br> Iremos: "we will go" <br> Irán: "y'all will go" <br> There are 12 verbs which change their infinitives before adding the ending, and they can be classified into 3 catigories: First, the "drop 'e's" are "querer," "poder," "caber," "haber," and "saber." Each of these loses the 'e' before the final 'r' when forming the future tense. These can be remembered by the mnemonic "Quick People Can't Have Sushi." Next, the "add 'd's" are "venir," "valer," "salir," "tener," and "poner." For these, the 2nd to last letter of the infinitive is replaced with a 'd'. These can be remembered by the mnemonic "Vroom Vroom, Said The Porsche." Finally, the verbs "decir" and "hacer" change their infinitives to "dir" and "har" respectively before adding the ending. These must simply be memorised. The alternate way to describe the future is to use the present tense of "ir," followed by the infinitive of the action verb. Voy a saber: "I am going to know" <br> Vas a mentir: "You are going to lie" <br> Va a cazar: "He/she is going to hunt" <br> Vamos a contar: "We are going to count" <br> Van a poner: "They are going to put" <br>

Bicycles/Penetrating oil. Penetrating oil is useful for removing rust from parts and displacing water. It is more solvent than lubricant and should not be used as a substitute for lubricating oil where lubricating qualities are needed.

Spanish/Verbs List. Spanish/Verbs H. I Z. Spanish/Verbs

Bicycles/Tire patch compound. The glue used to apply patches to inner tubes. It is a form of contact cement. Unlike most glues, the parts to be joined should be put together after the glue has dried for a few minutes.

Indonesian/Lessons/The house. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 8: My Family | Lesson 9: My Home | Lesson 10: At School »

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Pedals/Removing pedals. A pedal can be removed using a pedal wrench or, sometimes, an allen wrench if there is a hexagonal hole in the inside end of the pedal axle. A normal open end spanner/wrench will work on some pedals; an adjustable spanner/wrench spanner will typically not work, because the head is too wide to fit between the pedal and the crank. A good shop-quality pedal wrench will also be longer than these, for the required leverage. This leverage is also the limiting factor for the use of allen wrenches in this application. If a normal spanner is all that you have (be it adjustable or not) then you may find that pedal removal is possible, especially if you are removing platform style pedals—these generally have larger lands for the spanner. Just take care not to scratch or gouge the crank arm (see photo at right). Position an adjustable wrench so that, when turned, the adjustable jaw is on the "inside" of the turn. Usually, you should position the wrench as close to overlapping the crankarm as possible. (So that it is in front of the arm, not extending its line.) Before attempting to remove the right side pedal, make sure the chain is on the largest gear. (That way, if you slip, you'll have a more difficult time impaling yourself on the sharp chainring teeth.) Removing Bicycle Pedals. Note that there are two sizes of pedal axles in common, current-day use: 1/2 inch diameter for the one piece cranks typically found on children's bikes and older American-made bikes, and 9/16 inch diameter for the two and three piece cranks found on most modern adult bikes. Both sizes have SAE threads at 20 tracks per inch. See also. How to Remove and Install Pedals

Spanish/Vocabulary/Sports. =Los deportes (Sports) =

Bicycles/Thread locking compound. Thread locking compound is an adhesive designed to prevent parts from vibrating loose. Some brand names are Loc-Tite® and Permatex®. A light duty compound will be removable with simple hand tools. Heavier duty may require special equipment such as a heat gun. There are three standard Loctite grades Loctite was invented in 1953 by Vernon Krieble, PhD. It is described as an anaerobic sealant. In other words, it sets without air. To set it must be in the presence of metal ions and the absence of oxygen. this allows it to set properly inside an assembled fastening.

Bicycles/Oil. oil suitable for use on bicycles can be a basic 30 weight automotive oil or one of the more recent synthetics. Some recent oil products evaporate to a waxy finish on exposed areas, making them less likely to retain grit.

Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Tools and Supplies/Pedal Wrench. A standard "pedal wrench" is an open-ended wrench designed to be "thin" enough to fit the narrow wrench flats (gripping surface) typical to pedals. A quality pedal wrench will be "long" enough (and preferably with angled openings) to provide significant leverage, and durable enough to allow repeated application of such force. Pedal wrench flats are "typically 15mm" in size. 9/16" (~14.3mm) is "somewhat common" on older pedals. 17mm and other sizes have been used, but you aren't very likely to encounter them. Pedal wrenches are also available for pedals with "6mm or 8mm internal hex" ("Allen wrench") fittings in the end of the spindle, accessed from the back of the crank arm, through the pedal hole. A "significant portion" of modern pedals provide only this fitting, with no traditional wrench flats. These pedals wrenches differ from standard "Allen wrenches" primarily in that they provide longer and more comfortable handles, which is important to allow application of needed leverage. In the U.S., there are two diameters (sizes) of pedal spindle (axle) threads which you are likely to encounter: 1/2" and 9/16". The first is generally used on bikes with a one piece crank, which will normally be an inexpensive or older bike. The second will usually be found on bicycles with two or three piece cranks, which includes many current multi-speed bicycles and higher quality older bikes. There are other pedal thread sizes, such as 14mm (French), but you are quite unlikely to encounter them in the U.S. WARNING Left-hand pedals are "reverse threaded". (That is, you turn clockwise to "loosen", counterclockwise to "tighten". The Wright brothers introduced this to prevent pedals from unscrewing on their own.) Make very sure it's "not cross-threaded", you are turning the "correct direction", using the "correct pedal", and use "grease"! (If any of the threads are stainless steel or titanium, it would likely be better to use an appropriate "anti-seize" compound instead of grease.) Pedals should be "properly tight", 26 ft-lbs being a generic (not perfect) torque specification. (Rotational force equivalent to 26 pounds on the end of a foot long lever (the wrench), 52 pounds on a 6" lever, etc.)

Spanish/Indicative. Verbs | Verb Tenses | Verbs List El indicativo. These eight simple verb tenses and four compound tenses refer to an objective reality and are categorized by time: present, past, and future. These verb tenses are the simplest and most commonly used.

Spanish/Subjunctive. ../Verbs/ | ../Verb Tenses/ | ../Verbs List/ Subjuntivo. These four verb tenses refer to the speakers' feelings toward the action and are about things that should or could be. These tenses are unfamiliar to English speakers as they are no longer commonly used in English grammar. They are divided into present, past, and future just like the indicative tenses.