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Puzzles/Action sequences/Crossing the River. Puzzles | Action sequences | Crossing the River A farmer wants to cross a river and take with him a wolf, a goat, and a cabbage. There is a boat that can fit himself plus either the wolf, the goat, or the cabbage. If the wolf and the goat are alone on one shore, the wolf will eat the goat. If the goat and the cabbage are alone on the shore, the goat will eat the cabbage. "How can the farmer bring the wolf, the goat, and the cabbage across the river?" Solution

Puzzles/Action sequences/Crossing the River II. Puzzles | Action sequences | Crossing the River II There are six persons on the shore: Three fathers and each of them has a son. The sons are afraid to be nearby a different father (or fathers) if their own father is not there (both at the boat and the either of shores). There is a boat that can hold a maximum of two persons (you can assume that the sons are able to row the boat). "How can the six people get across the river?" Solution

Puzzles/How do you ... ?. Puzzles | How do you ... ?

Puzzles/How do you ... ?/The Burning Island. Puzzles | Puzzles/How do you ... ? | The Burning Island A man is stranded on an island covered in forest. One day, when the wind is blowing from the west, lightning strikes the west end of the island and sets fire to the forest. The fire is very violent, burns everything in its path, and without intervention the fire will burn the whole island, killing the man in the process. There are cliffs around the island, so he cannot get back on if he jumps into the ocean. "How can the man survive? (The fire, at least.) There are no buckets or any other means to douse the fire with water or sand to put it out." solution

Puzzles/Arithmetical puzzles/Digits of the Square. Puzzles | Arithmetical puzzles | Digits of the square There is one four-digit whole number "n", such that the last four digits of "n"² are in fact the original number "n". "What is it?" solution

Puzzles/Decision puzzles/Monty Hall. Puzzles | Decision puzzles | Monty Hall Let us assume that you are participating on the show "Let´s make a deal". Monty Hall offers you a choice of three doors. Monty tells you, and you know, that you can trust Monty, that there is one big prize (such as a sports car) behind one of the doors and goats behind the others. He tells you that after you choose a door, he will open a different door than you chose, which contains a goat. After you have chosen one door, he opens one of the two other doors, which as promised, contains a goat. Now he gives you the chance to switch or stay at your initial choice. You will then get what is behind that door. You cannot hear the goats from behind the doors, or in any way know which door has the prize. "Does it matter whether you switch or stay?" solution

Puzzles/Number sequences. The task is to find the hidden principle that constructs the list, and sometimes to continue the sequence, which is indicated by a question mark. Be aware: some sequences are infinite, some are finite. If you find a different solution than the given one please add it to the solution page. Creativity is encouraged! Easy sequences. 1 2 4 8 ? solution 1 2 4 7 ? solutions (more than one) 3 9 27 81 ? solution 2 3 5 8 13 21 ? solution 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 solution 2 3 6 7 1 9 4 5 8 solution 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 ... solution Medium Sequences. 1 3 7 61 ? solution 2 -2 0 2 -3 0 ? solution 1 4 1 5 9 ? solution Hard Sequences. 85 90 29 67 0 solution 83 33 69 2 1 81 91 57 36 60 55 61 29 35 6 29 42 45 23 13 5 16 23 13 44 7 39 69 47 98 61 41 91 82 1 37 27 71 36 6 4 6 9 0 8 9 5 9 6 73 94 69 81 28 solution 56 3 43 54 33 98 49 91 8 7 31 44 27 57 6 26 45 71 38 61 65 88 25 36 7 97 76 91 87 86 83 55 98 1 5 10 1 15 96 3 9 3 4 4 3 0 7 5 6

French/Lessons/Food and drink. "-ger" verbs are regular "-er" verbs that are also stem changing. The most common "-ger" verb is "manger." For "manger" and all other regular "-ger" verbs, the stem change is the addition of an "e" after the "g". This only applies in the "nous" form. In this case, the change is made to preserve the soft "g" pronunciation rather than the hard "g" that would be present if the "e" were not included. The verb "boire", meaning "to drink", is irregularly conjugated (it is not a regular "-re" verb). The partitive article "de" indicates, among other things, the word "some". As learned earlier, "de" and "le" contract (combine) into "du", as "de" and "les" contract into "des". Also, instead of "du" or "de la", "de l"' is used in front of vowels. When speaking about food, the partitive article is used at some times while the definite article ("le", "la", "les") is used at other times, and the indefinite article ("un", "une") in yet another set of situations. In general "de" refers to a "part" of food (a "piece" of pie) whereas the definite article ("le") refers to a food in general ("I like pie (in general)"). The indefinite article refers to an "entire unit" of a food ("I would like a (whole) pie"). When speaking about preferences, use the definite article: When speaking about eating or drinking an item, there are specific situations for the use of each article. In the negative construction, certain rules apply. "Un" or "une" changes to "de" in a negative construction, meaning, in this context, "any". Similarly, "du", "de la", or "des" change to "de" in negative constructions. To say "some of it" without specifying the exact object, the pronoun "en" can be used. Additionally, "en" can mean "of it" when "it" is not specified. For instance, instead of saying "J'ai besoin d'argent", if the idea of money has already been raised, it can be stated as "J'en ai besoin." This is because "en" replaces "du", "de la" or "des" when the noun is not specifically mentioned in the sentence. Like with "me", "te" and other pronouns, "en" (meaning "some") comes before the verb.

French/Lessons/Family. "Jean and Chantal are discussing what types of pen they have." Jean - J'ai un stylo rouge. Chantal - Moi, j'ai un stylo bleu. Et toi, tu as un stylo rouge. Jean - Aussi, j'ai un stylo jaune. "Of course, you can use avoir for anything you have!" Chantal - J'ai deux frères et trois sœurs, et toi ? Jean - J'ai un frère et une tante. Chantal - J'ai deux tantes et un oncle. "Avoir is also used to describe age" Jean - J'ai quatre ans. Et toi ? Chantal - J'ai trois ans. "Avoir", meaning "to have", is conjugated irregularly. Formation. Remember to "liaison" between "nous avons", "vous avez", and "ils ont/elles ont". Expressing age. "Avoir" is used to express age. Interrogatives. The above uses avoir "affirmatively". You can also use it "interrogatively". A small complication arises, in that without some help, the result does not sound very good. The use of an "euphonic" (pleasing to the ear) is used with vowels before the pronoun. Thus, the letter "-t-" is placed between the verb and the pronoun: Ai-je ? (Have I ?) As-tu ? (Have you ?) informal (hast thou) A-t-il ? (Has he ?) A-t-elle ? (Has she ?) Avons nous ? (Have we ?) Avez vous ? (Have you ?) formal Ont ils ? (Have they ?) masculine Ont elles ? (Have they ?) feminine The use of "liaison" fullfils the euphonic for "ont". Examples: A-t-il la farine ? Oui, Monsieur, il a la farine. Avons nous la viande ? Oui, Monsieur, nous avons la viande et le pain. Avez vous la table ? Oui, Madame, j'ai la table. The preposition is used to express possession or association: "De" can also be translated as "'s": Recall that replaces "de le", and replaces "de les". Usage. Possessive adjective are used to express possession of an object. In English the possessive adjective agrees with the subject ("his sister", "her brother"). But in French, possessive adjectives act like all other adjectives: they must agree with the noun they modify. Whether "son", "sa" and "ses" translate to "his" or "her" is indicated by context: "Notre", "votre", and "leur" modify singular nouns, regardless of gender; "nos", "vos", and "leurs" modify plural nouns: Liaison and adjective changes. Liaison occurs when "mon", "ton", and "son" are followed by a vowel. Liaison also occurs with all plural forms, since they all end in "s". "Mon", "ton", and "son" are used before a feminine singular noun that starts with a vowel or silent "h": Examples. Recall that the expression means "there is …" or "there are …": The interrogative form of "il y a" is . That is, "il y a" is inverted to "y a-t-il", meaning "is there?" or "are there?", within questions: Both "How much …" and "How many …" are translated as . If the person or thing it refers to is countable, "combien de" is always followed by a plural noun: However, with uncountable nouns, such as and , the singular form is used: As with "il y a", other nouns and verbs can be inverted within questions. For example, can become : Examples. To speak about complex family relations, you use "de mon", "de ma", and "de mes": Examples.

French/Lessons/Shopping. Direct objects. While the subject of a sentence initiates an action (the verb), the direct object is the one that is affected by the action. A direct object pronoun is used to refer to the direct object of a previous sentence: The following table shows the various types of direct object pronouns: Notes: Indirect objects. An indirect object is an object that would be asked for with "To whom...?" or "From whom...?". It is called indirect because it occurs usually together with a direct object which is affected directly by the action: The following table shows the various types of indirect object pronouns: Notes: The bread "is given" by the man (direct). Pierre "gets the given" bread (indirect). Example : "-e…er" are regular "-er" verbs, but also are stem changing. The stem change applies to all forms except "nous" and "vous". The stem change involves adding a grave accent ( ` ) over the "e" in the stem. Formation. "-yer" verbs are irregular "-er" verbs. When "y" is part of the last syllable, it changes to "i" in order to keep the "ay" sound. In the present indicative of "-yer" verbs, this affects all forms except "nous" and "vous". Some "-yer" verbs, such as "payer", may optionally retain the "y". Formation. In the present indicative, is "conjugated" as follows: Many of the verbs you have learned so far have irregular past participles.

French/Lessons/School. The is a compound tense, and is therefore composed of an auxiliary verb and a past participle. With most verbs, that auxiliary verb is "avoir". Meaning. In English, verbs conjugated in the "passé composé" literally mean "have/has ____ed". While there is a simple past tense in French, it is almost always only used in formal writing, so verbs conjugated in the "passé composé" can also be used to mean the English simple tense. For example, the "passé composé" forms of , "["avoir"] parlé", literally mean "has/have spoken", but also means "spoke". Basic formation. To conjugate a verb in the "passé composé", the helping verb, usually "avoir", is conjugated in the present indicative and the past participle is then added. Auxiliary verb - "avoir". Conjugate "avoir" in the present indicative. "Avoir" + past participle. Please also note: Fem. Subject or Person (Elles, Elle, Nous, On etc.)- Add another e with no aigu or grave to end of word- if a female person is partaking in the group. Plural Subject (On, Nous, Tu, Vous etc.)- Add another "s" to end of word. Finally, some verbs are irregular for the past participle, such as aller (to go), instead of using avoir to form the past participle, they will use être (to be) to form the past participle. Always check the verb's irregularities before using to form past participle. Some "past participle" irregulars are regular verbs when forming other tenses. Examples. The word "professeur" is considered masculine at all times, even if the teacher is female. The only case when "professeur" can be preceded by feminine determinant is either when contracting it in colloquial language "la prof", or when adding a few words before : "madame/mademoiselle la/le professeur". In French, you do not "own" body parts. While in English, you would say "my hand" or "your hand", the definite article is almost always used in French: "To" and "of" are part of the verbs "écouter" and "entendre" respectively. It is not necessary to add a preposition to the verb. Other verbs, such as "répondre (à)", meaning "to respond (to)", are almost always followed by a preposition. Écrire. "Écrire" is an irregular French verb, meaning "to write". It varies from other "-re" verbs in the plural conjugation, by adding a "v". Its past particple, "écrit", is also irregular. The verb is conjugated the same way. The nouns , meaning "writing" or "handwriting", and , meaning "writer", are derived from "écrire". Lire. "Lire" is an irregular French verb, meaning to read. Its plural conjugation adds an "s", and its past participle is "lu". The verbs and are conjugated the same way. The adjective , meaning "readable" or "legible", is derived from "lire". The way that grades are numbered in France is opposite the way they are in the US. Whereas American grade numbers increase as you approach your senior year, they descend in France.

French/Grammar/Moods/Subjunctive. Usage of the Subjunctive Mood. The subjunctive mood is used to express subjectivity, as opposed to objectivity. The subjunctive usually appears with "que", which means "that".

French/Grammar/Moods/Indicative. Note: The indicative indicates certainty about an action. The subjunctive indicates a doubt or subjectivity. The conditional indicates that an action will occur or occurred based on the fulfillment of certain conditions.

French/Grammar/Tenses/Future. Usage of the Future. One uses the future tense when referring to an action, certain to occur, in the future. In a time ahead of now. One may also use "aller" in the present tense in conjunction with "aller" or another verb in infinitive form, to refer to the future. However it is not the future tense. For example, "Il va aller à l'école o"r "Je vais dormir" Holds generally the same meaning as: "Il ira à l'école o"r "Je dormirai" However, the former is not in the future tense. (It is in the Near Future tense.) Also, the usage of "aller" generally signifies an action to occur in the very near future, where as future tense refers to any time in the future. Formation of the Future. Future Stems. Stem Changes (Infinitif) Exceptions to the Rule (Irrégulier). Future Endings. To conjugate a verb in the futur simple, one takes the infinitive and appends the following, as according to the table: Here, "danser" is used.

French/Grammar/Tenses/Present conditional. Usage of the conditional (present). The conditional tense is used when: Formation of the conditional. Conditional stems. Stem changes Irregular stems

French/Grammar/Tenses/Imperfect. "Imparfait" in French Usage of the Imperfect. The imperfect is used in French under several different circumstances. The imperfect is used: Formation of the Imperfect. Examples. Aller Être Exceptions. Manger Commencer Exercises. Translate the following sentences into English: -Je "jouais" au foot quand j'"avais" douze ans, mais maintenant je nage parfois. Quand j'"avais" douze ans j'"étais" en forme. Une fois, le douze décembre, je "me suis cassé" la jambe, et je ne "jouais" plus au foot. Quelle tristesse! -Quand j'"avais" dix ans, je "mangeais" beaucoup de frites.

French/Grammar/Tenses/Past historic. Usage of the Simple Past (Past Historic, Past Definite). The simple past is mostly a literary tense, used in fairy tales, and perhaps newspapers. It is one that native French students are expected to recognize but not use. Formation of the Simple Past. To conjugate in this tense, one finds the stem and appends the following, as according to the table: It should be noted that être, along with a few other verbs are consistent in their irregularities in the passé simple as well. Simple Past Stems. -er, changes it to é (manger = mangé) <br>-ir, take off the r (choisir = choisi) <br>-re, take off the re and add a u

French/Grammar/Tenses/Present perfect. The passé composé is a perfect tense, and is therefore composed of an auxiliary verb and a past participle. With most verbs, that auxililary verb is avoir. Meaning. Verbs in French conjugated in the passé composé can most simply be translated to English as eg "has / have ____ed". While there is a simple past tense in French, it is mostly used in formal narrative writing, so verbs conjugated in the passé composé can also be used to mean the English simple tense. When to use. You use the passé composé when you want to express that: Formation. Introduction. To conjugate a verb in the passé composé, the auxiliary (or helping) verb, usually avoir, is conjugated in the present indicative and the past participle is then added. It is important to remember that there is only *one* verb in the passé composé. While the past participle looks like a verb, it is not - it functions more like an adjective. This is important to remember because when you negate in the passé composé, you negate the "only" verb, which is the auxiliary verb (ex. "Je n'ai pas mangé"; "I have not eaten"). This works exactly the same way in English - the only verb is the auxiliary verb, which is also the only thing negated in English ("I "have not" eaten"). Formation Summary. The compound past is a compound tense- it consists of two verbs, the auxiliary verb ("helper verb") and the past participle of the verb one seeks to use in this tense. To form the passé composé, you need to take the auxiliary verb - either avoir or être, then conjugate it according to the subject of the sentence, like in the present indicative tense. We then take the past participle of the verb, and stick that on the end. Every verb has one past participle that does not change (there are some exceptions, as one will learn later). To find the past participle, the stem of the infinitive must be determined or the irregularity must be known. If we want to make the statement negative, for example if we didn't do something in the past, we must always put the negative structure such as "ne ... pas" around the auxiliary verb, immediately before the past participle. For example, ""Je ne peux pas",". Also, reflexive or pronomial verbs must be conjugated with être under most circumstances. For example, the verb "se réflechir" is conjugated in the first person singular by "Je me suis réflechi(e),". Auxiliary Verb Formation. Auxiliary Verb - Avoir. Conjugate avoir in the present indicative. Auxiliary Verb - Être. Conjugate être in the present indicative. Past Participle Agreement with Preceding Direct Objects. The past participle must agree with the direct object of a clause in gender and plurality if the direct object goes before the verb. Avoir ou Être? In most circumstances, the auxiliary verb is avoir. However, with certain verbs, the auxiliary verb is être. This occurs under two different circumstances: 1. Reflexive verbs always take être. 2. The House of Être: Most verbs form the "passé composé" with "avoir", however there are a small number of verbs that are always conjugated with "être". Seventeen special intransitive verbs take "être" (four of which can also take "avoir", as explained below). 2.a. Exceptions Note that there are four verbs above that are followed by a star ("sortir, descendre, monter, passer"). When a direct object is used with these verbs, the auxiliary verb becomes "avoir".

