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Calcium carbide reacts with nitrogen at high temperature to form calcium cyanamide: :CaC + N → CaCN + C Commonly known as nitrolime, calcium cyanamide is used as fertilizer. It is hydrolysed to cyanamide, HNCN.

Metallurgy

Silicon carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum (), is a hard chemical compound containing silicon and carbon. A semiconductor, it occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite, but has been mass-produced as a powder and crystal since 1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains of silicon carbide can be bonded together by sintering to form very hard ceramics that are widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as car brakes, car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Large single crystals of silicon carbide can be grown by the Lely method and they can be cut into gems known as synthetic moissanite. Electronic applications of silicon carbide such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and detectors in early radios were first demonstrated around 1907. SiC is used in semiconductor electronics devices that operate at high temperatures or high voltages, or both.

Metallurgy

The outron is an intron-like sequence possessing similar characteristics such as the G+C content and a splice acceptor site that is the signal for trans-splicing. Such a trans-splice site is essentially defined as an acceptor (3) splice site without an upstream donor (5) splice site. In eukaryotes such as euglenozoans, dinoflagellates, sponges, nematodes, cnidarians, ctenophores, flatworms, crustaceans, chaetognaths, rotifers, and tunicates, the length of spliced leader (SL) outrons range from 30 to 102 nucleotides (nt), with the SL exon length ranging from 16 to 51 nt, and the full SL RNA length ranging from 46 to 141 nt.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

In biochemistry, the KIX domain (kinase-inducible domain (KID) interacting domain) or CREB binding domain is a protein domain of the eukaryotic transcriptional coactivators CBP and P300. It serves as a docking site for the formation of heterodimers between the coactivator and specific transcription factors. Structurally, the KIX domain is a globular domain consisting of three α-helices and two short 3-helices. The KIX domain was originally discovered in 1996 as the specific and minimal region in CBP that binds and interacts with phosphorylated CREB to activate transcription. It was thus first termed CREB-binding domain. However, when it was later discovered that it also binds many other proteins, the more general name KIX domain became favoured. The KIX domain contains two separate binding sites: the "c-Myb site", named after the oncoprotein c-Myb, and the "MLL site", named after the proto-oncogene MLL (Mixed Lineage Leukemia, KMT2A). The paralogous coactivators CBP (CREBBP) and P300 (EP300) are recruited to DNA-bound transcription factors to activate transcription. Coactivators can associate with promoters and enhancers in the DNA only indirectly through protein-protein contacts with transcription factors. CBP and P300 activate transcription synergistically in two ways: first, by remodelling and relaxing chromatin through their intrinsic histone acetyltransferase activity, and second, by recruiting the basal transcription machinery, such as RNA polymerase II. The KIX domain belongs to the proposed GACKIX domain superfamily. GACKIX comprises structurally and functionally highly homologous domains in related proteins. It is named after the protein GAL11 / ARC105 (MED15), the plant protein CBP-like, and the KIX domain from CBP and P300. Additional instances include RECQL5 and related plant proteins. All of these contain a KIX domain or KIX-related domain that interacts with the transactivation domain of many different transcription factors. The distinction between a KIX domain, a KIX-related domain and a GACKIX domain is subject to an ongoing debate and not clearly defined.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Pre-mRNAs from the D. melanogaster gene dsx contain 6 exons. In males, exons 1,2,3,5,and 6 are joined to form the mRNA, which encodes a transcriptional regulatory protein required for male development. In females, exons 1,2,3, and 4 are joined, and a polyadenylation signal in exon 4 causes cleavage of the mRNA at that point. The resulting mRNA is a transcriptional regulatory protein required for female development. This is an example of exon skipping. The intron upstream from exon 4 has a polypyrimidine tract that doesnt match the consensus sequence well, so that U2AF proteins bind poorly to it without assistance from splicing activators. This 3 splice acceptor site is therefore not used in males. Females, however, produce the splicing activator Transformer (Tra) (see below). The SR protein Tra2 is produced in both sexes and binds to an ESE in exon 4; if Tra is present, it binds to Tra2 and, along with another SR protein, forms a complex that assists U2AF proteins in binding to the weak polypyrimidine tract. U2 is recruited to the associated branchpoint, and this leads to inclusion of exon 4 in the mRNA.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) networks can be found in eukaryotic cells. MAPK pathways in plants are known to regulate cell growth, cell development, cell death, and cell responses to environmental stimuli. Only a few of the MAPK mechanism components are known and have been studied. The components such as Arabidopsis MAPKKKs YODA, ANP2/ANP3, and MP3K6/MP3K7 functions in the development of the cell. MEKK1 and ANP1 function in the response to environmental stress. Unfortunately, only eight out of the twenty mitogen-activated protein kinases have been studied. The most commonly studied MAPKs are MPK3, MPK4, and MPK6, which are activated by a diversity of stimuli including abiotic stresses, pathogens, and oxidative stressors. MPK4 negatively regulates biotic stress signaling, while MPK3 and MPK6 function as positive mediators of defense responses. The plant has these positive and negative mediators allowing for normal plant growth and development, which has been proven true by the severely dwarfed phenotype of mpk4 and the embryo lethal phenotype of mpk3 and mpk6 mutants.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