German/Lesson 1. Lektion 1 Grammatik 1-1 ~ Introduction to German grammar. Knowing the parts of speech (how words function in a sentence) is important for anyone attempting to learn a second language. English speakers will find many strong parallels between their language and German. However, as noted in the introduction, German grammar signals—how words indicate their function in a sentence—are more complex than English, and identifying the meaning of words in a German sentence is difficult without understanding these clues or signals to word function that come from the grammatical rules. The basic lessons (Level II) of this textbook are set up to first introduce the parts of speech, and then bring in the rules that govern these. Pay particular attention to both word endings and sentence word order as you progress in learning the German language. Following is a short conversation piece ("Gespräch"). Play the audio file first, then attempt to repeat what you hear, reading the spoken parts of the conversation. Go back and forth (listening and then speaking) until the German flows easily from your lips. This may take considerable practice. Refer to the vocabulary ("Vokabeln") below to understand the meaning of the German sentences you are hearing and speaking. Gespräch 1-1 ~ "Die Freunde". In this conversation we learn several simple greetings exchanged between friends meeting very briefly on the street. Vokabeln 1-1. This first vocabulary ("Vokabeln") may seem a bit long considering you have been presented with only the brief conversation piece above, but it also contains all of the German words you have encountered up to this point in the Level II textbook, including words in photo captions and lesson section headers. The layout of the "Vokabeln" is explained in the Lesson Layout Guide in the German~English textbook introduction, but the four parts of the "Vokabeln" are labeled in this first lesson to reenforce the concept. Note that column 3 may contain (in parentheses) additional notes about a word in column 1. Also, you can find the greeting phrases that appear in the simple conversations above (and many others) in Appendix 2, a German-English phrase book. NOUNS der Anhang, die Anhänge appendix, appendices (singular and plural) die Brücke bridge der Freund, die Freunde friend, friends (singular and plural) das Gespräch, die Gespräche conversation, conversations die Grammatik grammar (note irregular stress) die Lektion lesson (note irregular stress) die Straße street das Tor gateway die Vokabeln word list, vocabulary das Vorwort foreword, preface (introduction to a book) SHORT PHRASES auf der Straße on the street Auf Wiedersehen Good bye Mir geht es gut I am fine (lit: 'It goes with me good') Guten Tag! Good day (greeting) Und dir? And you? (implied: 'And how are you?') unter Freunden between friends Wie geht es dir? How are you (lit: 'How goes it with you?') Wie geht's? How are you? (casual, but more commonly used) VERBS gehen go ("geht" is "goes") treffen meet, come upon ("trifft" is "meets") OTHER "SMALL" WORDS (adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, etc.) danke thank you; thanks dir (with or for) you einfach simple es it gut good mir (with or to) me und and wie? how? Gespräch 1-2 ~ "Die Studenten". Here again, two friends (college students) meet casually and discuss briefly what each is doing. Grammatik 1-2 ~ Word Order in Questions. Basic or normal word order in simple German sentences is the same as in English—subject then verb then verb object: Unlike with English sentence structure, a question sentence in German is formed by reversing subject and verb: This is called inverted word order. Examples are provided in Gespräch 1-1 and Gespräch 1-2. As another example, consider the statement: "Er studiert Biologie" ('He studies biology'). A question statement might be: "Was studiert er?" ('What studies he?'; although in English, we would usually say: "What is he studying?"). The normal word order of subject ("er" or "he") then verb ("studiert" or "study") is reversed and, in this case, an interrogative ("was" or "what") added onto the front replacing the unknown (to the speaker) object (here, "biology"). Additional examples of questions formed from basic statements illustrate inverted word order: Grammatik 1-3 ~ Introduction to pronouns. A ("Pronomen") is a short word that takes the place of a noun previously mentioned in the sentence, paragraph, or conversation. A pronoun substitutes for a noun or noun phrase and designates persons or things asked for, previously specified, or understood from context. A specific pronoun in English as well as German has person, number, and case. You will be encountering all of the common German pronouns in the next several lessons, so we will track these as they appear. The following familiar personal pronouns are introduced in this lesson ("Lektion 1"): "ich" – I (1st person, singular, nominative case) "mich" – me (1st person, singular, accusative case) "mir" – me (1st person singular, dative case) "du" – you (2nd person, singular, nominative case) "dich" – you (2nd person, singular, accusative case) "dir" – you (2nd person singular, dative case) "er" – he (3rd person singular, nominative case) "sie" – she (3rd person singular, nominative case) "es" – it (3rd person singular, nominative case) Pronoun person describes the relationship of the word to the speaker (that is, "1st person" is the speaker; "2nd person" is spoken to; and "3rd person" is spoken about). Pronoun number refers to whether the word represents one ("singular") or more than one ("plural") person or object. Finally, case indicates how the pronoun is used in a sentence, as will be explained over the next several lessons. For now, note in the examples you have already encountered, the three cases of 1st person singular pronouns in German: "ich", "mich", and "mir". In English these are: 'I', 'me', and ("to" or "with") 'me' — in essence, there are really just two cases in English: subjective ('I') and objective ('me'). You will shortly see that there are similarities, yet distinct differences, in the cases as used by the English and German languages. Vokabeln 1-2. NOUNS die Antwort, die Antworten answer(s) (singular and plural) die Biologie biology (note irregular stress) die Freundin, die Freunde (female) friend, friends (compare "der Freund") der Käse cheese der Kühlschrank refrigerator die Mathematik mathematics (note irregular stress) das Pronomen pronoun (note irregular stress) der Student, die Studentin student, (female) student die Uni university (a short form of "die Universität") die Übersetzung translation (lit. "over-setting") die Universität university (note irregular stress) die Wurst sausage, banger SHORT PHRASES Dann bis bald! then until (we) soon (meet again) ("until then") zu tun to do VERBS begegnen meet brauchen need, want, require einkaufen gehen go shopping haben have studieren study verstehen understand OTHER "SMALL" WORDS an to (towards) bald soon bis until dann then du you er he fast almost hallo hello ich I leer empty, vacant mich me schön beautiful (in this case, 'nice' or 'fine') sehr very sie she tschüss so long (good bye) viel much was? what? wohin? where? Übersetzung 1-1. By referring back to lesson examples, you should be able to write out the following sentences in German. On a piece of paper, first number and write each English sentence. Then review the lesson above and produce a German sentence that says the same thing as each English sentence. After all seven lines are translated, follow the "Antworten" (answers) link to compare your work with the correct ones. Do not be too concerned at this point if your spelling of the German verbs do not match the answers. You will learn all about German verb forms in later lessons.

Puzzles/Decision puzzles/Weighings Once More/Solution. Pathetic drawing following / | \ ---- | ---- ------- Weight to be measured is #. We prove, that 4 is the minimum size of a weighing set to measure the numbers from 1 to 40. Wl = Wr + x where Wl and Wr are the sum of all weights on left resp. right side. x has a unique solution for every pair of Wl and Wr. Now, we construct a minimum solution: Lemma: The weighing set S(n) = {1, 3, ..., 3n} can measure all weights between 1 and |S(n)|. Proof by induction: For S(0) the lemma trivially holds. Assume that the lemma holds for S(n). We will now prove that it holds for S(n+1). Because S(n) is a subset of S(n+1), we can surely measure all weighs between 1 and |S(n)| = (3n + 1)/2 without using the weight 3n+1. By adding this weight on the left side, we can reach all solutions between 3n+1 - (3n+1)/2 = |S(n)| + 1 and 3n+1 + (3n+1)/2 = 3n+2/2 = |S(n+1)|. QED. Because of |S(3)| = 40, a solution to the problem is the weighing set {1,3,9,27}, which is minimal. Questions: Algorithm for finding how to weigh a particular integer weight from 1 to S(n): 1 - Let x be the weight you want to find weighing set for it. 2 - Subtract x from S(n) and convert the result to base 3. Then zero pad to make the size of resulting string equal to the size of weighting set. 3 - Subtract one from each bit. Since the string is in base three, the result after subtraction is -1, 0, or 1. Reverse the sign of each number. 4 - Each digit determine where to use its corresponding positional weight in reverse order (i.e. 81, 27, 9, 3, 1). Zero means the corresponding weight not on the scale, +1 means on the right, and -1 on the left resp. As an example suppose we want to know how to place each of 5 weights (1, 3, 9, 27, 81) to weigh 51. S(n) = 121 121 - 51 = 70 base3(70) = 2121, zero pad => 02121, subtract one from each digit => -1, 1, 0, 1, 0, reverse the signs => 1, -1, 0, -1, 0 => (+1 x 81) + (-1 x 27) + (0 x 9) + (-1 x 3) + (0 x 1) = 51 These digits determines the placing of weights: 81 on right resp, 27 on left, 9 out, 3 on left, and 1 out

French/Grammar/Tenses/Past conditional. Usage of the Past Conditional. Past conditional is used to refer to an event that could have taken place in the past. Eg. "If he had not got hungry, we would have gone further."

French/Grammar/Verbs/Past participle. Usage. This is added after an auxiliary verb for all the composed tenses: Formation. The table below shows additions to the normal past participle that must be made based on the gender and number of the subject.

French/Grammar/Tenses/Future anterior. Usage. This is used in a sentence when there is something in a future tense, but this action is also in the future, but before the other future. This is called the "futur anterieur" in French.

French/Grammar/Tenses/Pluperfect of the indicative. In French the "pluperfect" is called "le plus-que-parfait". In English, it is also called the "more than perfect". Usage. The pluperfect is used to describe a past action that occurred before a second past action that is in the "passé composé" or "imparfait".

French/Grammar/Tenses/Past imperative. Usage of the Past Imperative. The past imperative is only ever used for giving commands one would like to have done - this is a rare literary mood as the present imperative is used more frequently. Chances are that you'll never need to know this mood in your life, let alone use direct, indirect pronouns and negations with this! 1) Aie écrit ce rapport demain - Have this report written tomorrow. <br> 2) Soyez partis à midi - Leave / be gone by noon.<br> 3) Ayons fini les devoirs à 7h00 - Let's have our homework finished by 7h00.<br> 4) N'aie jamais mangé tes légumes - Never have your vegetables eaten.<br> 5) Ne l'aie pas déclarée coupable - Have her not found guilty.<br>

French/Grammar/Tenses/Pluperfect subjunctive. Usage of the Pluperfect Subjunctive. The French pluperfect subjunctive is the least common literary tense - it's the literary equivalent of the past subjunctive. Like all literary tenses, the pluperfect subjunctive is used only in literature, historical writings, and other very formal writing, so it is important to be able to recognize it but chances are that you will never in your life need to conjugate it.

French/Grammar/Tenses/Imperfect subjunctive. Usage of the Imperfect Subjunctive. The subjunctive imperfect is very rarely employed in French; generally it only appears in literature and is viewed as archaic. It can in all instances be replaced by the subjunctive present. The subjunctive imperfect is employed in any instance in which the subjunctive is required, provided the trigger verb is in a past tense. In the example "Il fallait que le garçon allât à l'école", the subjunctive trigger verb "falloir" is in the imperfect, thus "aller" has been conjugated in the subjunctive imperfect. French speakers would normally express this as "Il fallait que le garçon aille à l'école", where "aller" has been conjugated in the present subjunctive. Formation of the Imperfect Subjunctive. Imperfect Subjunctive Endings. Imperfect Subjunctive Endings Irregular Conjugations. Imperfect Subjunctive of Venir

French/Grammar/Tenses/Imperative. Usage of the Imperative. This tense is used to give commands, express requests or make suggestions. Formation of the Imperative. The imperative is used in "tu", "nous" and "vous" forms; the "nous" and "vous" forms are the same as the indicative in both regular and irregular verbs (except the 3 irregulars shown below). The "tu" form is also the same unless it comes from an infinitive that ends in -er, in which case the "tu" form would drop the 's' (e.g.: parles -> parle). You could also drop the 's' when an -ir verb has the same endings as an er verb. The infinitive can also be used as the imperative, but only for impersonal commands, e.g.: "mettre la ceinture". Regular Conjugations. Danser Perdre finir Irregular Verbs in their Imperative Conjugations. Faire Aller Venir Sortir Irregular Conjugations. Être Avoir Savoir Vouloir

French/Grammar/Tenses/Present indicative. Usage of the Present. When you want to talk about something that's happening now. Formation of the Present. To form the present tense, there are seven categories of verbs that you need to know about, sorted by their endings, and if they are regular (follow the rules) or irregular (have their own rules). They are: and Irregular Conjugations. Stem Changing -er Verbs. -cer Verbs -ger Verbs -ayer, -oyer, and -uyer Verbs -eler Verbs -eter Verbs Verbs with "e" in the second to last syllable Verbs with "é" in the second to last syllable Irregular -ir Verb Patterns. Couvrir Dormir Irregular -re Verb Patterns. -aindre, -eindre, and -oindre Verbs Completely Irregular Verbs. Aller - To Go S'asseoir - To Sit Avoir - To Have Boire - To Drink Conduire - To Drive Connaître - To Know (A person) Croire - To Believe Devoir - To Have To Dire - To Say/To Tell Écrire - TO Write Être - To Be Faillir - To Almost Do Faire - To Do/To Make Falloir - To Have To/To Need (This verb can only be used in the impersonnal form) Lire - To Read Mettre - To Put/To Place Mourir - To Die Naître - To Be Born Prendre - To Take Rire - To Laugh Savoir - To Know (a fact) Sortir - To Go Out Venir - To Come Vivre - To Live Voir - To See Vouloir - To Want

German/Lesson 3. Lektion 3 "Die Zahlen" ~ The Numbers Lektion 3 ~ "Zählen von 1 bis 12". Counting in any language is a valuable skill best learned early on. In German as in English, there are both cardinal (counting) and ordinal (place or order) numbers, and number formation is similar in that the first twelve numbers are unique. Above twelve, numbers are formed by combination. For example, 13 is "dreizehn" and 14 is "vierzehn". Higher numbers will be the subject of later lessons. Note in the table how ordinals are formed from the cardinals in German by adding "te". 'Ten' becomes 'tenth' in English; "zehn" become "zehnte" in German. As in English, there are several nonconforming variants: "erste", "dritte", and "siebte". Audio: (385KB) Grammatik 3-1 ~ Telling time (hours). Knowing the numbers from 1 to 12, you can now begin asking and telling time in German. <br> Gespräch 3-1. Asking for the time is accomplished by the sentence: "Wie spät ist es?" ("How late is it?"). The answer places the hour in the line "Es ist ____ Uhr" ("It is __ o'clock"), substituting the correct cardinal value (except "ein" is used instead of "eins"). One could also ask: "Wieviel Uhr ist es?" (not used very often anymore) or respond "Es ist eins" or "Es ist drei", etc.—which may be imprecise, unless the time is close to the hour. The following sentences also relate to telling time: Knowing how to express the quarter, half, and three quarter hours will allow you to give the time more precisely. We will, of course, revisit this subject. Once you know how to count beyond twelve, the hour's division into 60 minutes can be expressed. Also, Germans (like most Europeans) utilize what is known in America as "military time" or a 24-hour clock. Vokabeln 3-1. Also included in the vocabulary for Lesson 3 are the ordinal and cardinal numbers 1 through 12 from "Lektion 3" above. der Ball ball der Junge, die Jungen boy, boys das Lernen learning, study der Nachmittag afternoon die Stunde hour die Uhr watch (timepiece); also "o'clock" der Uhrturm clock tower die Uhrzeit time, time of day das Viertel quarter die Zahl, die Zahlen number, numbers bis zwei Uhr until two o'clock das ist gut very well (lit.: "that is good") eines Nachmittags one (unspecified) afternoon ich kann... spielen I can play es ist it is willst du ...? do you want ...? (familiar form) fragen ask (a question) spielen play zählen count dann then halb half, halfway to nach about, after spät late vor before, until zu to Grammatik 3-2 ~ Introduction to Nouns. A is a fundamental part of speech, occurring in sentences in two different ways: as subjects (performers of action), or objects (recipients of action). As a generality, a noun is the name of a "person, place, or thing". Nouns are classified into proper nouns (e.g. "Janet"), common nouns (e.g. "girl"), and pronouns (e.g. "she" and "which"). A proper noun (also called "proper name") is a noun which denotes a unique entity. The meaning of a proper noun, outside of what it references, is frequently arbitrary or irrelevant (for example, someone might be named Tiger Smith despite being neither a tiger nor a smith). Because of this, they are often not translated between languages, although they may be transliterated — for example, the German surname "Knödel" becomes "Knoedel" in English, as opposed to "Dumpling". Proper nouns are capitalized in English and all other languages that use the Latin alphabet; this is one way to recognize them. However, in German both proper and common nouns are capitalized (as are certain formal pronouns; see Grammatik 2-3). Grammatik 3-3 ~ Gender of Nouns. We have seen evidence of word gender in the pronouns we have been encountering; notably 'he', 'she', and 'it' in English and "er", "sie", and "es" in German. Just like many other languages (but not English), German has genders for nouns as well. Noun gender is indicated by the "definite article", which should always be learned as part of the noun. For this reason, nouns presented in each lesson's "Vokabeln" include the gender appropriate definite article. Definite Articles. The definite article ("bestimmter Artikel") is equivalent to an English 'the', and the three basic gender forms of definite articles in German are as follows: To say 'the book' in German, you would say "das Buch", because "Buch" is a neuter noun. To say 'the man' in German, you would say "der Mann", because "Mann" is a masculine noun. To say 'the woman' in German, you would say "die Frau", because "Frau" is a feminine noun. Noun gender does not always derive from actual gender where gender might be applicable. For example, 'the boy' is "der Junge" ("masculine"); but 'the girl' is "das Mädchen" ("neuter"). Also, nouns that have no inherent gender are not necessarily neuter. From this lesson: 'the watch or time piece' is "die Uhr" ('feminine'). Because German is generally more structured than English, it is important when learning German nouns to always learn them with their gender correct definite article; and in the "Vokabeln" nouns are always given with their associated definite article. That is, you must memorize the word for 'book' in German as "das Buch", not simply "Buch". Not just definite articles, but indefinite articles and adjectives have endings that must match the gender of the noun they precede. Using the wrong gender can alter the meaning of a German sentence, so in forming a proper sentence with "Buch", you will need to know that it is a neuter noun. Indefinite Articles. In addition to the definite articles—"the" in English and "der"-words in German—discussed above, both languages have indefinite articles ("unbestimmter Artikel"). Indefinite articles precede nouns in the same way that definite articles do, but convey a general or indefinite sense. These are "a" or "an" in English. Thus, 'the book' or "das Buch" refers to a definite or specific book, whereas 'a book' or "ein Buch" is indefinite about which book is referred to. Indefinite articles also have gender as shown here: Here are some examples of indefinite articles (underlined) used in German sentences: Why, you ask, are there words like "einen" in some sentences above—a spelling that does not appear in the gender table? The tables for both the definite and indefinite articles above are simplified at this stage, giving only articles in the nominative case (applied to words that are subjects of verbs). In the very next lesson you will start to address all the other cases in German. However, the nominative case is the one used to signify the gender of a noun, as in our "Vokabeln". Vokabeln 3-2. das Buch book die Frau woman der Knödel dumpling das Mädchen (young) girl der Mann man lesen read Übersetzung 3-1. Translate the following sentences into German:

US History/Presidents. Presidents of the United States. Although Washington was a member of the Whig Party before the Revolution, after the war he was not a member of any party, though he tended to lean toward Federalist positions. Since the formation of the Democratic-Republican party and the Federalist Party, there has always been at least one viable political party. Today the United States has a two party system. There have been many third party movements, such as Ralph Nader, and Theodore Roosevelt, but these attempts to create a three-party system have, thus far, failed.

Indonesian. This Wikibook begins with an introduction to the language and a series of lessons. You may also wish to browse further down this contents page for other useful pages, including Kosa kata (vocabulary), Alat-alat pembelajaran (Tools for learning) and other resources. Pelajaran "(Lessons)". Dasar "(Basic)". This section describes the basics of the Indonesian language. Mostly it discusses the most basic structure of the language. What you'll learn here will be clarified further in the later sections. Pemula "(Beginner)". This section will expand your vocabulary and grammar building on the sentence structures explained in the basic lessons. Ahli "(Expert)". Learn some cultural background of the Indonesian language and further improve your vocabulary using the grammar you've learned so far. Latihan "(Exercises)". Under construction Pranala Luar "(External links)". Kamus "(Dictionary)". Online dictionary links:

Indonesian/About. Downloadable and Print Versions. If a lesson, grammar page, appendix, ot text has been added or the name of an existing page has been changed, please update the print version. History. Roby Joehanes initiated this wikibook in 2003. However, unhappy with the collaboration in Wikibook, he resigned in late 2003. This wikibook is then developed by Authors. The Indonesian textbook was started by Edit: If you look at Robby Jo's profile, it states that he has given up contributing to WikiBooks Indonesia. Although he will be sorely missed [from this place], his presence is much needed. Either we petition for him to come back, or we continue this great Wiki from where he left off ~Cheetincheetah Other Contributors:

Indonesian/Lessons/Greetings. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 0: The Alphabet | Lesson 1: Greetings |Lesson 2: This, That » Contoh Percakapan "(Dialogue Example)". Budi: Selamat pagi, Bu! Wati: Selamat pagi juga, Pak! Budi: Apa kabarnya? Wati: Baik. kalau kamu? Budi: Baik-baik juga. Wati: Kamu sedang apa? Budi: Aku sedang membaca novel. Wati: Novel apa yang kamu baca? Budi: Aku sedang membaca novel semua tentang Islam! Wati: Boleh aku meminjamnya? Budi: Tentu saja. Wati: Sudah waktunya aku harus pulang. Sampai berjumpa, dan jangan lupa besok aku akan meminjam novelmu Budi: Tentu aku tidak akan lupa. Sampai jumpa kembali. Wati: Selamat jalan. Terjemahannya (The Translation): Budi: Good morning, Ma'am! Wati: Good morning, Sir! Budi: How are you? Wati: Good. You? Budi: Also good. Wati: What are you doing? Budi: I am reading a novel. Wati: What novel are you reading? Budi: I am reading a novel about everything about Islam! Wati: May I borrow it? Budi: Of course. Wati: It is already time for me to go home. Goodbye, and don't forget I'll borrow your book tomorrow Budi: Of course I won't forget. Goodbye too. Wati: Good bye. Selamat. The word "selamat" means "safe". So, "selamat pagi" literally means "good morning". The greetings in Indonesian are not quite the same as that of English. Below is the table of words with their meaning and the time you may want to use it: Unlike English, it is all right to greet people with "selamat malam" when meeting at night. To say "good bye", we can use "selamat tinggal". The word "selamat" also means "congratulations". Therefore, it is also used to congratulate other people. So, you can use the word "selamat" with the following words: So, "selamat ulang tahun" means "happy birthday". And so forth. Note that the word "jalan" means "street" or "to go", but when used in "selamat jalan", it means "bon voyage". Apa Kabar "(How Are You?)". The phrase "apa kabar" literally means "what (your) news". The word "apa" means "what" and the word "kabar" means "news". When translated, it means "how are you". To answer "apa kabar", we usually use "baik" or "baik-baik" to indicate that it's good. We can answer "biasa saja" (= "so so") or "kurang baik" (= "not good", literally = "less good"). In Malay, they use the spelling of "khabar" instead of "kabar", and thus the pronunciation is slightly different, with the Malay pronunciation using a hard H sound instead of regular K sound. Sapaan "(Salutations)". Notice that the dialog above uses "pak" and "bu", which mean "sir" and "ma'am" respectively. In Indonesian, you'll need to specify proper salutations in most cases when greeting people. This is because Indonesian people tend to be very polite. In formal situations or the work place, adults usually greet using "pak" or "bu". The word "Anda" (usually capitalised to show respect) is the general, relatively polite form of "you"; note that "bapak" and "ibu" could also be used, as well as casual forms such as "kamu". The article "pak" is shorthand for "bapak" (= mister or father), while "bu" is an abbreviation of "ibu" (= madam or mother). <hr> ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 0: The Alphabet | Lesson 1: Greetings |Lesson 2: This, That »

Indonesian/Lessons/This and that. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 1: Greetings | Lesson 2: This, That | Lesson 3: Pronouns » Arti Umum "(General Meaning)". The word "ini" means "this" or "these". The word "itu" means "that" or "those". Penggunaan Pertama: Ini buku "(First Usage: This [is a] book)". Contoh "(Example)": From the examples above, you can see that there is no explicit word for "to be" as in English. It is already implied by the structure or the vocabulary used in the sentence. In addition, when using a noun, the meaning can be either singular or plural. It depends on the context. When the context does not make it clear, the noun is assumed to be singular. The reader might ask: If "ini buku" means this is a book while when naively translated sounds like "This book." Then how to say "this book" in Indonesian? Answer: "buku ini". When learning Indonesian, or when Indonesian learning English, people usually realized that the order of words, especially adjective and noun, are usually swapped. Penggunaan Kedua: Buku ini merah "(Second Usage: This book [is] red)". Contoh "(Example)": Notice the difference between the first pattern and the second one: Bentuk Negatif "(Negative Form)". There are two words in Indonesian used to indicate negatives: In some cases, we can use either "bukan" or "tidak", but we'll discuss this later. Contoh "(Example)": Here, we use "bukan", because we're negating the nouns. However, look at the following example: This time, we are negating the adjective "right". (Benar = right / correct) Likewise, look at the following examples: Contoh "(Example)": In these examples, we use "tidak" because this time we're negating the adjectives. Bentuk Interogatif "(Interrogative Form)". The word "apa" (= "what") can be used to form questions using "ini" or "itu". Contoh "(Example)": You can use "apa ini" or "apa itu" to ask what something is called in Indonesian (by pointing to the object). ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 1: Greetings | Lesson 2: This, That | Lesson 3: Pronouns »

Indonesian/Grammar/Pronouns. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 2: This, That | Lesson 3: Pronouns |Lesson 4: Simple Sentences » General Pronoun. In Indonesian, both subjective and objective pronouns are the same. Possessive pronouns are slightly different in informal situations only. Below is the table: Note that there are two notions of "we" in Indonesian. If the opposite party is included, then we use "kita". Otherwise, we use "kami". Contoh "(Example)": Here, Budi speaks to Wati that this book is both Budi's and Wati's book. However, if Budi said, "Wati, ini buku kami."; it means that this book is Budi's (and probably his other friend's), but not Wati's. To refer a third person that has already died, He/She/It, when person we are speaking about already passed away and we want to refer to those people with respect, we use another word "almarhum" meaning "he" when the he is already died and "he" happens to be a respectable person. For female we use the word "almarhumah". This is a rare instance when Bahasa Indonesia is gender specific. This is a loan word from Arabic which literally means: "who was blessed by God." In this sense, this is actually a euphemism. So we can conclude that words 'almarhum' and 'almarhumah' are purposed to Muslims. The non-Muslim people usually change it with 'mendiang', which is simpler and can be used by both genders. Kata Kepunyaan "(Possessive Pronoun)". As you probably have noted in the previous example, the position of possessive pronoun is reversed in Indonesian. Contoh "(Example)": In these examples, notice that when using informal possessive of singular person, the suffix is put together with the noun. Although in spoken Indonesian it is acceptable to say "gelas dia" instead of "gelasnya" and "bolpen kamu" instead of "bolpenmu", it is incorrect to say "jeruk aku" to mean "my orange". Kata Kepunyaan #2 "(Possessive Pronoun Part 2)". In most languages there is the possibility of both adjective-like possessives "this is my book" and noun like adjectives "this book is mine" or "this is mine." Indonesian doesn't do this exactly like this but does have an equivalent: Notice that this kind of structure is "bridged" by the word ""punya"", which means "to have". You can then put the appropriate suffix or word to indicate the ownership. A synonym of ""punya" is "milik"". Hence you can change "punya" with "milik". Example: Contoh "(Examples)". Below are some examples that summarise what we've learnt: Note that at the third example we use "bukan" to deny the noun (i.e. the pen). At the fourth example, we use "tidak" to deny the ownership, which is considered as a verb (i.e. "doesn't have"). Note also how we can put names in ownership at example five and six with the word "punya". <hr> ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 2: This, That | Lesson 3: Pronouns |Lesson 4: Simple Sentences »

Indonesian/Grammar/Tenses. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 3: Pronouns | Lesson 4: Simple Sentences |Lesson 5: Numbers » Tenses. Basic Indonesian word order is similar to English. Generally, sentences begin with a subject, followed by a verb (also called a predicate), and then an object. It's good news that Indonesian verbs don't change depending on tense. Indicating the past or future tense only requires inserting words that indicate the time, in a very regular system. Contoh (Example): As you noticed in the examples above, the word "telah" or "sudah" indicate completed actions, the word "akan" indicate future actions, and the word "sedang" indicate actions in progress. The main verb (i.e. "makan" = to eat) is left unchanged. Side note: In English, both cooked and uncooked rice are referred as rice alone. In Indonesian, uncooked rice is called beras while cooked rice is called nasi. Note also that Indonesian has no notions of imperfect tense. Instead, Indonesian uses duration words, such as "selama" (literally means during or as long as): Contoh (Example): Don't worry about these "tenses" yet. We'll study it in greater detail later. Adding Emphasis. The Indonesian language is very expressive. While basic Indonesian word order matches English, you can scramble up the sentence structure, and the sentence will still have the same underlying meaning. In this regard, Indonesian is somewhat like Latin or Japanese, but without the cases or the particles. Usually, when a word other than the subject is put at the beginning of a sentence, it becomes the emphasis of the sentence. This is broadly used in spoken Indonesian. Contoh (Example): Note also that this way of providing emphasis can occur with any "tense" using the same pattern. Don't be intimidated by this variability in word order. You can always form simple sentences as: Subject + Verb + Object. <hr> ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 3: Pronouns | Lesson 4: Simple Sentences |Lesson 5: Numbers »

Indonesian/Lessons/Learning Indonesian. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Why learn Indonesian? | How to use this Indonesian Wikibook |Lesson 0: The Alphabet » Cara Pemakaian "(Usage)". I plan to structure this book so that for each lesson you will have the corresponding exercise. So, if you have finished lesson 1, do the exercise 1 before proceeding to lesson 2, and so forth. This is so that you fully understand the Indonesian. I understand that it is pretty hard to illustrate simple concepts of Indonesian without knowing anything about it. So, my approach is to illustrate the most important basic components of Indonesian in the basic section. My suggestion is to skim the basic section and grasp a little bit about it and step up to the beginner section so that you can see these components in action. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Why study Indonesian? | How to use this Indonesian Wikibook |Lesson 0: The Alphabet »

Indonesian/Lessons/Numbers. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 4: Simple Sentences | Lesson 5: Numbers |Lesson 6: Particles » Angka Numerals "(Numerals)". Contoh "(Examples)": Urutan "(Series)". As you see, in order to form ordinal numbers in series, you only need to attach the prefix "ke-", then the number itself. Except for pertama ("1st"), you can spell out the number or just write the digits (like the ones in parentheses). Contoh (Examples): Nilai Tempat "(Value Place)". Contoh "(Examples)": Berapa "(How much)". To ask about quantities, we use the word "berapa". For example: "Berapa harga X" is to ask "How much does X cost". Contoh (Examples): The word "berapa" can directly replace the quantity in question. However, you must put a measure word right after it. Contoh (Examples): The most common measure word is "buah", which indicates quantity. Coincidentally, this word can also mean fruit (i.e. apples, oranges, etc). Other common measure words are "ekor" (for animals; ekor = tail) and "orang" (for people, orang = person). Interestingly, the word biji (lit= fruit) is also sometime use to replace buah. The examples below illustrate using measure words: Contoh (Examples): Contoh Lain (Other Examples): Angka Lebih Dari 999 "(Numbers higher than 999)". In English, to make the number readable, we used to add a comma every three digits. For example, One million and two hundred and fifty-five thousands and three hundred and sixty-four can be written as 1,255,364. However in Indonesian, we insert a dot instead of comma. Hence the same number (Indonesia: "Satu juta dua ratus lima puluh lima ribu tiga ratus enam puluh empat") should be written as 1.255.364 . For curious reader, Indonesians use comma (",") to indicate decimals. "Online Tools". <hr> ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 4: Simple Sentences | Lesson 5: Numbers |Lesson 6: Particles »

Indonesian/Quantification Words. ^ Indonesian ^ Kata Pembilang - "Quantification Words". Indonesian language has no distinction between uncountable and countable nouns. If you want to say that there are more than one of a thing, as a rule of thumb you can repeat the noun using a dash (-) to make it plural. Alternatively you can also put the total number of the thing in front of the noun. There is no rule in Indonesian language regarding which nouns should/can be repeated, which nouns should not/cannot, but if we already put some quantification words, we can't do the repetition noun. For example: It is wrong to say banyak buku-buku - "lots of books", instead use either the phrase banyak buku or buku-buku These words are essential to specify indefinite plurals: Kata Penunjuk Jumlah - Measure Words. An example of a measure words is the word "pieces" in "two pieces of paper". You have seen the word buah in lesson 5 to indicate the total of a quantity. The word buah can be considered as the "universal" measure word because it can fit in so many situations. However, you may want to fine tune it to convey a more precise meaning. For example: in the English language it's more proper to say "two rolls of bread" or "two slices of bread" rather than "two pieces of bread". This is because the measure word "roll" is more fitting than the word "piece" in this situation. The same thing applies to the Indonesian language. Below are other common measure words, followed by the noun it measures. <hr> ^ Indonesian ^