A sand rammer is a piece of equipment used in foundry sand testing to make test specimen of molding sand by compacting bulk material by free fixed height drop of fixed weight for 3 times. It is also used to determine compactibility of sands by using special specimen tubes and a linear scale.

Metallurgy

Electro sinter forging is an electric current assisted sintering (ECAS) technology originated from capacitor discharge sintering. It is used for the production of diamond metal matrix composites and is under evaluation for the production of hard metals, nitinol and other metals and intermetallics. It is characterized by a very low sintering time, allowing machines to sinter at the same speed as a compaction press.

Metallurgy

Internal oxidation, in corrosion of metals, is the process of formation of corrosion products (e.g. a metal oxide) within the metal bulk. In other words, the corrosion products are created away from the metal surface, and they are isolated from the surface. Internal oxidation occurs when some components of the alloy are oxidized in preference to the balance of the bulk. The oxidizer is often oxygen diffusing through the metal bulk from the interface, but it can be also another element (for example sulfur or nitrogen). Internal oxidation is a well-known corrosion mechanism of nickel-based alloys in the temperature range of 500 to 1200 °C. Internal oxidation is distinct from selective leaching.

Metallurgy

Treatment with mTOR inhibitors can be complicated by adverse events. The most frequently occurring adverse events are stomatitis, rash, anemia, fatigue, hyperglycemia/hypertriglyceridemia, decreased appetite, nausea, and diarrhea. Additionally, interstitial lung disease is an adverse event of particular importance. mTORi-induced ILD often is asymptomatic (with ground glass abnormalities on chest CT) or mild symptomatic (with a non-productive cough), but can be very severe as well. Even fatalities have been described. Careful diagnosis and treatment, therefore, is essential. Recently, a new diagnostic and therapeutic management approach has been proposed.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

This work also explains why genomes such as the human genome have billions of bases, and why only a small fraction (~2%) codes for proteins and other regulatory elements. If split genes originated from random primordial DNA sequences, they would contain a significant amount of DNA that represented by introns. Furthermore, a genome assembled from random DNA containing split genes would also include intergenic random DNA. Thus, genomes that originated from random DNA sequences had to be large, regardless of the complexity of the organism. The observation that several organisms such as the onion (~16 billion bases) and salamander (~32 billion bases) have much larger genomes than humans (~3 billion bases) while the organisms are no more complex than humans comports with the theory. Furthermore, the fact that several organisms with smaller genomes have a similar number of genes as human, such as C. elegans (genome size ~100 million bases, ~19,000 genes) and Arabidopsis thaliana (genome size ~125 million bases, ~25,000 genes), supports the theory. The theory predicts that the introns in the split genes in these genomes could be the “reduced” (or deleted) form compared to larger genes with long introns, thus leading to reduced genomes. In fact, researchers have recently proposed that these smaller genomes are actually reduced genomes.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

DESs are fluids generally composed of two or three cheap and safe components that are capable of self-association, often through hydrogen bond interactions, to form eutectic mixtures with a melting point lower than that of each individual component. DESs are generally liquid at temperatures lower than 100 °C, and they exhibit similar physico-chemical properties to traditional ILs, while being much cheaper and environmentally friendlier. Most of them are mixtures of choline chloride and a hydrogen-bond donor (e.g., urea, ethylene glycol, malonic acid) or mixtures of choline chloride with a hydrated metal salt. Other choline salts (e.g. acetate, citrate, nitrate) have a much higher costs or need to be synthesised, and the DES formulated from these anions are typically much more viscous and can have higher conductivities than for choline chloride. This results in lower plating rates and poorer throwing power and for this reason chloride-based DES systems are still favoured. For instance, Reline (a 1:2 mixture of choline chloride and urea) has been used to selectively recover Zn and Pb from a mixed metal oxide matrix. Similarly, Ethaline (a 1: 2 mixture of choline chloride and ethylene glycol) facilitates metal dissolution in electropolishing of steels. DESs have also demonstrated promising results to recover metals from complex mixtures such Cu/Zn and Ga/As, and precious metals from minerals. It has also been demonstrated that metals can be recovered from complex mixtures by electrocatalysis using a combination of DESs as lixiviants and an oxidising agent, while metal ions can be simultaneously separated from the solution by electrowinning.