Indonesian/Grammar/Prepositions. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 5: Numbers | Lesson 6: Particles |Lesson 7: Introducing Yourself » Di "(In/on/at [place])". To indicate a place, we use the particle di. It can mean in, on, or at. Contoh (Examples): Note the word "ada", which means "to exist". It is placed right before the di particle to indicate existence. Note also that the particle di doesn't convey any further detail on how the object is being placed, whether it's in front, inside, etc. To put additional detail, we put a location word after the particle di. Contoh (Examples): The word "atas" means "top" or "above" and "dalam" means "inside". Below is the list of location words you may use: In Indonesian, to change the position is quite easy. Like Bukuku ada di atas meja, if you want to change it becomes beside or behind, you just need to change them into Bukuku ada di sebelah/samping meja and Bukuku ada di belakang meja. Be careful to differentiate between di as prefix (awalan) and di as showing the place (kata depan). Most Indonesian natives forget about this and mistakes are common. If the word di is followed by a verb, it is a prefix. Example Indonesian also commonly (and mistakenly) use di with time, for example "di waktu sedih" (during sad times). Pada is the correct proposition for time. Hence, it should be "pada waktu sedih". Pada "(at [person])". Although in spoken Indonesian it is acceptable to use "di" to indicate the existence of a noun at someone, this is unusual. For example, it is not correct to say: "Bukumu ada di Budi" to mean "Your book is at Budi". Rather, you should use the particle pada: This sounds awkward to translate literally. Usually in English, people would say "Budi has your book". This preposition is also used for time, for example Pada pukul enam pagi. (At 6 am) Ke "(to [a place])". The particle ke is to indicate the notion of to a place. It is often coupled with the word "pergi", which means "to go". Contoh (Example): In spoken Indonesian, people often omit pergi when the context is clear. So, you'll often hear Ibu ke pasar to mean Mother [goes] to [the] market. Kepada "(to [a person])". Some verbs in English like "to send", "to give" and so on need the particle "to", followed by a person. For example: "I give the book to you". In Indonesian, for this notion of to, you cannot use the particle ke. Rather, you'll use the particle kepada. Contoh (Example): Memberikan = to give Mengirimkan = to send Surat = letter Certainly, in spoken Indonesian, people may violate this rule and use ke instead of the proper kepada. Dari "(From)". The particle dari is almost synonymous with from in English. It is to indicate the origin of something. Contoh "(Example)": Not only that dari explains the place origin, but also explains the origin of things. For example: Cincin = ring Terbuat = is made Emas = gold Untuk "(For)". The particle untuk is almost synonymous with for. For example: It is also used to explain the usage of a thing: <hr> ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 5: Numbers | Lesson 6: Particles |Lesson 7: Introducing Yourself »

Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Knights, Knaves & Spies II/Solution. Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Knights, Knaves & Spies II | Solution C should answer "No". Reasoning. B is either a knave or a spy. If B is a spy, then A is truthful and is therefore the knight. A - Knight B - Spy C - Knave On the other hand, if B is the knave, there are two possibilities: A - Spy B - Knave C - Knight or A - Knight B - Knave C - Spy If C is either the knave or the knight, his answer to the question will be "No", and so the judge will not be able to draw a conclusion. On the other hand, C can answer "Yes" only if he is the spy.

Indonesian/Question Words. ^ Indonesian ^ Kata Tanya "(Question Words)". The following is a list of Indonesian question words with their use. Yang mana - "Which [one]". <hr> ^ Indonesian ^

US History/Pre-Columbian. Human civilization in the Americas probably began in the last ice age, when prehistoric hunters crossed a land bridge between the Asian and North American continents. Civilizations in North America, Central America, and South America had different levels of complexity, technology, and cohesiveness. Some of the most powerful and organized societies occurred in South and Central America. These cultures developed writing, allowing them to spread and dominate. They created some of the largest cities in the Ancient world. North American cultures were more fragmented and less unified. The tribe was often the major social unit, with exchanges between tribes creating similar societies over vast distances. Tribal dwellings as large as European towns flourished in the rugged desert of southwestern North America. European-descended historians have difficulty referring to these cultures as a whole, as the native people did not have a unified name for themselves. At first, Europeans called natives "Indians". This term came from the belief by Christopher Columbus that he had discovered a new passage to India. Despite Amerigo Vespucci ascertaining that the Americas were not actually India, Indian continued to be used as the 'de facto' name for native inhabitants until around 1960. Starting in the 1960s, the term "Native American" was used. Yet this term may be too problematic: The name America derives from Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian who had little to do with the native people. There is also "American Indian". This is too general a term for a group having little in common other than skin tone and non-European language. In Canada, the term "First People" is used. All these terms for the native people of America show just how diverse Pre-Columbian America was and the disagreement continues among scholars today about this period. Early Inhabitants of the Americas. Bering Land Bridge. American history does not begin with Columbus's 1492 arrival. The Americas were settled long before the first European arrived. Civilization began during the last ice age, some 15 to 40 thousand years ago. Huge ice sheets covered the north, so sea levels were much lower, creating a land bridge between Asia and North America. This was the Bering land bridge, a gap in two large ice sheets creating a connection from lands near present day Alaska, through Alberta, and into the continental United States. Nomadic Asians following herds of wild game traveled into the continental United States. A characteristic arrow point was found and first described near the present day town of Clovis, NM. Specialized tools and common burial practices are seen in many archaeological sites through North America and into South America. Clovis People. The Clovis people are one of North America's earliest civilizations. It is not clear if the finds represent one unified tribe, or many tribes with a common technology and belief. Their trek across 2000 rugged miles is one of the great feats of pre-history. Their culture disappears dramatically from the archaeological record 12,900 years ago, with widespread speculation about what caused their disappearance. Theories range from the extinction of the mammoth, to sudden environmental changes caused by a comet, to flooding caused by the break of a massive freshwater lake, Lake Agassiz. There is controversy about Pre-Clovis settlement of North and South America. Comparisons of culture and linguistics offer evidence of the influence of early America by several different contemporary cultures. Some genetic and time-dating studies point to the possibility that ancient Americans came from other places and arrived earlier than at the Clovis sites in North America. Perhaps some ancient settlers to the hemisphere traveled by boat along the seashore, or arrived by boats from the Polynesian islands. As time went on, many of these first settlers settled down into agricultural societies, complete with domesticated animals. Groups of people formed stable tribes and developed distinct languages of their own, to the point that more distant relatives could no longer understand them. Comparative linguistics -- the study of languages of different tribes -- shows fascinating diversity, with similarities between tribes hundreds of miles apart, yet startling differences with neighboring groups. At times, tribes would gain regional importance and dominate large areas of America. Empires rose across the Americas that rivaled the greatest ones in Europe. For their time, some of these empires were highly advanced. Early Empires of Mesoamerica. Meso-American civilizations are among of the most powerful and advanced civilizations of the ancient world. Reading and writing were widespread throughout Meso-America, and these civilizations achieved impressive political, artistic, scientific, agricultural, and architectural accomplishments. Many of these civilizations gathered the political and technological resources to build some of the largest, most ornate, and highly populated cities in the ancient world. Maya. The aboriginal Americans settled in the Yucatan peninsulas of present-day Mexico around 10,000 BCE. By 2000 BCE, the Mayan culture had evolved into a complex civilization. The Mayans developed a strong political, artistic and religious identity among the highly populated Yucatan lowlands. The classic period (250-900 CE) witnessed a rapid growth of the Mayan culture and it gained dominance within the region and influence throughout present-day Mexico. Large, independent city-states were founded and became the political, religious, and cultural centers for the Mayan people. Mayan society was unified not by politics, but by their complex and highly-developed religion. Mayan religion was astrologically based, and supported by careful observations of the sky. The Mayans had a strong grasp of astronomy that rivaled, and, in many ways, exceeded that of concurrent European societies. They developed a very sophisticated system for measuring time, and had a great awareness of the movements in the nighttime sky. Particular significance was attached to the planet Venus, which was particularly bright and appeared in both the late evening and early morning sky. Mayan art is also considered one of the most sophisticated and beautiful of the ancient New World. The Mayan culture saw a decline during the 8th and 9th century. Although its causes are still the subject of intense scientific speculation, archaeologists see a definite cessation of inscriptions and architectural construction. The Mayan culture continued as a regional power until its discovery by Spanish conquistadors. In fact, an independent, non-centralized government allowed the Mayans to strongly resist the Spanish conquest of present-day Mexico. Mayan culture is preserved today throughout the Yucatan, although many of the inscriptions have been lost. Aztec. The Aztec culture began with the migration of the Mexica people to present-day central Mexico. The leaders of this group of people created an alliance with the dominant tribes forming the Aztec triple alliance, and created an empire that influenced much of present-day Mexico. The Aztec confederacy began a campaign of conquest and assimilation. Outlying lands were inducted into the empire and became part of the complex Aztec society. Local leaders could gain prestige by adopting and adding to the culture of the Aztec civilization. The Aztecs, in turn, adopted cultural, artistic, and astronomical innovations from its conquered people. The heart of Aztec power was economic unity. Conquered lands paid tribute to the capital city Tenochtitlan, the present-day site of Mexico City. Rich in tribute, this capital grew in influence, size, and population. When the Spanish arrived in 1521, it was the fourth largest city in the world (including the once independent city Tlatelolco, which was by then a residential suburb) with an estimated population of 212,500 people. It contained the massive Temple de Mayo (a twin-towered pyramid 197 feet tall), 45 public buildings, a palace, two zoos, a botanical garden, and many houses. Surrounding the city and floating on the shallow flats of Lake Texcoco were enormous "chinampas" -- floating garden beds that fed the many thousands of residents of Tenochtitlan. While many Meso-American civilizations practiced human sacrifice, none performed it to the scale of the Aztecs. To the Aztecs, human sacrifice was a necessary appeasement to the gods. According to their own records, one of the largest slaughters ever performed happened when the great pyramid of Tenochtitlan was reconsecrated in 1487. The Aztecs reported that they had sacrificed 84,400 prisoners over the course of four days. With their arrival at Tenochtitlan, the Spanish would be the downfall of Aztec culture. Although shocked and impressed by the scale of Tenochtitlan, the display of massive human sacrifice offended European sensitivity, and the abundant displays of gold and silver inflamed their greed. The Spanish killed the reigning ruler, Montezuma in June 1520 and lay siege to the city, destroying it in 1521, aided by their alliance with a competing tribe, the Tlaxcala. Inca. With the ascension of Manco Capac to emperor of a tribe in the Cuzco area of what is modern-day Peru around 1200 BCE, the Incan civilization emerged as the largest Pre-Columbian empire in the Americas. Religion was significant in Inca life. The royal family were believed to be descendants of the Inca Sun God. Thus, the emperor had absolute authority, checked only by tradition. Under the emperors, a complex political structure was apparent. The Incan emperor, regional and village leaders, and others were part of an enormous bureaucracy. For every ten people, there was, on average, one official. The organization of the Empire also included a complex transportation infrastructure. To communicate across the entire empire, runners ran from village to village, relaying royal messages. In 1438, the ambitious Pachacuti, likely the greatest of the Incan emperors, came to the throne. Pachacuti rebuilt much of the capital city, Cuzco, and the Temple of the Sun. The success of Pachacuti was based upon his brilliant talent for military command (he is sometimes referred to as the "Napoleon of the Andes") and an amazing political campaign of integration. Leaders of regions that he wanted to conquer were bribed with luxury goods and enticed by promises of privilege and importance. As well, the Incans had developed a prestigious educational system which, not incidentally, just happened to extol the benefits of Incan civilization. Thus, much of the expansion throughout South America was peaceful. At its height of power in the late 15th century, Incan civilization had conquered a vast patchwork of languages, people and cultures from present-day Ecuador, along the whole length of South America, to present-day Argentina.Cuzco, the capital city, was said by the Spanish to be "as fine as any city in Spain". Perhaps the most impressive city of the Incan empire, though, was not its capital, Cuzco, but the city Machu Picchu. This mountain retreat was built high in the Andes and is sometimes called the "Lost City of the Incas." It was intended as a mountain retreat for the leaders of the Incan empire and demonstrates great artistry -- the abundant dry stone walls were entirely built without mortar, and the blocks were cut so carefully that one can't insert a knife-blade between them. The Spanish discovered the Inca during a civil war of succession and enjoyed great military superiority over the slow siege warfare that the Incan empire had employed against its enemies. Fueled by greed at the opportunity to plunder another rich civilization, they conquered and executed the Incan emperor. The Incan empire fell quickly in 1533, but a small resistance force fled to the mountains, waging a guerrilla war of resistance for another 39 years. Meso-American Empires. The Meso-American Empires were undoubtedly the most powerful and unified civilizations in the new world. Writings were common in Meso-America and allowed these cultures to spread in power and influence with far more ease than their counterparts in north America. Each of these civilizations built impressive urban areas and had a complex culture. They were as 'civilized' as the Spanish who conquered them in the 15th and 16th centuries. Early Empires of the Southwest. Native Americans adapted the arid desert southwest. A period of relatively wet conditions saw many cultures in the area flourish. Extensive irrigation was developed that were among the biggest of the ancient world. Elaborate adobe and sandstone buildings were constructed. Highly ornamental and artistic pottery was created. The unusual weather conditions could not continue forever, though, and gave way, in time, to the more common drought of the area. These dry conditions necessitated a more minimal way of life and, eventually, the elaborate accomplishments of these cultures were abandoned. Ancestral Puebloans. One prominent group were the Ancestral Puebloans, who lived in the present day Northeastern Arizona and surrounding areas. The geography of this area is that of a flat arid, desert plain, surrounded by small areas of high plateau, called mesas. Softer rock layers within the mesas eroded to form steep canyons and overhangs along their slopes. The Ancestral Puebloans culture used these cave-like overhangs in the side of steep mesas as shelter from the brief, fierce southwestern storms. They also found natural seeps and diverted small streams of snow melt into small plots of maize, squash and beans. Small seasonal rivers formed beds of natural clays and dried mud. The Ancestral Puebloans used hardened dry mud, called adobe, along with sandstone, to form intricate buildings that were sometimes found high in the natural overhangs of the mesas. The Ancestral Puebloans were also skilled at forming the natural clays into pottery. Between 900 - 1130 CE a period of relatively wet conditions allowed the Ancestral Puebloans to flourish. Traditional architecture was perfected, pottery became intricate and artistic, turkeys were domesticated, and trade over long distances influenced the entire region. Following this golden period was the 300 year drought called Great Drought. The Ancestral Puebloan culture was stressed and erupted into warfare. Scientists once believed the entire people vanished, possibly moving great distances to avoid the arid desert. New research suggests that the Ancestral Puebloans dispersed; abandoning the intricate buildings and moving towards smaller settlements to utilize the limited water that existed. Hohokam. Bordering the Ancestral Puebloan culture in the north, a separate civilization emerged in southern Arizona, called the Hohokam. While many native Americans in the southwest used water irrigation on a limited scale, it was the Hohokam culture that perfected the technology (all without the benefit of modern powered excavating tools). The ability to divert water into small agricultural plots meant that the Hohokam could live in large agricultural communities of relatively high population density. This was particularly true in the Gila River valley, where the Gila River was diverted in many places to irrigate large fertile plains and numerous compact towns. The bigger towns had a 'Great House' at their centers, which was a large Adobe/stone structure. Some of these structures were four stories in size and probably were used by the managerial or religious elites. Smaller excavation or pits were enclosed by adobe walls and used as primary residences. Smaller pit rooms and pits were used for many different functions. The successful use of irrigation is evident in the extensive Casa Grande village. Situated between two primary canals, the Casa Grande site has been the focus of nearly 9 decades of archaeological work. The original town was built around a Great House and incorporated open courtyards and circular plazas. By the 10th century neighboring settlements had been built to accommodate a large, highly developed region. The scale of this community can be seen in the results of one excavation of part of it in 1997. The project identified 247 pit houses, 27 pit rooms, 866 pits, 11 small canals, a ball court, and portions of four adobe walled compounds. The Hohokam culture disintegrated when they had difficulty maintaining the canals in the dry conditions of the drought. Small blockages or collapses of the canal would choke the intricate irrigation networks. Large towns and extensive irrigation canals were abandoned. The people gave up their cultural way of life and dispersed into neighboring tribes. Early Empires of the Mississippi. Native Americans in the Eastern Continental United States developed mound-building cultures early in North American History. Groups of native Americans became more stratified as time went on and developed into tribes. These tribes participated in long networks of trade and cultural exchanges. The importance of trade routes developed urban cities of great influence. The mound-building people were one of the earliest civilizations to emerge in North America. Beginning around 1000 BCE cultures developed that used mounds for religious and burial purposes. These mound-building people are categorized by a series of cultures that describe distinctive artwork and artifacts found in large areas throughout the present-day eastern United States. The burial mound was the principle characteristic of all of these societies. These large structures were built by piling baskets of carefully selected earth into a mound. Mounds were pyramid shaped with truncated tops. Sometimes small buildings were built on top of them. Some of these mounds were quite large. The Grave Creek Mound, in the panhandle of present day West Virginia, is nearly 70 feet tall and 300 feet in diameter. Other mounds have even been shown to be oriented in a way that allows for astronomical alignments such as solstices and equinoxes. Mound building cultures spread out in size and importance. The first culture, the Adena, lived in present-day Southern Ohio and the surrounding areas. The succeeding cultures united to create an impressive trade system that allowed each culture to influence the other. The Hopewell exchange included groups of people throughout the continental Eastern United States. There began to be considerable social stratification within these people. This organization predates the emergence of the tribe as a socio-political group of people that would dominate later eastern and western native American civilization. The climax of this civilization was the Mississippian culture. The mound-building cultures had progressed to social complexity comparable to Post-Roman, Pre-Consolidation Tribal England. Mounds became numerous and some settlements had large complexes of them. Structures were frequently built on top of the mounds. Institutional social inequalities existed, such as slavery and human sacrifice. Cahokia, near the important trade routes of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, became an influential and highly developed community. Extensive trade networks extended from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Cahokia was one of the great centers of Mississippian culture and its largest settlement of Mississippi. The focal point of the settlement was the ceremonial mound called Monk's Mound. Monk's Mound was the largest mound ever constructed by mound-building people and was nearly 100 feet tall and 900 feet long. Excavation on the top of Monk's Mound has revealed evidence of a large building - perhaps a temple - that could be seen throughout the city. The city was spread out on a large plain south of Monks mound. The city proper contained 120 mounds at varying distances from the city center. The mounds were divided into several different types, each of which may have had its own meaning and function. A circle of posts immediate to Monk's Mound marked a great variety of astronomical alignments. The city was surrounded by a series of watchtowers and occupied a diamond shape pattern that was nearly 5 miles across. At its best, the city may have contained as many as 40,000 people, making it the largest in North America. It is likely the Mississippian culture was dispersed by the onslaught of viral diseases, such as smallpox, which were brought by European explorers. Urban areas were particularly vulnerable to these diseases, and Cahokia was abandoned in the 1500's. The dispersal of tribes made it impractical to build or maintain mounds and many were found abandoned by European explorers. Contact with European Culture. Epidemics. European contact brought immediate changes in many tribes of North America. One of the most significant changes to all Indian tribes was the introduction of viral diseases and epidemics. Smallpox was probably the single biggest scourge to hit North America. Infected contagious Indians spread the plague far inland almost immediately after early encounters with European settlers. It is estimated that around 90% of all Native Americans died from diseases soon after first contact. The effects traumatized many powerful and important cultures. Urban areas were particularly vulnerable and Native American culture adapted by becoming more isolated, less unified, and with a renewed round of inter-tribal warfare as tribes seized the opportunity to gain resources once owned by rivals. Columbian Exchange. On the other hand, Europeans brought invasive plants and animals. The horse was re-introduced to America (as original paleo-American populations of wild horses from the Bering land bridge were extinct) and quickly adapted to free range on the sprawling great plains. Tribes of nomadic Native Americans were quick to see the horse's value as an increase in their mobility; allowing them to better adapt to changing conditions and as a valuable asset in warfare. Along with Europeans bringing plants and animals, the Europeans were able to take several plants such as corn, potatoes, and tomatoes back to their native countries. Review Questions. 1. Give two names for the indigenous peoples living in America, and name the circumstances behind each name. 2. What evidence do we have for the Inca, Mayan, and Aztec cultures? 3. What in the climate contributed to the rise and fall of the indigenous peoples of South-West North America?

Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Lying about your Age/Solution. Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Lying about your Age | Solution Annie - 30<br> Betty - 51<br> Carrie - 55<br> Darla - 46<br> Eve - 37 Reasoning. Symbolic. Let the ages and names of Annie, Betty, Carrie, Darla and Eve be A, B, C, D and E. C says to A, that C = A + 10. If C were younger than A, that would be lying, so C must be older than A. (But still lying.) We have A < C. C says to A, that B < D. As C > A, C is lying, so B > D. We have A < C, D < B. D says to B, that D = E + 9. As D < B, D is telling the truth, so D > E. We have A < C, E < D < B, D = E + 9. E says to B, that E = A + 7. As E < B, E is telling the truth, so E > A. We have A < C, A < E < D < B, D = E + 9, E = A + 7. Since D = E + 9 and E = A + 7, D = A + 7 + 9 = A + 16. We have A < C, A < E < D < B, D = E + 9 = A + 16, E = A + 7. B says to C, that E < C. If B > C then B would be lying, so then E > C, and then A < C < E < D < B. However, C says to D, that C = D ± 6; since C < D, this gives C = D - 6. However, we have E = D - 9, which would make E < C, giving a contradiction. The assumption that B > C is therefore false, so B < C. We have A < E < D < B < C, D = E + 9 = A + 16, E = A + 7. A says to B, that B = (17/10)A. As A < B, A is telling the truth. We have A < E < D < B < C, B = (17/10)A, D = E + 9 = A + 16, E = A + 7. B says to C, that |C - D| = |D - E| → |C - D| = 9. As B < C, B is telling the truth, so C = D + 9. As D = A + 16, C = A + 16 + 9 → C = A + 25. We have A < E < D < B < C, B = (17/10)A, C = A + 25, D = A + 16, E = A + 7. Using D < B < C, we have A + 16 < (17/10)A < A + 25 → 16 < (7/10)A < 25 → 160/7 < A < 250/7 → 22 + 6/7 < A < 35 + 5/7. Since B and A must both be whole numbers, and B = (17/10)A → B - A = (7/10)A, (7/10)A must be a whole number. Hence A must be divisible by 10. The only whole number fitting 22 + 6/7 < A < 35 + 5/7 is A = 30. We have A = 30, B = (17/10)A, C = A + 25, D = A + 16, E = A + 7. Hence A = 30, B = 51, C = 55, D = 46, E = 37. Verbal. Carrie tells Annie she's older than her by 10 years. If Carrie is younger, she's lying, and that's impossible, so Carrie must be older than Annie, just not by 10 years. FACT: Carrie is older than Annie (but not by 10 years). Carrie also lies to (younger) Annie that Betty is younger than Darla. FACT: Darla is younger than Betty. Darla tells the truth to (older) Betty that she's 9 years older than Eve. FACT: Darla is 9 years older than Eve. Eve tells the truth to (older) Betty that she's 7 years older than Annie. FACT: Eve is 7 years older than Annie. Annie tells the truth to (older) Betty that Betty's age is 70% greater than her own. For Betty's age to be a whole number, Annie's age must be a multiple of 10. Since Betty is older than Darla, and Darla is 7 + 9 = 16 years older than Annie, that means Betty has to be more than 16 years older than Annie. The lowest multiple of 7 greater than 16 is 21. FACT: Annie is at least 30 years old (and definitely a multiple of 10). At this point, Betty appears to be the oldest, lying lady. Let's assume that, and see if it works. In that case, Carrie is lying to Darla that the difference in their ages is 6 years, but Betty tells the truth to (older) Carrie that the difference between Carrie's age and Darla's is the same as the difference between Darla's and Eve's, namely, 9 years. Let's test this scenario, assuming Annie's age is 30. Then we get, from youngest to oldest: TESTING: Annie = 30, Eve = 37, Darla = 46, Betty = 51, Carrie = 55 Checking all statements and the age relations shows that this is an answer. Is this the only answer? If Annie's age was 40, then Betty's age would be 68, and Carrie's age would be 65, so Carrie would not be the oldest, and that would be a fatal flaw. If Annie is older than 30, Betty is older than Carrie, and Carrie is not the oldest. Hence, it must have been the only answer.

Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Getting out of Prison/Solution. Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Getting out of Prison | Solution "Out of the answers 'left' and 'right', which door would the other guard say doesn't lead to freedom, if I asked her?" - The answer will be the door that leads to freedom. Both guards will answer the same. OR similarly "Would the other guard tell me to go through your door to get to freedom?" If either guard says "Yes," go through the other guard's door. If either says "No," go through her door.. OR alternatively Trick question: "If I asked you whether the door you guard is the execution room, would you say yes?" If the guard you asked was guarding the freedom room, the lying guard would have said Yes to the simple question "Is this the execution room?", but when asked whether he would say yes to this simple question, he has to lie and say No to the Trick question. If the guard you asked was guarding the freedom room, the true guard would have said No to the simple question "Is this the execution room?", and when asked whether he would say yes to this simple question, he will truthfully say No to the Trick question. Thus if it is the freedom door, either guard will give the answer No to the Trick question. If the guard you asked was guarding the execution room, the lying guard would have said No to the simple question "Is this the execution room?", but when asked whether he would say yes to this simple question, he has to lie and say Yes to the Trick question. If the guard you asked was guarding the execution room, the true guard would have said Yes to the simple question "Is this the execution room?", and when asked whether he would say yes to this simple question, he will truthfully say Yes to the Trick question. Thus if it is the execution door, either guard will give the answer Yes to the Trick question. Therefore: If the answer to the trick question by the guard you ask is No - then that guard is guarding the freedom door. If the answer to the trick question by the guard you ask is Yes - then that guard is guarding the execution door. You can ask simply to the either of the guard "Is this my execution day?" If he answers "no" then you probably should take the other way out.Or if he says yes he is telling the truth and you should take the path guarded by him.

Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Hats/Solution. Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Hats | Solution The first man saw at most 1 blue hat in front of him, for if he saw 2 he would have said "red" (there are only 2 blue hats). The second man saw a red hat in front of him, for if he saw a blue hat he would have said "red" (the first man saw at most 1 blue hat). That's how the last man now knows the 2nd man saw a red hat on him.

Puzzles/How do you ... ?/The Burning Island/Solution. The man picks up a piece of wood and lights it from the fire on the west end of the island. He then carries it over to set fire to the middle of the island. Fortunately, the wind is hurricane strength, so the fire from the middle only burns the east side of the island. The man then goes to the east side of the island, where the fire from the west side can't spread, because the east side has already burned down. The man survives the fire, but dies of starvation, with all the food in the forest burnt.

Puzzles/Geometric Puzzles/Connecting Stars/Solution. *---*---*--- | \ / * * * | X * * * | /

Puzzles/Geometric Puzzles/Rubber Band/Solution 1. Puzzles | Geometric puzzles | Rubber Band | Solution 1 Stretch the rubber band, and draw a line along it on the plane. By stretching the rubber band, while holding the loose end to the nail, you can measure 4cm. By folding it again, you can measure 2cm. Similarly, you can measure 1cm and then 0.5cm. Mark the 0.5cm on the line, and using the last 0,5cm of the rubber band, mark the line you drew at 0.5cm intervals, so you can use it as a ruler. Draw two circles around the nail, with radius 1.5cm and 2cm. Using 6cm of the rubber band, make a triangle, with a corner touching each circle, and the last corner at the nail. You now have a right angle at the nail.

Puzzles/Arithmetical puzzles/Two 4s Equal 64?/Solution. < Back to Problem Some answers are formula_1, formula_2, formula_3 and formula_4.

Puzzles/Arithmetical puzzles/Three Daughters/Solution. The answer is 2, 2 and 9. The product of their ages is 36, leaving the possibilities Knowing the sum of their ages is not sufficient to determine their ages, eliminating {1,1,36} (38), {1,2,18} (21), {1,3,12} (16), {1,4,9} (14), {2,3,6} (11) and {3,3,4} (10), leaving only Knowing that there exists an eldest daughter eliminates {1,6,6}, leaving only {2,2,9}. How does knowing that there exists an eldest daughter eliminate {1,6,6}? One daughter can be older than another but both have the same age in years. Hey, questioner, we're going by the same number of years. We are taking that both daughters in the thrown out {1, 6, 6} choice are EXACTLY 6-years-old.

Puzzles/Arithmetical puzzles/Digits of the Square/Solution. Puzzles | Arithmetical puzzles | Digits of the Square | Solution Looking at the last digit, the last digit must be either 0, 1, 5 or 6. Then looking at the last two digits, the last two digits must be either 00, 01, 25 or 76. Then looking at the last three digits, the last three digits must be either 000, 001, 625 or 376. Then looking at the last four digits, the last four digits must be either 0000, 0001, 0625 or 9376. Out of those, only 9376 is a 4 digit number.

Puzzles/Decision puzzles/12 Coins/Solution. Puzzles |Decision puzzles|12 Coins|Solution You need 3 weighings. There are 12 possible places for the fake coin to be and it can either be heavy or light, leaving 24 possibilities. Each weighing can give 3 results. (One side heavier, other side heavier, or both sides equal.) 2 weighings can at most only differentiate between 9 possibilities, therefore 2 or less weighings is "not" sufficient. Label the coins with the symbols αβγδABCD$£€¤. Start at state S00. State | Weighings | Pile L | Pile R | if L<R | if L=R | if L>R | Candidates in | left | | | | | | αβγδABCD$£€¤ S00 | 3 | αβγδ | ABCD | goto S01 | goto S02 | goto S03 | ???????????? S01 | 2 | αβC | Bγδ | goto S04 | goto S05 | goto S06 | LLLLHHHH S02 | 2 | αβγ | $£€ | goto S07 | goto S08 | goto S09 | ???? S03 | 2 | αβC | Bγδ | goto S10 | goto S11 | goto S12 | HHHHLLLL S04 | 1 | α | β | α light | B heavy | β light | LL H S05 | 1 | A | D | D heavy | error | A heavy | H H S06 | 1 | γ | δ | γ light | C heavy | δ light | LL H S07 | 1 | $ | £ | £ heavy | € heavy | $ heavy | HHH S08 | 1 | α | ¤ | ¤ light | error | ¤ heavy | ? S09 | 1 | $ | £ | $ light | € light | £ light | LLL S10 | 1 | γ | δ | δ heavy | C light | γ heavy | HH L S11 | 1 | A | D | A light | error | D light | L L S12 | 1 | α | β | β heavy | B light | α heavy | HH L Reasoning. Since one of the coin is fake, and it can be lighter or heavier, that gives 2 X 12 = 24 possible answers. Also notice that each weighing can have 3 possible outcomes (left lighter, right lighter, equal), and with 3 weighting there are 33 = 27 possible outcome. Because 27 > 24, it is possible (although not certainly) to have a solution. First weighing. Suppose we put x coins on both side of the weigh, we want to ensure that no matter what the outcome is, the remaining case still satisfy the condition of possible outcomes > possible answers, otherwise the plan fails. In case the result is equal, only the coins not on weigh can be faked, since we don't know yet whether it is lighter or heavier, that leaves 2(12-2x) possible answers. With 2 weighing lefts, there are 32 = 9 possible outcomes. Hence 2(12-2x)<9. When one side is lighter, it can be that one of the coins on the lighter side is lighter, or one of the coins on the heavier side is heavier, which leaves 2x possible answers. Hence we have 2x<9. Solving the equation, we get x=4.

Puzzles/Decision puzzles/Monty Hall/Solution. Puzzles | Puzzles/Decision puzzles | Monty Hall | Solution There is a prior 1/3 chance of the door you picked being the door with the prize, and a 2/3 chance of a different door being the door with the prize. Therefore, if you want the prize, it is better to switch, and if you want a nice goat, it is better to stick with the door you chose. Reasoning. There are three doors: the door you first chose, the door that Monty opened, and the third door. Because there are two doors left, one with the prize, then one might want to believe that there is a 1/2 chance of obtaining the prize either way. However, before Monty opened any door, there was a 1/3 chance that the door contained the prize. When Monty opens a different door, you learn nothing about the door that you first chose. Thus, the chance of the door you first chose containing the prize remains 1/3, not 1/2. However, when Monty opens a door with the goat, the probability of that door containing the prize drops to 0. As the probabilities must sum to 1, and the probability of a prize at the door you first chose remains 1/3, the probability of a prize at the third door rises to 2/3. This rise in probability results only because you learned that Monty decided not to open that particular door. Calculations. Let formula_1 be the door you first picked; let formula_2 be the door which Monty opened; let formula_3 be the third and remaining door. formula_4 is a car or other prize and formula_5 is any goat. Suppose you choose the third door formula_3, then what is the probability formula_7 that this door contains the prize? formula_8 Line-by-line, these equations state: Intuitively this means that in 2/3 of the cases we initially pick a goat and the entertainer shows us where the car is by revealing the other goat. Only in 1/3 of the cases we picked the car initially and by changing our decision we pick a goat.

Puzzles/Action sequences/Sharing Milk/Solution. Puzzles | Action sequences | Sharing Milk | Solution

Puzzles/Action sequences/Crossing the River/Solution. Puzzles | Action sequences | Crossing the River | Solution Label the farmer F, wolf W, goat G, cabbage C, river . and boat < >. FWGC < >... W C ..<FG>.. W C ...< > F G W C ..<F >.. G FW C < >... G C ..<FW>.. G On this trip, the farmer can take either the Wolf or the cabbage. All else ... remains the same. C ...< > FWG C ..<FG>.. W F GC < >... W G ..<FC>.. W G ...< > FW C G ..<F >.. W C F G < >... W C ..<FG>.. W C ...< > FWGC

Puzzles/Action sequences/Crossing the River II/Solution. Puzzles | Action sequences | Crossing the River II | Solution Label the fathers A, B and C, the sons a, b and c, river . and boat < >. AaBbCc < >... A B Cc ..<ab>.. A B Cc ...< > a b A B Cc ..<b >.. a A BbCc < >... a A B C ..<bc>.. a A B C ...< > a b c A B C ..<c >.. a b A B Cc < >... a b Cc ..<AB>.. a b Cc ...< > AaBb Cc ..<Bb>.. Aa BbCc < >... Aa b c ..<BC>.. Aa b c ...< > AaB C b c ..<a >.. A B C a b c < >... A B C c ..<ab>.. A B C c ...< > AaBbC c ..<C >.. AaBb Cc < >... AaBb ...<Cc>. AaBb ...< > AaBbCc

Puzzles/Medium Sequence 1/Solution. The sequence is an = A(n,n), starting at a0. (A is of course the Ackermann function.) So the next number in the sequence is formula_1.

Puzzles/Geometric Puzzles/Matchsticks. Puzzles | Geometric puzzles | Matchsticks You have 6 unit length matchsticks, and you urgently need to make 4 triangles with unit length sides. You can't use anything except matchsticks to make the triangles, and the matchsticks are indestructable and non-replicable. How do you solve the dilemma? Solution

Puzzles/Geometric Puzzles/Matchsticks/Solution. Arrange the six matchsticks along the edges of a , or triangular pyramid. The matchsticks will form 4 triangular faces.

Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Three Knights. Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Three Knights A man was sentenced to death, but the king wanted to give him a last chance. He asked the man to choose from one of the three knights that were there. One of the knights was the Knight of Life, and he always told the truth. The second Knight was the Knight of Death, and he always told lies. The third knight was the Knight of the Dungeon. He sometimes lied and sometimes told the truth. If the man chose the Knight of Death, he would be executed before sunset. If he chose the Knight of Life, he would be acquitted and set free right away. If he chose the Knight of the Dungeon, he would spend the rest of his life imprisoned in the Dungeon. The man was allowed to ask the three knights one question each. Thus, he asked the fat knight, "What is the name of this tall knight?" The reply was, "He is the Knight of Life." He asked the small knight, "What is the name of this tall knight?" The reply was, "He is the Knight of Death." Then he asked the tall knight, "Who are you?" "I am the Knight of the Dungeon" was the reply. After that, the man was able to correctly choose the Knight of Life, and was set free immediately. "Who is the Knight of Life, and who are the other two knights?" Solution

Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Three Knights/Solution. Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Three Knights | Solution The small knight is the Knight of Life. The fat knight is the Knight of the Dungeon. The tall knight is the Knight of Death. Reasoning. The tall knight is not the Knight of the Dungeon, since if he were neither of the other knights could be the Knight of Life. Since he lied, he is not the Knight of Life. Therefore, the tall knight is the Knight of Death. The small knight must then be the Knight of Life, leaving the fat knight as the Knight of the Dungeon. Provided the fat knight tells the truth he can not be the Knight of Life as he is pointing out the tall knight as Knight of Life. The answer of the tall knight contradicts the answer of the fat knight. Therefore, the fat knight was lying. The tall knight can not be the Knight of Life, because he would have said so when directly asked, who he is. We can conclude that the small knight is the Knight of Life and he is pointing out the tall Knight as Knight of Death as he is always telling the truth. The last job position left for the fat knight is the Knight of Dungeon. The convict can be happy that the tall knight did not answer: 'Yes, I am the Knight of Life'. In this context, it would have been possible and would have left our convict very unfortunate, because his chance to find the Knight of Life would have been reduced by 50% A better tactic would be to ask each Knight: "If I asked you who the Knight of Life was, whom might you identify?" The Knight of Life would correctly identify himself. If asked "Who is the Knight of Life?" the Knight of Death would incorrectly identify either himself or the Knight of the Dungeon. Hence, when asked how he might respond, he would lie again, and state that he would have identified the correct Knight of Life (double negative). The Knight of the Dungeon is the unknown quantity, but when at least two Knights agree on someone, that is the correct identification. Unfortunately not foolproof, as if he would have identified the Knight of the Dungeon for his first lie, he could then pick to instead identify the Knight of Death for his second lie.

US History/Introduction. __NOEDITSECTION__ Presentation.     Content and Contributions. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the world's first open content US History Textbook. The users are invited to tweak and refine this book until there is nothing better available. The authors are confident that this will happen because of the success of the Wikipedia site.

Python Programming. This book describes Python, an open-source general-purpose interpreted programming language available for the most popular operating systems. The current versions are 3.x while versions 2.x are no longer supported, since 2020. This book describes primarily the versions 3.x, but does at times reference versions 2.x. There are a few implementations for Python 3 (and older): the standard implementation written in C, and PyPy, a JIT-compiled version written in RPython - a subset of Python. For Python 2 only there are Jython written in Java and IronPython written in C# for the .NET environment.

Puzzles/Hard Sequence 1/Solution. The answer is 76. Rule: T T=L²+LR+1 mod 100 L R

Puzzles/Hard Sequence 2/Solution. The answer is 68. Rule: T T=L²-LR+1 mod 100 L R

Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Pizzas. Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Pizzas Aaron, Betty, Charlie, Debbie, and Eric each ordered a pizza with three of the following five toppings: green pepper, mushrooms, onions, pepperoni, and sausage. The only topping that Aaron and Charlie had in common was sausage. The only topping Debbie and Eric had in common was pepperoni. The only topping Charlie and Betty had in common was mushrooms. The only topping Debbie and Betty had in common was green pepper. "Which toppings did each of them have on their pizza?" Solution

Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Pizzas/Solution. Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Pizzas | Solution Aaron - green pepper, onions and sausage Betty - green pepper, mushrooms and onions Charlie - mushrooms, pepperoni and sausage Debbie - green pepper, pepperoni and sausage Eric - mushrooms, onions and pepperoni Reasoning. We are informed that B and D had green pepper, B and C had mushrooms, D and E had pepperoni and A and C had sausage, all marked with a Y. | A | B | C | D | E Green Pep | | Y | | Y | Mushrooms | | Y | Y | | Onions | | | | | Pepperoni | | | | Y | Y Sausage | Y | | Y | | We are also informed that the pairs B and D, B and C, D and E, and A and C, didn't share anything, except what is already marked with a Y. This eliminates the possibilities marked with an N. | A | B | C | D | E Green Pep | | Y | N | Y | N Mushrooms | N | Y | Y | N | Onions | | | | | Pepperoni | | N | | Y | Y Sausage | Y | N | Y | | Knowing everyone had 3 toppings allows us to place another Y. | A | B | C | D | E Green Pep | | Y | N | Y | N Mushrooms | N | Y | Y | N | Onions | | Y | | | Pepperoni | | N | | Y | Y Sausage | Y | N | Y | | And we know B didn't share with C or D. | A | B | C | D | E Green Pep | | Y | N | Y | N Mushrooms | N | Y | Y | N | Onions | | Y | N | N | Pepperoni | | N | | Y | Y Sausage | Y | N | Y | | Allowing us to place 2 more Ys. | A | B | C | D | E Green Pep | | Y | N | Y | N Mushrooms | N | Y | Y | N | Onions | | Y | N | N | Pepperoni | | N | Y | Y | Y Sausage | Y | N | Y | Y | D didn't share with E, A didn't share with C. | A | B | C | D | E Green Pep | | Y | N | Y | N Mushrooms | N | Y | Y | N | Onions | | Y | N | N | Pepperoni | N | N | Y | Y | Y Sausage | Y | N | Y | Y | N This allows us to place the remaining 4 Ys. | A | B | C | D | E Green Pep | Y | Y | N | Y | N Mushrooms | N | Y | Y | N | Y Onions | Y | Y | N | N | Y Pepperoni | N | N | Y | Y | Y Sausage | Y | N | Y | Y | N Surprisingly, no one chose green pepper, onions and pepperoni.

Organic Chemistry/Book outline. Authors' To-Do Lists Organic chemistry > Organic textbook expanded contents Foreword Foundational concepts of organic chemistry Introduction to reactions Overview of Functional Groups Alkenes Alkynes Haloalkanes Alcohols Chirality Dienes Aromaticity Aromatic reactions Spectroscopy Organometallics Chemistry of various functional groups Organic chemistry and biochemistry Periodic table Lewis structures Nomenclature Isomers Structure and properties Reactions Chirality

Puzzles/Arithmetical puzzles/Luxury Cars. Puzzles | Arithmetical puzzles | Luxury Cars A major luxury car company has three outlets on the east coast (in New York, Boston, and Miami) and two outlets on the west coast (in Los Angeles and San Francisco). The sales in Los Angeles were one quarter of the total sales plus one car. The sales in New York were one quarter of the rest (not counting the cars sold in L.A.) plus one car. The sales in San Francisco were one quarter of the rest (not counting L.A., N.Y.) plus one car. And the sales in Boston were one quarter of the rest (not counting L.A., N.Y., S.F.) plus one car. The balance so far showed that L.A. and San Francisco sold 100 cars more than N.Y. and Boston. However, with the remaining cars sold in Miami it is likely that the total sales of the east coast will be greater than the total sales of the west coast. "How many cars were sold in each city?" solution

Puzzles/Geometric Puzzles/Connecting Utilities. Puzzles | Geometric puzzles | Connecting Utilities Here is a problem; you are commissioned to connecting utilities to the three houses A, B, and C below. The utilities are G for gas, W for water, and E for electricity. |A| |B| |C| [G] [W] [E] You must connect each house to each utility without the connections crossing at all. Solution

Puzzles/Geometric Puzzles/Connecting Utilities/Solution. Puzzles | Geometric puzzles | Connecting Utilities | Solution This problem can be analyzed using graph theory. The problem is essentially showing that the bipartite graph K3,3 is planar. However, "Kuratowski's theorem" tells us that this graph must "not" be planar. Essentially, there is no solution and the required construction "cannot" be done! Sorry! :) However, if we look at where the three houses and utilities are on a "non-planar" surface, such as a "torus" (or doughnut), we obtain some topological niceties that allow us to solve this problem. Here is an example of one solution. Lines moving off the torus and looping around are signified with a V. ==V===V=V==V====V=====V===V====== : | /-\' | | /-\' | /-\' : : | |A| | | |B| | |C| : : |__/ | | \_| |___/ | | : : | \____________/ | : : \______ ________/ : : | | : : [G]---\ [W] [E] : ======V=V==V=====V=====V==V==V=== Here is a picture with forks, essentially equivalent to parallel connections The solution usually given to this puzzle depends upon the fact that the puzzle, as stated, does not prohibit one of the connections going under a house (for example, the gas connection for A is routed G->pass under B->A). This appears to be topologically equivalent to the above(?).

Polish/Some useful expressions. ^ Polish ^ As an initiation to Polish it's useful to know a few common expressions: ^ Polish ^ ]

Polish/Basic sentences 1. ^ Polish ^ This question is used to ask about things/objects and refers mostly to both plural and singular, although the answers vary depending on the number: eg. " - Co to jest?" " - To jest książka." / "to yest kshõshka" / > This is a book. " - Co to jest?" " - To są książki." / "to sõ kshõshki" / > These are (some) books. To get information about a person, you need to use "kto?" / who? /: The possible answers are: eg. " - Kto to jest?" " - To jest człowiek." /"to yest chwovyek"/ This is a man/human. " - Kto to jest?" " - To są ludzie." /"to sõ looje"/ These are people. The following sentences may be employed to introduce your family or friends to someone: ^ Polish ^

Polish/Polish pronunciation. ^ Polish ^ Polish pronunciation is rather regular. Once you learn the rules, you should be able to guess how a word is pronounced and get it more or less right even if you've never heard it before (unlike English which is rather unpredictable). Vowels are pronounced similarly to their counterparts in most other European languages (not English though) but note, there are no long vowels. Stress is almost always on the penultimate (next-to-last) syllable. Special letters are: Special letter combos are: See also. ^ Polish ^

Polish/More on nouns - genders. Depending on the classification chosen, there are either three or five genders in Polish: In the plural, "męskoosobowy" (masculine-personal) and "niemęskoosobowy" (non-masculine-personal) are used for masculine personal nouns and the remaining ones respectively. Unlike German, and more like Italian, it is usually possible to determine the gender of a noun by looking at its ending and meaning. Now, here are some examples: ^ Polish ^

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Oxidation reactions. Intro to oxidation reactions. Oxidation reactions involve electron loss in the moeity of interest. When iron rusts, iron atoms lose electrons to oxygen molecules, and is said to undergo oxidation. Ozonolysis. This is one of the simplest and easiest reaction mechanisms to learn. In ozonolysis, a carbon-carbon double bond is split in two by reaction with ozone. The two products, which can be aldehydes or ketones, each have one oxygen atom double bonded to each of the two carbons that had made up the double bond. The ozone (O3) cuts right thru the carbon-carbon double bond and leaves oxygens double bonded to the two newly severed ends. that is, Osmylation. In this reaction, a carbon-carbon double bond turns into a single bond with one hydroxy group attached to each of the two carbons. When heated, this product splits into two ketones (each of the two carbons ends up double bonded to the oxygen in the hydroxy group). Epoxidation (peroxidation). This reaction uses peroxides (an oxide with an extra linked oxygen) to produce epoxides.

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Reactions. Added links

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Combustion. Combustion is the simplest and most basic organic reaction, so simple that it is often overlooked or taken for granted in organic chemistry texts and classes. Combustion is the breakdown of a compound in combination with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Water and carbon dioxide are both very stable and low-energy, and the atoms that make up these molecules go to form them releasing energy. This energy is heat and light that is the source for campfires and internal combustion engines.

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Hydrogenation. The result of hydrogenation reactions is to increase the number of hydrogens on a molecule. The recipient molecule is typically an alkene whose double bond is reduced by the addition of a hydrogen to each of the two carbons. The mechanism of this reaction is usually through a catalyst, such as Nickel, Platinum (used in PtO2, otherwise known as Adams' Catalyst after Roger Adams) or Palladium (Pd) that is mixed onto an inert material like charcoal (sometimes referred to as Palladium on carbon). The reaction takes place not within a solution but actually specifically on the surface of the catalyst. First the H2 gas is absorbed onto the catalyst surface. The Alkene forms a complex with the catalyst surface due to the vacancy of the orbital on the metal interacting with the filled π orbital. Thus we have a structure that looks somewhat like this: Once the complex is formed the hydrogen is able to apply itself to the double bond twice and then the final product is fully saturated and floats away from the catalyst, thus regenerating it. Hydrocarbons are of two types, aliphatic and aromatic. There are different methods to identify a hydrocarbon, if no of C atoms: 1 then Meth.