Metallurgy

A pore in a microstructure, unless desired, is a disadvantage for the properties. In fact, in nearly all of the materials, a pore will be the starting point for the rupture of the material. It is the initiation point for the cracks. Furthermore, a pore is usually quite hard to get rid of. Those techniques described later involve a high temperature process. However, even those processes can sometimes make the pore even bigger. Pores with large coordination number (surrounded by many particles) tend to grow during the thermal process. This is caused by the thermal energy being converted to a driving force for the growth of the particles which will induce the growth of the pore as the high coordination number prohibits the growth towards the pore. For many materials, it can be seen from their phase diagram that multiple phases can exist at the same time. Those different phases might exhibit different crystal structure, thus exhibiting different mechanical properties. Furthermore, these different phases also exhibit a different microstructure (grain size, orientation). This can also improve some mechanical properties as crack deflection can occur, thus pushing the ultimate breakdown further as it creates a more tortuous crack path in the coarser microstructure.

Metallurgy

There are two types of continuous cooling diagrams drawn for practical purposes. * Type 1: This is the plot beginning with the transformation start point, cooling with a specific transformation fraction and ending with a transformation finish temperature for all products against transformation time for each cooling curve. * Type 2: This is the plot beginning with the transformation start point, cooling with specific transformation fraction and ending with a transformation finish temperature for all products against cooling rate or bar diameter of the specimen for each type of cooling medium..

Metallurgy

The CK1 family of monomeric serine–threonine protein kinases is found in eukaryotic organisms from yeast to humans. Mammals have seven family members (sometimes referred to as isoforms, but encoded by distinct genes): alpha, beta 1, gamma 1, gamma 2, gamma 3, delta, and epsilon. Isoforms range from 22 to 55 kDa and have been identified in the membranes, nucleus, and cytoplasm of eukaryotes and additionally in the mitotic spindle in mammalian cells. The family members have the highest homology in their kinase domains (53%–98% identical) and differ from most other protein kinases by the presence of the sequence S-I-N instead of A-P-E in kinase domain VIII. The family members appear to have similar substrate specificity in vitro, and substrate selection is thought to be regulated in vivo via subcellular localization and docking sites in specific substrates. One consensus phosphorylation site is S/Tp-X-X-S/T, where S/Tp refers to a phospho-serine or phospho-threonine, X refers to any amino acid, and the underlined residues refer to the target site. Thus, this CKI consensus site requires priming by another kinase. CKI also phosphorylates a related unprimed site, which optimally contains a cluster of acidic amino acids N-terminal to the target S/T including an acidic residue at n − 3 and a hydrophobic region C-terminal to the target S/T. A single acidic residue in the n − 3 position is not sufficient for CKI phosphorylation. In contrast, in several important targets, NF-AT and beta-catenin, CKI does not require n − 3 priming but, instead, phosphorylates the first serine in the sequence S-L-S, which is followed by a cluster of acidic residues, albeit less efficiently than the optimal sites.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

After graduating from the University of Cambridge, Dye worked for a short period as Junior Associate at Mitchell Madison Group from October 2000 until March 2001, before going back to the Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, the University of Cambridge as a postdoctoral research associate also for a very short stint in 2001. He then joined the National Research Council (NRC) of Canada as Visiting fellow from late 2001 until 2003, working at the neutron spectroscopy facility at the AECL Chalk River Laboratories in Ontario, Canada. He then moved to the Department of Materials, Imperial College London as lecturer, and became a professor in 2015. David Dye teaches metallurgy, and his research focuses primarily on the micromechanics, design, and fatigue processes of titanium and nickel/cobalt superalloys, with side interests in zirconium, twinning-induced plasticity steels, and superelastic NiTi-based alloys. Most of his work is done in collaboration with Rolls-Royce and other industries, including nuclear and aerospace. Dye is an experimentalist. His work involves using Electron backscatter diffraction and traditional lab-based characterisation methods, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), neutron and X-rays synchrotron at facilities like ISIS Neutron and Muon Source, Diamond Light Source, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, and in situ microbeam Laue synchrotron diffraction.

Metallurgy

Phosphate processing operations that use flotation as the principal mechanism to concentrate the phosphate-bearing minerals usually discard particles smaller than 20 μm in diameter. This is because the fine particles have had poor flotation performance and because their presence decreases the flotation performance of the coarse particles. Legend International Holdings Incorporated ("Legend") owns major phosphate deposits that average 20–60% particles less than 20 μm that contain up to 50% of the phosphate. This makes the traditional phosphate concentration practice uneconomic for these deposits. In response, Legend developed a process based on using the Jameson Cell in a rougher-scavenger-cleaner configuration to recover at least 80% of the phosphate at a grade of at least 32% PO from a feed with a particle size distribution of up to 80% less than 20 μm.

Metallurgy

Erosion corrosion, also known as impingement damage, is the combined effect of corrosion and erosion caused by rapid flowing turbulent water. It is probably the second most common cause of copper tube failures behind Type 1 pitting which is also known as Cold Water Pitting of Copper Tube. Copper Water Tubes Copper tubes have been used to distribute drinking water within buildings for many years, and hundreds of miles are installed throughout Europe every year. The long life of copper when exposed to natural waters is a result of its thermodynamic stability, its high resistance to reacting with the environment, and the formation of insoluble corrosion products that insulate the metal from the environment. The corrosion rate of copper in most drinkable waters is less than 2.5 µm/year, at this rate a 15 mm tube with a wall thickness of 0.7 mm would last for about 280 years. In some soft waters the general corrosion rate may increase to 12.5 µm/year, but even at this rate it would take over 50 years to perforate the same tube.

Metallurgy

Yttrium is a soft, silver-metallic, lustrous and highly crystalline transition metal in group 3. As expected by periodic trends, it is less electronegative than its predecessor in the group, scandium, and less electronegative than the next member of period 5, zirconium. However, due to the lanthanide contraction, it is also less electronegative than its successor in the group, lutetium. Yttrium is the first d-block element in the fifth period. The pure element is relatively stable in air in bulk form, due to passivation of a protective oxide () film that forms on the surface. This film can reach a thickness of 10 µm when yttrium is heated to 750 °C in water vapor. When finely divided, however, yttrium is very unstable in air; shavings or turnings of the metal can ignite in air at temperatures exceeding 400 °C. Yttrium nitride (YN) is formed when the metal is heated to 1000 °C in nitrogen.

Metallurgy

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is essential to the makeup of ribosomes and peptide transfer during translation processes. Ribosomal RNA modifications are made throughout ribosome synthesis, and often occur during and/or after translation. Modifications primarily play a role in the structure of the rRNA in order to protect translational efficiency. Chemical modification in rRNA consists of methylation of ribose sugars, isomerization of uridines, and methylation and acetylation of individual bases.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

The low thermal expansion coefficient, high hardness, rigidity and thermal conductivity make silicon carbide a desirable mirror material for astronomical telescopes. The growth technology (chemical vapor deposition) has been scaled up to produce disks of polycrystalline silicon carbide up to in diameter, and several telescopes like the Herschel Space Telescope are already equipped with SiC optics, as well the Gaia space observatory spacecraft subsystems are mounted on a rigid silicon carbide frame, which provides a stable structure that will not expand or contract due to heat.

Metallurgy

Fretting examples include wear of drive splines on driveshafts, wheels at the lug bolt interface, and cylinder head gaskets subject to differentials in thermal expansion coefficients. There is currently a focus on fretting research in the aerospace industry. The dovetail blade-root connection and the spline coupling of gas turbine aero engines experience fretting. Another example in which fretting corrosion may occur are the pitch bearings of modern wind turbines, which operate under oscillation motion to control the power and loads of the turbine. Fretting can also occur between reciprocating elements in the human body. Especially implants, for example hip implants, are often affected by fretting effects.