Spanish/Exercises/Preterite. ^Lesson 7^ Rellena los espacios en blanco - "Fill in the blank". 1. Colón __________ "(descubrir)" América en 1492. 2. Yo __________ "(dejar)" mi trabajo la semana pasada. 3. Anoche, los estudiantes __________ "(tener)" una gran fiesta. 4. Ayer, nosotros __________ "(ir)" a la playa. 5. El año pasado, Isabel y José se __________ "(casar)". 6. Ayer, Carlos no __________ "(venir)" a la universidad. 7. Anoche, yo __________ "(mirar)" la televisión. 8. Tú ________ "(asistir)" dos cursos esta mañana. 9. Alberto __________ "(comprar)" un carro el mes pasado. 10. ¡Felicitaciones! Vosotros __________ "(ganar)" el campeonato. Soluciones a los ejercicios ^Lesson7^

Indonesian/Link Words. ^ Indonesian ^ Kata Penghubung - "Conjunctions / Filler". Tapi - "But". Kata ini memiliki beberapa bentuk - "This has several forms" Kalau / Jika - "If / When". The words Kalau and Jika are interchangeable Meski / Meskipun - "Although". Synonymous to walau and walaupun. Jadi / Maka - "So/Therefore". The phrase maka dari itu is very often used to mean "therefore". Agar - "So that / In order to". Synonymous with "supaya". It is often used together "agar supaya" to mean "in order to", but using either one is fine. Saja - "Only / Just)". Synonymous with "hanya". However, if both are being used together as one phrase (i.e. in hanya saja), it means "however", or rather "the catch is". Lagi - "Again". If it is used in the front of the sentence, we should use the phrase sekali lagi or lagi-lagi to mean "again", or rather "one more time". Lagipula - "Moreover". <hr> ^ Indonesian ^

Indonesian/Lessons/Introduction. ^ Indonesian ^ | Why Learn Indonesian? |How to use this Indonesian Wikibook » Why Learn Indonesian. Hi, welcome to this Indonesian tutorial. You might be wondering why on earth you should learn Indonesian. Allow me to persuade you. Demographic Reasons. Studying Indonesian means you can communicate with more than 240 million Indonesians, only a small percentage of whom are able to speak English. Bahasa Malaysia is also a close relative to Indonesian. You can understand both with ease since there are only minor differences in vocabulary. Therefore, learning Indonesian gives access to about 230 million people—including those in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei. Indonesian (or commonly called as 'Bahasa Indonesia' or simply 'Bahasa') has been taught in schools in Australia, the Netherlands, and Vietnam. In Timor-Leste, although Portuguese and Tetum are official languages, Indonesian is also important as working language as Timor-Leste was part of Indonesia from 1976 until their independence in 1999. Practical Reasons. Indonesian is derived from Malay, a language of South Sumatra which was broadly used for trade purposes in the Malay World (now Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Singapore) for centuries. When Indonesians began their fight for independence from the Dutch, the Malay language was renamed "Bahasa Indonesia" (it was renamed in 1928, while Indonesia proclaimed its independence in 1945). In Malaysia the national language is referred to as "Bahasa Malaysia". Indonesian is thus a variant of Malay. Not even half of Indonesians are native speakers of the Indonesian language, especially those living in rural areas. Many have as a mother tongue one of a diverse array of local languages, including Javanese, Balinese, Sundanese, Madurese, Buginese, Batak, Minangkabau, or various Chinese dialects. But most Indonesians can speak Indonesian at least as a second language; it is taught in schools and understood even in the most remote islands. What a remarkably versatile language Indonesian is! It is the language of education across the country, from the primary school to the university. It is the language of government and business administration, media, literature, and of everyday life in the big cities. It is a must for foreigners living in Indonesia. And if you are on a business trip to Jakarta, or on vacation in Bali, knowing some Indonesian can really enrich the experience. For those who are just curious language learners or those with a scholarly bent, Indonesian has an immense collection of literature. Linguistic Reasons. Indonesian is very easy—honest! Learning it is a valuable experience in itself, and you can pick up the basics within a few weeks. Here's why it is easy: I hope now you can see why Indonesian is worth learning. The Catch. Now, the catch is that every language has a culture attached to it. Indonesian is no exception. Since the way Indonesian people think differs from most westerners, there are some hurdles in learning it. For example, most western people prefer active sentences, while Indonesians usually prefer passive sentences and omit the subject if it is not important. Also, in spoken Indonesian, the formal grammatical rules are often broken by lots of shortcuts, usually specific to the region, not to mention slang words and idioms. However, all Indonesians that have finished grade school should be able to speak and comprehend proper Indonesian.

High School Mathematics Extensions/Primes. » Next section: Modular Arithmetic

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Bond dissociation energy. The bond dissociation energy, or bond enthalpy, for a diatomic molecule X-Y is defined as the energy required to break one mole of X-Y bonds, as illustrated in the following process... Bond enthalpies always refer to breaking bonds under gaseous conditions. The mean molar bond enthalpy is an average value that is quoted for a bond that can occur in different molecular environments. An example is methane, CH4 Bond enthalpy values are used in Hess's Law Calculations. The standard enthalpy of a reaction can be found by considering the bond enthalpies of the products and reactants of the reaction - For stronger bonds, bond dissociation energy is higher as more energy is needed to break the bond. A carbon-carbon double bond is stronger than a single bond and requires more energy to be broken. However, a carbon-carbon double bond is not twice as strong as a single one, it is only 1.5 times stronger. All chemical bonds need an input of energy to be broken, as bonds allow a lower energy state for the component atoms. If a bond did not offer a lower energy state for the atoms that form it, a bond would not form.

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Rates and equilibria. Chemical equilibria are ratios relating the forward and backward direction of a reaction to each other. This ratio is represented by the letter K in the following equation: K = products / reactants Rate of reaction. Definitions. Rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, expressed as moles per unit time and unit volume. The rate "r" of a general reaction formula_1 is defined by: formula_2 from the expression above, it is clear that the usual convention is that reaction rate is taken as products formation rate. Rate is a function of the concentration of reactants and products, temperature, pressure and presence of a catalyst. Rate expression. A common expression for reaction rate is the "power law": formula_3 formula_4 is called the "kinetic constant", and formula_5, formula_6, etc. are called the "reaction order with respect to the reactant A, B" (or the "partial order of A, B" etc.), respectively. The sum of all the orders is the "global order" of the rate expression. Therefore the rate expression formula_7 is a "second-order" and "first-order" in A and B. The reaction orders are the same as the stoichiometric coefficient in the case of an elementary reaction only; in most cases they must be determined experimentally and are valid in the window of experimental conditions. Elementary data on reaction orders can be obtained by changing the concentration C of one of the reactant, say A, and measuring the initial rate r. Plotting a rate vs concentration log-log graph, one obtains a straight line whose slope is the partial order in—say—A by virtue of the relation formula_8 Influence of temperature and pressure. formula_9 as known as the equation Rate equations and reaction mechanisms. The most important research application of kinetic investigations is the determination of reaction mechanisms. In fact, the rate expression is "function" of it. From a postulated reaction mechanism (the "model"), a rate equation can be derived and used to analyse the experimental data. If the obtained fit is not statistically significant, the scheme is rejected. In complex systems, several schemes can produce compatible rate expressions and the problem of model discrimination is of primary importance. Limiting step. Often a reaction has two or more steps. One of the steps, usually the last one, is the slowest step, and is said to be "rate-limiting". Steady state approximation. Sometimes it is useful, when calculating the reaction rate, to assume that no particular step is rate-limiting. Instead, the reaction intermediate can either proceed to the product or return to the original reactant with an equal rate for either possibility. This is called the "steady-state approximation". Example. A classical example is the hydrolysis of haloalkanes: This reaction can occur by two mechanisms: the SN1 and SN. The former is a unimolecular substitution: its rate is determined only by the concentration of R-X, without regard to the concentration of the new substituent. The latter is bimolecular: its rate is first-order in both R-X and new substituent, for a combined rate order of 2. Equilibrium. Chemical equilibrium is the state when a net reaction is neither going forward nor backward. It is a "dynamic" equilibrium. The rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, so the two cancel each other out, and the "net" rate of change is zero. The chemical equilibrium is dictated by the equilibrium constant (often written "Keq"), expressed by the "mass-action law": formula_10 The concentration "C" can be expressed in any scale, e.g. molar franction, molarity, partial pressure. If the temperature and pressure are kept constant, no matter what are the initial concentrations, the system will evolve until the mass-action product is equal to the Keq. In general, systems with formula_11 are highly displaced to the reactant sides (almost no conversion at equilibrium), whereas when formula_12 the reaction goes to completion. From classical thermodynamics it can be showed that the following relation holds: formula_13 where formula_14 is the total change in Gibbs free energy with reaction (product minus reactants). Influence of temperature. The influence of temperature can be obtained by differentiation of the equation above to lead: formula_15 as known as the " equation". Therefore, for exothermic reaction (formula_16) an increase in temperature will decrease the formula_17 quantity, leading to a lower "Keq" , conversely for an endothermic reaction.

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Energy diagrams. Energy diagrams are used to show the favorability of a reaction. They show how energy gained or lost in the different stages of a reaction and show which stages are the slow and fast steps (slow steps have high potential energy). We can also compare the energies of one reaction to another in order to see which reaction will be favored. Transition states are high peaks in an energy diagram. If the end of the diagram is lower than the beginning, the product of the reaction is more stable and/or lower in energy than the starting materials, and the overall reaction is energetically favorable. If the tail end of the energy diagram is higher than the front, then the product is less stable or energetically favorable than the starting materials, and the overall reaction is energetically unfavorable. Any high peaks in the diagram indicate difficult points to pass and will slow down the reaction.

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Hydrohalogenation. <br>"A simple alkene undergoing hydrohalogenation" Alkenes are electron-rich. Just look at those electrons all clumped together in the carbon-carbon double bond. They act as (they give up electrons). Hydrohalogenation follows Markovnikov's rule. That is, the carbon of the double bond that starts out more substituted receives the halogen (becomes more substituated) while the carbon of the double bond that starts out less substituted ends up with the hydrogen. <br>"He who has, gets: This is another alkene illustrating hydrohalogenation. Notice how the more highly substituated carbon ends up with the X-" The H+ is attracted to the electron-rich double bond and adds first, on the carbon with more hydrogens, leaving the other carbon with a positive charge (a carbocation). Then the X- reacts with the carbocation. Read about Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov on "Wikipedia".

Calculus/Series. Introduction. A "series" is the sum of a sequence of terms. An "infinite series" is the sum of an infinite number of terms (the actual sum of the series need not be infinite, as we will see below). An "arithmetic series" is the sum of a sequence of terms with a "common difference" (the difference between consecutive terms). For example: is an arithmetic series with common difference 3, since formula_2, formula_3, and so forth. A geometric series is the sum of terms with a common ratio. For example, an interesting series which appears in many practical problems in science, engineering, and mathematics is the geometric series formula_4 where the formula_5 indicates that the series continues indefinitely. A common way to study a particular series (following Cauchy) is to define a sequence consisting of the sum of the first formula_6 terms. For example, to study the geometric series we can consider the sequence which adds together the first n terms: Generally by studying the sequence of partial sums we can understand the behavior of the entire infinite series. Two of the most important questions about a series are: For example, it is fairly easy to see that for formula_8, the geometric series formula_9 will not converge to a finite number (i.e., it will diverge to infinity). To see this, note that each time we increase the number of terms in the series, formula_9 increases by formula_11, since formula_12 for all formula_8 (as we defined), formula_9 must increase by a number greater than one every term. When increasing the sum by more than one for every term, it will diverge. Perhaps a more surprising and interesting fact is that for formula_15, formula_9 will converge to a finite value. Specifically, it is possible to show that Indeed, consider the quantity Since formula_19 as formula_20 for formula_15, this shows that formula_22 as formula_20. The quantity formula_24 is non-zero and doesn't depend on formula_6 so we can divide by it and arrive at the formula we want. We'd like to be able to draw similar conclusions about any series. Unfortunately, there is no simple way to sum a series. The most we will be able to do in most cases is determine if it converges. The geometric and the telescoping series are the only types of series we can easily find the sum of. Convergence. It is obvious that for a series to converge, the formula_26 must tend to zero (because sum of an infinite number of terms all greater than any given positive number will be infinity), but even if the limit of the sequence is 0, this is not sufficient to say it converges. Consider the harmonic series, the sum of formula_27, and group terms This final sum contains "m" terms. As "m" tends to infinity, so does the sum, hence the series diverges. We can also deduce something about how quickly it diverges. Using the same grouping of terms, we can get an upper limit on the sum of the first so many terms, the "partial sums". or and the partial sums increase like formula_31, very slowly. Comparison test. The argument above, based on considering upper and lower bounds on terms, can be modified to provide a general-purpose test for convergence and divergence called the "comparison test" (or "direct comparison test"). It can be applied to any series with nonnegative terms: There are many such tests for convergence and divergence, the most important of which we will describe below. Absolute convergence. Theorem: If the series of absolute values, formula_38, converges, then so does the series formula_39 We say such a series "converges absolutely". Proof: Let formula_40 According to the Cauchy criterion for series convergence, exists formula_41 so that for all formula_42 : We know that: And then we get: Now we get: Which is exactly the Cauchy criterion for series convergence. formula_47 "The converse does not hold." The series formula_48 converges, even though the series of its absolute values diverges. A series like this that converges, but not absolutely, is said to "converge conditionally." If a series converges absolutely, we can add terms in any order we like. The limit will still be the same. If a series converges conditionally, rearranging the terms changes the limit. In fact, we can make the series converge to any limit we like by choosing a suitable rearrangement. E.g., in the series formula_48, we can add only positive terms until the partial sum exceeds 100, subtract 1/2, add only positive terms until the partial sum exceeds 100, subtract 1/4, and so on, getting a sequence with the same terms that converges to 100. This makes absolutely convergent series easier to work with. Thus, all but one of convergence tests in this chapter will be for series all of whose terms are positive, which must be absolutely convergent or divergent series. Other series will be studied by considering the corresponding series of absolute values. Ratio test. For a series with terms formula_26, if then E.g., suppose then so this series converges. Integral test. If formula_58 is a monotonically decreasing, always positive function, then the series converges if "and only if" the integral converges. E.g., consider formula_61, for a fixed formula_62. The integral converges, for formula_65, so the series converges. We can prove this test works by writing the integral as and comparing each of the integrals with rectangles, giving the inequalities Applying these to the sum then shows convergence. Limit comparison test. Given an infinite series formula_34 with positive terms only, if one can find another infinite series formula_32 with positive terms for which for a positive and finite formula_72 (i.e., the limit exists and is not zero), then the two series either both converge or both diverge. That is, "Example:" For large formula_6, the terms of this series are similar to, but smaller than, those of the harmonic series. We compare the limits. so this series diverges. Alternating series. Given an infinite series formula_34, if the signs of the formula_26 alternate, that is if for all "n" or for all formula_6, then we call it an "alternating series." The alternating series test states that such a series converges if and (that is, the magnitude of the terms is decreasing). Note that this test "cannot" lead to the conclusion that the series diverges; if one cannot conclude that the series converges, this test is inconclusive, although other tests may, of course, be used to give a conclusion. Estimating the sum of an alternating series. The absolute error that results in using a partial sum of an alternating series to estimate the final sum of the infinite series is smaller than the magnitude of the first omitted term. Geometric series. The geometric series can take either of the following forms As you have seen at the start, the sum of the geometric series is Telescoping series. Expanding (or "telescoping") this type of series is informative. If we expand this series, we get: Additive cancellation leaves: Thus, and all that remains is to evaluate the limit. There are other tests that can be used, but these tests are sufficient for all commonly encountered series.

Introduction to Philosophy. "What am I, really? Are my actions good? How can I know?" Some of the most fundamental questions of life cannot be answered by a physical experiment. Instead, they live inside the realm of thought experiments, being examined through rigorous arguments and logic instead. The field of philosophy is broad, and the boundaries are fuzzy. In fact, some may even argue that the question of what philosophy is, is a deep philosophical question in and of itself. Even so, one common thread connects it all: philosophy is an attempt to explain our experiences and rationalize our choices in a "rational", "critical", and "systematic" fashion. This is different from religion or doctrine, which asserts that one view and understanding of the world is the correct one, without asking for proof. But it is also different from science, in that philosophy attempts to answer those questions that fundamentally cannot be answered through physical experiments or numeric simulations. Even so, it also shares many similarities with science: both require logic and rigorous argument to understand the world. Indeed, science and philosophy go hand in hand, both depending on each other and complementing each other's strengths. Philosophy is commonly divided into several subdisciplines or branches: the study of reasoning (logic), the study of knowledge (epistemology), the study of the features of reality (metaphysics), and the study of morality (ethics). Many other branches exist beyond these core branches, and each of these requires an introduction of its own. It is easy to get lost in philosophy as a deep and tangled rabbit hole. It is not a discipline that gives answers plain-and-simple. In a sense, it is the art of asking the right questions, and learning things from that. As such, for the sake of introducing you to the concepts of philosophy, we will approach the subject with small, tangible steps, and instead show how to think like a philosopher before diving into deeper questions. = Table of Contents = Logic. Before we are ready to ask questions, we must first understand how to go about reasoning about them. In this chapter, we will lay out the basics of "logic", the study of reasoning. Epistemology. Once one starts to ask the first questions, it becomes quickly apparent that many conclusions are based on presumptions that we have simply always assumed to be correct. But how do we know for sure that those assumptions are indeed correct? What if what we believe is false? Can we verify our knowledge by critically analyzing each and every assumption we have? These, and many more such questions, form the basis of "epistemology", the study of knowledge. Metaphysics. With the unstable foundations of epistemology under our feet, and the sturdy tools of logic in our hands, we can take a look at reality itself. What is the nature of this existence we live in? How can we define the things inside? What is a person, exactly? Do we have free will? Although you may already be convinced of clear and seemingly intuitive answers for each of these questions, challenge your understanding by thinking rigorously. These deceptively simple questions quickly become very complex, and our attempts to answer them give great insight into the nature of reality. This is the realm of "metaphysics", a complex field aimed at answering questions about existence itself, and many things related to it. Ethics. Building on top of the previous chapters, we now proceed to perhaps the most directly applicable discipline to our daily lives: "ethics", the study of morality. What is good, and what is evil? Can something be "objectively" good, or is morality subjective? What choices should I make in my life? As with all such themes, these simple questions have complex, often incomplete answers. Different schools of thought build upon different core principles, and although they may appear to be similarly virtuous, the moral choices made by each of the schools of thought can conflict in fascinating ways. Appendices. __NOEDITSECTION__

Introduction to Philosophy/Authors/MK. This book, Introduction to Philosophy, was initiated by RMK (who also plans to complete it). The original version of the book was begun on October 22, 2003, making it the first wikibook about philosophy. Of course, this is just an outline at the moment, but "the journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step"...