Metallurgy

VMAT1 also has effects on the modulation of gastrin processing in G cells. These intestinal endocrine cells process amine precursors, and VMAT1 pulls them into vesicles for storage. The activity of VMAT1 in these cells has a seemingly inhibitory effect on the processing of gastrin. Essentially, this means that certain compounds in the gut can be taken into these G cells and either amplify or inhibit the function of VMAT1, which will impact gastrin processing (conversion from G34 to G17). Additionally, VMAT1 is known to play a role in the uptake and secretion of serotonin in the gut. Enterochromaffin cells in the intestines will secrete serotonin in response to the activation of certain mechanosensors. The regulation of serotonin in the gut is critically important, as it modulates appetite and controls intestinal contraction.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America is the extraction, purification and alloying of metals and metal crafting by Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European contact in the late 15th century. Indigenous Americans had been using native metals from ancient times, with recent finds of gold artifacts in the Andean region dated to 2155–1936 BCE, and North American copper finds being dated to approximately 5000 BCE. The metal would have been found in nature without the need for smelting, and shaped into the desired form using hot and cold hammering without chemical alteration or alloying. To date "no one has found evidence that points to the use of melting, smelting and casting in prehistoric eastern North America." In South America the case is quite different. Indigenous South Americans had full metallurgy with smelting and various metals being purposely alloyed. Metallurgy in Mesoamerica and western Mexico may have developed following contact with South America through Ecuadorian marine traders.

Metallurgy

An ironmaster is the manager, and usually owner, of a forge or blast furnace for the processing of iron. It is a term mainly associated with the period of the Industrial Revolution, especially in Great Britain. The ironmaster was usually a large-scale entrepreneur and thus an important member of a community. He would have a large country house or mansion as his residence. The organization of operations surrounding the smelting, refining and casting of iron was labour-intensive, and so there would be numerous workers reliant on the furnace works. There were ironmasters (possibly not called such) from the 17th century onwards, but they became more prominent with the great expansion in the British iron industry during the Industrial Revolution.

Metallurgy

DNA synthesis begins at specific sites called origins of replication. These are regions of the genome where the DNA replication machinery is assembled and the DNA is unwound to begin DNA synthesis. In most cases, replication proceeds in both directions from the replication origin. The main features of replication origins are sequences where specific initiation proteins are bound. A typical replication origin covers about 100-200 base pairs of DNA. Prokaryotes have one origin of replication per chromosome or plasmid but there are usually multiple origins in eukaryotic chromosomes. The human genome contains about 100,000 origins of replication representing about 0.3% of the genome.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Neck cracks are readily observed during inspection, but body and shoulder cracks are more difficult to detect. Neck thread cracks can be non-destructively tested using eddy-current crack-detection equipment. This is reported to be reliable for alloy 6351, but false positives have been reported for tests on alloy 6061.

Metallurgy

Knockouts are primarily used to understand the role of a specific gene or DNA region by comparing the knockout organism to a wildtype with a similar genetic background. Knockout organisms are also used as screening tools in the development of drugs, to target specific biological processes or deficiencies by using a specific knockout, or to understand the mechanism of action of a drug by using a library of knockout organisms spanning the entire genome, such as in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

These predicted editing sites result in the translation of an Arginine instead of a Glutamine at the Q/R site and an Alanine instead of a Threonine at the T/A site. These codon changes are nonsynomonous. Since the editing sites are located just before a collagen like trimerization domain, editing may effect protein oligomerization. This region is also likely to be a protease domain. It is not known if the amino acid changes caused by editing could have an effect on these domains.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

The exact size of the GPCR superfamily is unknown, but at least 831 different human genes (or about 4% of the entire protein-coding genome) have been predicted to code for them from genome sequence analysis. Although numerous classification schemes have been proposed, the superfamily was classically divided into three main classes (A, B, and C) with no detectable shared sequence homology between classes. The largest class by far is class A, which accounts for nearly 85% of the GPCR genes. Of class A GPCRs, over half of these are predicted to encode olfactory receptors, while the remaining receptors are liganded by known endogenous compounds or are classified as orphan receptors. Despite the lack of sequence homology between classes, all GPCRs have a common structure and mechanism of signal transduction. The very large rhodopsin A group has been further subdivided into 19 subgroups (A1-A19). According to the classical A-F system, GPCRs can be grouped into six classes based on sequence homology and functional similarity: *Class A (or 1) (Rhodopsin-like) *Class B (or 2) (Secretin receptor family) *Class C (or 3) (Metabotropic glutamate/pheromone) *Class D (or 4) (Fungal mating pheromone receptors) *Class E (or 5) (Cyclic AMP receptors) *Class F (or 6) (Frizzled/Smoothened) More recently, an alternative classification system called GRAFS (Glutamate, Rhodopsin, Adhesion, Frizzled/Taste2, Secretin) has been proposed for vertebrate GPCRs. They correspond to classical classes C, A, B2, F, and B. An early study based on available DNA sequence suggested that the human genome encodes roughly 750 G protein-coupled receptors, about 350 of which detect hormones, growth factors, and other endogenous ligands. Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome have unknown functions. Some web-servers and bioinformatics prediction methods have been used for predicting the classification of GPCRs according to their amino acid sequence alone, by means of the pseudo amino acid composition approach.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Richard Llewellyns novel How Green Was My Valley (1939) describes the social and environmental effects of coal mining in Wales at the turn of the 20th century. The local mines spoil tip, which he calls a slag heap, is the central figure of devastation. Eventually the pile overtakes the entire valley and crushes Huw Morgan's house:

Metallurgy

Since eIF2 is essential for most forms of translation initiation and therefore protein synthesis, defects in eIF2 are often lethal. The protein is highly conserved among evolutionary remote species - indicating a large impact of mutations on cell viability. Therefore, no diseases directly related to mutations in eIF2 can be observed. However, there are many illnesses caused by down-regulation of eIF2 through its upstream kinases. For example, increased concentrations of active PKR and inactive (phosphorylated) eIF2 were found in patients with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimers, Parkinsons, and Huntingtons disease. There is also one proven example of a disease related to the GEF eIF2B. Mutations in all of the five subunits of eIF2B are associated with Vanishing White Matter (VWM) disease, a genetic leukodystrophy which causes the brains white matter to degenerate and disappear. It is still not fully understood why only brain cells seem to be affected by these defects. Potentially reduced levels of unstable regulatory proteins might play a role in the development of the diseases mentioned.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Potassium ethyl xanthate (KEX) is an organosulfur compound with the chemical formula . It is a pale yellow powder that is used in the mining industry for the separation of ores. It is a potassium salt of ethyl xanthic acid.

Metallurgy

Evolution in bacteria was previously viewed as a result of mutation or genetic drift. Today, genetic exchange, or gene transfer is viewed as a major driving force in the evolution of prokaryotes. This driving force has been widely studied in organisms like E. coli. Bacteria reproduces asexually, where daughter cells are clones of the parent. This clonal nature leads to random mutations that occur during DNA replication that potentially helps bacteria evolve. It was originally thought that only accumulated mutations helped bacteria evolve. In contrast, bacteria also import genes in a process called homologous recombination, first discovered by the observation of mosaic genes at loci encoding antibiotic resistance. The discovery of homologous recombination has made an impact on the understanding of bacterial evolution. The importance of evolution in bacterial recombination is its adaptivity. For example, bacterial recombination has been shown to promote the transfer of multi drug resistance genes via homologous recombination that goes beyond levels purely obtained by mutation.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

The formulae for rokushō are not published widely or freely, but passed on in the Japanese craft tradition. However, some scholars have analysed samples of the material. Premixed rokushō can be purchased outside Japan through specialty jewelry suppliers. Additionally, several different formulas have been proposed to replicate the traditional product for those who prefer to make their own: * In a container made of glass, porcelain, or copper, dissolve 6g copper acetate, 2g calcium carbonate, and 2g sodium hydroxide in 150ml water. After a week, siphon or decant the clear liquid from the top; just before use, add another 2g copper sulfate. * Dissolve 4g copper acetate, 1g copper nitrate, 1g cupric chloride, and 4g copper sulfate in 1 liter of distilled water. * Dissolve 60g copper acetate and 60g copper sulfate in a 2-liter solution of white vinegar diluted 5-12% with water. Rokusho is not used alone, but mixed with one or more other chemicals. Further, metal to be processed is cleaned in advance of treatment, using a mild acid bath (oxalic or sulfuric acids are frequently used), scrubbing with daikon radish or pumice, and/or a surface abrasive, and often treated after patination also.

Metallurgy

Grb2 is widely expressed and is essential for multiple cellular functions. Inhibition of Grb2 function impairs developmental processes in various organisms and blocks transformation and proliferation of various cell types. It is thus not surprising that targeted gene disruption of Grb2 in mice is lethal at an early embryonic stage. Grb2 is best known for its ability to link the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase to the activation of Ras and its downstream kinases, ERK1,2. Grb2 is composed of an SH2 domain flanked on each side by an SH3 domain. Grb2 has two closely related proteins with similar domain organizations, Gads and Grap. Gads and Grap are expressed specifically in hematopoietic cells and function in the coordination of tyrosine kinase mediated signal transduction.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

*ALAS1 Aminolevulinic Acid Synthase type 1 (type 2 is erythroid and associated with porphyria) *ARHGEF2 Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor *ARMET Mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor *AES amino terminal enhancer of split *BECN1 involved in autophagy and partners with PI3K *BUD31 formerly Maternal G10 transcript *Creatine kinase CKB (ATP reservoir) *Cytidine deaminase questionable: not present in very high levels at all *CPNE1 *ENSA (gene) *FTH1 Heavy chain of Ferritin *GDI2 rab/ras vesicular trafficking *GUK1 Guanylate kinase transfers phosphate from ATP to GMP *HPRT Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase *IFITM1 Induced by interferon, transmembrane protein *JTB (gene) Jumping translocation breakpoint *MMPL2 *NME2 (formerly NM23B) Nucleoside diphosphate kinase *NONO *P4HB *PRDX1 peroxiredoxin (reduces peroxides) *PTMA Prothymosin *RPA2 Binds DNA during replication to keep it straightened out *SULT1A3 Sulfate conjugation (note: SULT1C is cited in earlier literature as being ubiquitous but this may be an example of different tags being used to refer to a common area of 2 closely related genes. If the tag is too short, then it may not be specific enough to truly specify one member of a gene family from another) *SYNGR2 Synaptogyrin (may participate in vesicle translocation) *Tetratricopeptide, TTC1 small glutamine rich tetratricopeptide

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Triple disc rolling contact fatigue (RCF) Rig is a specialised testing apparatus used in the field of tribology and materials science to evaluate the fatigue resistance and durability of materials subjected to rolling contact. This rig is designed for simulating the conditions encountered in various mechanical systems, such as rolling bearings, gears, and other components exposed to repeated rolling and sliding motions. The rig typically consists of three discs or rollers arranged in a specific configuration. These discs can represent the interacting components of interest, such as a rolling bearing. The rig also allows precise control over the loading conditions, including the magnitude of the load, contact pressure, and contact geometry. PCS Instruments Micro-pitting Rig (MPR) is a specialised testing instrument used in the field of tribology and mechanical engineering to study micro-pitting, a type of surface damage that occurs in lubricated rolling and sliding contact systems. The MPR is designed to simulate real-world operating conditions by subjecting test specimens, often gears or rolling bearings, to controlled rolling and sliding contact under lubricated conditions.

Metallurgy

Many human tumors occur because of dysregulation of mTOR signaling, and can confer higher susceptibility to inhibitors of mTOR. Deregulations of multiple elements of the mTOR pathway, like PI3K amplification/mutation, PTEN loss of function, AKT overexpression, and S6K1, 4EBP1, and eIF4E overexpression have been related to many types of cancers. Therefore, mTOR is an interesting therapeutic target for treating multiple cancers, both the mTOR inhibitors themselves or in combination with inhibitors of other pathways. Upstream, PI3K/AKT signalling is deregulated through a variety of mechanisms, including overexpression or activation of growth factor receptors, such as HER-2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) and IGFR (insulin-like growth factor receptor), mutations in PI3K and mutations/amplifications of AKT. Tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) is a negative regulator of PI3K signaling. In many cancers the PTEN expression is decreased and may be downregulated through several mechanisms, including mutations, loss of heterozygosity, methylation, and protein instability. Downstream, the mTOR effectors S6 kinase 1 (S6K1), eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1) and eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) are related to cellular transformation. S6K1 is a key regulator of cell growth and also phosphorylates other important targets. Both eIF4E and S6K1 are included in cellular transformation and their overexpression has been linked to poor cancer prognosis.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

*Melanopsin: in vertebrate retina, mediates pupillary reflex, involved in regulation of circadian rhythms *Photopsin: reception of various colors of light in the cone cells of vertebrate retina *Rhodopsin: green-blue light reception in the rod cells of vertebrate retina *Protein Kinase C: mediates photoreceptor deactivation, and retinal degeneration *OPN5: sensitive to UV-light

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

* "A Study of Grain Shape", Journal of Metals, July 1952, 775. * "Stereoscopic Microradiography", Metallurgia, 63, 95, 1961. * "Careers in the Canadian Minerals Industry", Northern Miner, December 1980. * “An Historical Sketch of the Canadian Steel Industry.” In All That Glitters: Readings in Historical Metallurgy, edited by Michael L. Wayman, 143-146. Montreal: Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1989 * "Observations on an Old Broad Axe - An Example of Steeling", Bulletin of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Vol. 83, No. 934, pp. 93–95, January 1990.