Introduction to Philosophy/What is Philosophy?. "Philosophy" is a word with numerous vastly differing definitions, ranging broadly and not always compatible with each other. Today, it is perhaps most often thought of as meaning an individual's set of guiding principles, mostly moral, that he refers to in planning out and living his life. However, philosophy as an intellectual or academic pursuit has little do with this, meaning rather something along the lines of: "The directed search for knowledge and systems of knowledge that explain topical phenomena such as the nature of existence, the causes of existence, the nature and causes of an individual, the nature and causes of knowledge itself, and a million other things." What these million other things are constitutes the essence, or "feel", of philosophy as a subject, and of what differentiates it from other kinds of directed research such as physics, biology, or even music -- all of which were at one point considered aspects of philosophy itself. As you read on, you'll develop a sense of these questions as they've evolved in the Western canon, and of how philosophy fits in with the entirety of human intellectual pursuits. Western philosophy as we know it today is generally considered to have originated in Ancient Greece, from the people's cosmogonical or "world-creation" myths. Thales of Miletus brought back kernels of knowledge from Ancient Egypt, which over time the Greeks developed into the earliest philosophy that remains recognizably such today. It is not surprising, then, that the term "philosophy" finds its roots in the Greek language. "Philo-" stems from the Greek word "philein", meaning 'to love', and "-sophy" comes from the Greek word "sophia", or wisdom. Philosophy, then, can be thought of as "the love of wisdom". Consequently, philosophers concern themselves with exploring some of the biggest questions that face humankind: What exists? What is real? What is the nature of the universe? Does God exist? Do humans have souls? What is knowledge? What is truth? How should individuals govern themselves? What is the nature of consciousness? Like many other fields of inquiry, philosophical questions spring from a certain kind of curiosity about life and reality. Much of philosophy confronts very abstract ideas and thus, unlike in other academic disciplines such as the sciences, philosophers cannot always rely on gathering empirical data through experimentation. Of course, there are numerous other techniques available to the philosopher, including formal logic, thought experiments, rational dissertation, colloquy, phenomenological analysis, and more. [The pursuit of philosophical wisdom can be understood as a quest for two different kinds of wisdom. Aristotle characterized these as theoretical wisdom and practical wisdom. The first sort seeks understanding primarily for its own sake, whereas the latter is concerned with understanding in order to "do". The distinction is not unlike those in other fields. The physicist attempts to understand matter and motion simply for the sake of extending the limits human knowledge, but the engineer attempts to understand matter and motion in order to "make" something useful. The philosopher who attempts to understand the metaphysical nature of the universe is concerned with a more theoretical area of philosophical inquiry, while his or her colleague who tries to understand the proper way for businesses to behave ethically, is pursuing a much more practical subject matter. Philosophy that concerns itself with these sorts of practical questions is usually called "Applied Philosophy".] Philosophy is perhaps unique in its lack of limitation regarding subject matter. Almost every conceivable idea has been or will be tackled by philosophy, and among those that aren't, most are areas of philosophy that matured sufficiently to break off from the discipline proper and form a new field of study: physics was once called "natural philosophy." In addition, philosophers typically ask questions that touch on almost every other field of academic inquiry. In fact, one major role of philosophy is to provide the underpinning for just about every other field of study, everything from the rules governing research in that field to its relationship to the other fields of human endeavor. As a result, most universities offer courses in the "philosophy of" other academic disciplines, of interest to both philosophers and students of the respective field. Despite these far-ranging interests, there are some unifying features of philosophical inquiry...

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Zaitsev's rule. Zaitsev's (sometimes spelled "Saytzeff") rule: In elimination reactions, the major reaction product is the most substituted alkene. The most substituted alkene is also the most stable.

Organic Chemistry/Glossary. > Glossary

German/Introduction. A Textbook on Five Levels The question arose early in the development of this textbook as to precisely who would be the target audience. Although intended to be a "beginning" textbook on German, many felt that the early lessons were too difficult for younger students with very limited or no experience with German and, perhaps more importantly, limited skills in English grammar. For this reason a textbook on three levels was conceived. Beginning German (Level I) puts more emphasis on building vocabulary around subject matter interesting and useful to young students. Basic German (Level II) emphasises grammar, and assumes a greater knowledge of English grammar more typical of an older high school or a college student. If you are just beginning to learn German or attempting to teach yourself, you may wish to try both approaches and see which works better for you, since some people require a strong structural approach to learning a new language while others find this "structure" only impedes progress by adding another layer of complexity. Intermediate German (Level III), which requires even more knowledge of English, is for college students, preferably for sophomores or juniors. With even more complex lessons, grammar and vocabulary comes Advanced German (Level IV), which with the most complex and difficult parts of the German language, is for late college students (Seniors) and college graduates. The last level, which is a review level, but also has cultural facts and the history of the German language, is Reviewed German. (Level V). An existing, separate text, German/Grammar, may eventually be merged into the lesson modules or developed into useful appendices as a grammar reference. At present, however, German Grammar is an expanding, significant contribution to the textbook; it provides an important reference on German language grammar rules useful to the student working through any of the three levels. The German Language. German ("Deutsch") is a member of the western group of the Germanic languages. It is spoken primarily in Germany, Austria, the majority of Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Südtirol (South Tyrol) region of Italy, the Opole Voivodship of Poland, the eastern part of Belgium, parts of Romania, the Alsace (Elsass) region of France and parts of Denmark. Additionally, several former colonial possessions of these countries, such as Namibia in Africa, have sizable German-speaking populations. There are German-speaking minorities in several eastern European countries including Russia, and in the United States as well as countries in South America like Brazil, Argentina and Chile. Over 120 million people speak German as their native language. German is the third most popular foreign language taught worldwide, and the second most popular in Europe. Continue reading about the German language. German and English. If you are an English speaker unfamiliar with German, you may be surprised to learn that English and German are closely related languages and share many words that are very similar. Such words are called cognates. This is particularly true for everyday words in English that are Anglo-Saxon (that is, Germanic) in origin. Consider the following list of English words followed by their German counterparts: Some German words have the same origin as their English counterparts but the meaning has changed: Of course, even words whose spelling is no different in English and German may be pronounced quite differently. But in reading German, you will see the connections between these languages, even in many of the "small" words (the above examples are all nouns). For example: Note also the general similarity of sentence structure with English. The only real difference in the German is that the verb is moved forward in the sentence. However, there are many German sentences in which a verb form is the last word in the sentence. Unfortunately, while German is perhaps the easiest "foreign" language for an English speaker to learn, meanings of words that are spelled similarly are not always identical. These "false friends" can be confusing for the beginner. Further, German is a more structured language than English, with a more complex grammar, and it will become apparent as you learn German that you will also learn more about English language structure than you might ever recall from your high school English classes. For a quick listing of similarities and differences between English and German, read the Introduction to Level I. Vocabulary and Grammar. In learning to read or speak any language with which you have minimal acquaintance (that is, are not a native speaker of), the two aspects to be mastered are vocabulary and grammar. Acquiring vocabulary is a "simple" matter of memorization. For the language(s) we learn as children, this process is so transparent that we have trouble conceiving of the importance of having a large vocabulary. By the age of conscious recognition of our communicating with others through speech, we have already learned the meaning of thousands of words. Even words we have trouble defining, we readily understand their use in conversation. This process can be "reactivated," as it were, by immersion in a second language: a method of learning a new language by moving to a place where that language is spoken and having to get around and live without use of one's native tongue. The student of German language, if not residing in a German-speaking environment, must put forth substantial effort to learning words, including their meaning, their pronunciation and their usage in common sentences. Be sure to "learn"—commit to memory—all of the vocabulary words in each lesson as they are presented. Early lessons have simple sentences because it is assumed that the student's vocabulary is limited. But throughout the text, more complex discourses (often as photo captions) are included to introduce the student to regular German in use. It may be helpful to translate these using a German-English dictionary (access to one is a must; see Appendix 5 for on-line options). Other sources of German, such as newspapers, magazines, web sites, etc., can also be useful in building vocabulary and developing a sense of how German words are put together. The German Wikipedia provides an ever expanding source of German language articles that can be used for this purpose. Further, a German version of the Wikibooks project—a library of textbooks in German—is available at German Wikibooks. German grammar is more complex than, but sufficiently similar to, English that "reading" German is possible with minimal vocabulary in the sense that the student should generally recognize the parts of a sentence. With a good dictionary or an online translator, an English speaker can usually translate a German sentence close to correctly. However, to accurately speak and understand German, you must learn how each word functions in a sentence. There are eight basic grammatical functions: case, gender, number, tense, person, mood, voice, and comparison. How words "signal" these functions is an important aspect of learning a new language. English speakers should know all of these functions and the signals used in English, but it is often the situation that you know perfectly well how to speak English, without understanding much about word-functions and signals. For this reason, this textbook incorporates considerable detail on grammar, including both English and German grammar. The reference book "English" at "Wikibooks" may be consulted for additional help. When we say German is more complex than English, what we really mean is that the signals used in German are different from and more numerous than those used by English. Pronunciation. A guide to the pronunciation of German is provided. You should become familiar with this page early on, and refer to it often. Nothing can replace learning a language from a native speaker, but the text is liberally sprinkled with audio files providing the student with valuable input from hearing spoken German. Analyze the spoken words carefully. The pronunciation guide can only closely, not exactly, convey how German words should be pronounced. And of course, German (like English) has a number of dialects distinguished by differences in pronunciation. Help in the pronunciation of individual words can be found by accessing the sound files of either of the online dictionaries, links to which are given in the German websites appendix. Layout of Lessons. This textbook is intended as a beginning course in the German language for English speakers. Early lessons emphasize conversational subjects and gradually introduce German grammatical concepts and rules. In addition, sound files accompany appropriate parts of each lesson. Although the basic lessons ("Grundlegende Lektionen") are presented at about the (US) high school level, beginners (including those attempting to learn German outside of a course structure) are expected to work through several basic lessons up to an indicated point, when review is suggested along with additional study. The basic way lessons go to other lessons is very simple and direct: Layout within Lessons. The following subheadings or categories are offered within the lessons (Level II and above): The Student and the Lesson. Each level of the text is designed to constitute a course of study in the German language. For any level selected, each lesson should be read thoroughly and mastered before moving on. Substantial text in German is included and the student should read all of it, not once, but multiple times. At Levels II and III, complete translations into English are included only in selected places. Most of this text must be translated by the student using his or her acquired vocabulary and the vocabulary presented at the bottom of each lesson. As the German text is read (preferably out loud), the student must succeed in gaining an understanding of the meaning of each sentence, and of the role each word plays in establishing that meaning. To the beginner, there will seem to be many words in a German sentence that are out of place or even redundant or unnecessary. These add subtleties to the language that will make sense eventually. But it is important to experience these subtleties from the very beginning.

German/Level III. LEVEL III: MITTLERE STUFE. Section 1 ~ "Bonn, Germany" Section 2 ~ "Innsbruck, Austria" Section 3 ~ "Bavaria, Germany" Section 4 ~ "Ruhrgebiet, Germany"

Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Hydrolysis. Water can pull a halide off of an alkane and leave a hydroxyl group in its place. Water can ...

Spanish/Exercises/Greetings. ^Lesson 1^ Matching Sentences. Match the sentences/questions (1 to 5) to their corresponding responses (a to e). Soluciones a los ejercicios "Solutions to exercices" ^Lesson1^

Indonesian/Lessons/Introducing. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 6: Particles | Lesson 7: Introducing Yourself | Lesson 8: My Family » Dialog Pertama "(1st Dialog)". Dialog "(Dialogue)". KERRY: Hai! Nama saya KERRY. Siapa namamu? AUDRIE: Hai KERRY! Nama saya AUDRIE. Salam kenal. KERRY: Salam kenal juga. AUDRIE: Apa kabar KERRY? KERRY: Baik-baik, Anda? AUDRIE: Baik-baik juga. KERRY: Anda tinggal di mana? AUDRIE: Di GADING NIAS. Anda? KERRY: Saya juga! AUDRIE: Permisi, saya harus pulang ke rumah. KERRY: Baik, baik, hati-hati AUDRIE! AUDRIE: Haha terima kasih KERRY. KERRY: Selamat tinggal! AUDRIE: Selamat tinggal! Terjemahannya "(translation)": KERRY: Hi! My name is KERRY. What's your name? AUDRIE: Hi, KERRY! My name is AUDRIE. Nice to meet you. KERRY: Nice to meet you too. AUDRIE: How are you KERRY? KERRY: Good, and you? AUDRIE: Also Good. KERRY: Where do you live? AUDRIE: In GADING NIAS, you? KERRY: Me too! AUDRIE: Sorry, I've got to go home. KERRY: "Okay", be careful AUDRIE! AUDRIE: Haha thank you KERRY. KERRY: Goodbye! AUDRIE: Goodbye! Catatan "(Note)". This dialogue illustrates typical informal introductions. Note here that the dialog use "nama saya" to mean to "my name" and "namamu" to mean to "your name". You can use the phrase "namaku" as well to mean "my name". To refresh our memory, note that the informal possessive pronouns are "-ku", "-mu", and "-nya", for first, second, and third singular person. For more review, you can click here. The noun "nama" is the root of "namaku" and "namamu"; and the suffixes "-ku" and "-mu" adding the possessive information. Certainly, you can substitute "namamu" with "nama Anda" for more formal situations. The phrase "salam kenal" roughly means "nice to meet you". Note that unlike English, normally Indonesians don't say anything after the introduction and then carry on with the conversation. So, this phrase is not often used in introductions. It's up to you. The word "juga" means "too". The word "pergi" and "pulang" both can be translated as "to go" in English. Only "pulang" is strongly associated with home. "pulang" means "to go home". "pergi" has always been used to point out where would you go to, anywhere else but your own house. Dialog Kedua "(2nd Dialogue)". Dialog "(Dialogue)". KERRY: Selamat pagi, Pak! Perkenalkan, nama saya KERRY. Pak WAKI: Oh! Selamat pagi, KERRY! Nama saya WAKI. Apa kabar? KERRY: Baik-baik. Terima kasih. Terjemahannya "(translation)": KERRY: Good morning, Sir! Let me introduce myself, my name is KERRY. Mr. WAKI: Oh! Good morning, KERRY! My name is WAKI. How are you? KERRY: Good. Thank you. Catatan "(Note)". This is a formal introduction, in casual situation. The word "kenal" means "to know someone". In this dialog, we use the inflected form "perkenalkan", which in this dialog context means "let me introduce myself". It is actually the command form of "memperkenalkan", which means "to introduce". Don't worry about how the words are composed. This time, you can just consider it as a single word. The phrase "apa kabar" means "how are you". As we've already read from lesson 1, it literally means "what news". The phrase "terima kasih" means "thank you". Actually, it literally means "receive love". Dialog Ketiga "(3rd Dialogue)". Dialog "(Dialogue)". KERRY: AUDRIE, perkenalkan, ini Pak WAKI. AUDRIE: Pak WAKI, nama saya AUDRIE. Pak WAKI: Halo, AUDRIE! Salam kenal. Terjemahannya "(translation)": KERRY: AUDRIE, let me introduce you, this is Mr. WAKI. AUDRIE: Mr. WAKI, my name is AUDRIE. Mr. WAKI: Hello, AUDRIE! Nice to meet you. Catatan "(Note)". This dialogue is to introduce someone to someone else. You should introduce the older person to the younger one as a rule of courtesy, as demonstrated in the dialogue. The dialogue assumes that Mr. Waki is older than Audrie. The younger person must then respond by addressing the older one also for courtesy. You can follow it by stating your name again, like the example above. Or, you can just say "Hai, Pak Waki!" instead. If both people are roughly of the same age, you can choose either one. Note the usage of the word "perkenalkan". It is appropriate for both introducing yourself and introducing someone else. ^ Indonesian ^ | « Lesson 6: Particles | Lesson 7: Introducing Yourself | Lesson 8: My Family »