Metallurgy

Ca plays an important role in nodule formation in legumes. Nitrogen is an essential element required in plants and many legumes, unable to fix nitrogen independently, pair symbiotically with nitrogen-fixing bacteria that reduce nitrogen to ammonia. This legume-Rhizobium interaction establishment requires the Nod factor that is produced by the Rhizobium bacteria. The Nod factor is recognized by the root hair cells that are involved in the nodule formation in legumes. Ca responses of varied nature are characterized to be involved in the Nod factor recognition. There is a Ca flux at the tip of the root hair initially followed by repetitive oscillation of Ca in the cytosol and also Ca spike occurs around the nucleus. DMI3, an essential gene for Nod factor signaling functions downstream of the Ca spiking signature, might be recognizing the Ca signature. Further, several CaM and CML genes in Medicago and Lotus are expressed in nodules.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

There have also been limited studies on using these materials in robotics, for example the hobbyist robot Stiquito (and "Roboterfrau Lara"), as they make it possible to create very lightweight robots. Recently, a prosthetic hand was introduced by Loh et al. that can almost replicate the motions of a human hand [Loh2005]. Other biomimetic applications are also being explored. Weak points of the technology are energy inefficiency, slow response times, and large hysteresis.

Metallurgy

Some of the most notable contributors to the Corrosion Engineering discipline include among others: * Michael Faraday (1791–1867) * Marcel Pourbaix (1904–1998) * Herbert H. Uhlig (1907–1993) * Ulick Richardson Evans (1889–1980) * Mars Guy Fontana (1910–1988) * Melvin Romanoff ( -1970)

Metallurgy

The process is named for its inventor Anson Gardner Betts who filed several patents for this method starting in 1901.

Metallurgy

In materials science, intergranular corrosion (IGC), also known as intergranular attack (IGA), is a form of corrosion where the boundaries of crystallites of the material are more susceptible to corrosion than their insides. (Cf. transgranular corrosion.)

Metallurgy

Sepro-Sizetec Screens are used for a variety of particle size separation and dewatering duties in mineral processing and aggregate applications. In mineral processing applications, particle size separation is of utmost importance in order to optimize crushing, grinding and gravity separation as well as many other processes. In aggregate applications, proper size separation and dewatering is essential to generate a saleable product. High capacity capable and featuring interchangeable screen decks, Sepro-Sizetec Screens are used for gold ore processing, fine aggregates, industrial minerals, soil remediation and coal processing applications.

Metallurgy

The molecular mechanism of RNAa is not fully understood. Similar to RNAi, it has been shown that mammalian RNAa requires members of the Ago clade of Argonaute proteins, particularly Ago2, but possesses kinetics distinct from RNAi. In contrast to RNAi, promoter-targeted saRNAs induce prolonged activation of gene expression associated with epigenetic changes. It is currently suggested that saRNAs are first loaded and processed by an Ago protein to form an Ago-RNA complex which is then guided by the RNA to its promoter target. The target can be a non-coding transcript overlapping the promoter or the chromosomal DNA. The RNA-loaded Ago then recruits other proteins such as RHA, also known as nuclear DNA helicase II, and CTR9 to form an RNA-induced transcriptional activation (RITA) complex. RITA can directly interacts with RNAP II to stimulate transcription initiation and productive transcription elongation which is related to increased ubiquitination of H2B.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

This situation can happen in otherwise corrosion-resistant alloys, when the grain boundaries are depleted, known as , of the corrosion-inhibiting elements such as chromium by some mechanism. In nickel alloys and austenitic stainless steels, where chromium is added for corrosion resistance, the mechanism involved is precipitation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries, resulting in the formation of chromium-depleted zones adjacent to the grain boundaries (this process is called sensitization). Around 12% chromium is minimally required to ensure passivation, a mechanism by which an ultra thin invisible film, known as passive film, forms on the surface of stainless steels. This passive film protects the metal from corrosive environments. The self-healing property of the passive film make the steel stainless. Selective leaching often involves grain boundary depletion mechanisms. These zones also act as local galvanic couples, causing local galvanic corrosion. This condition happens when the material is heated to temperatures around 700 °C for too long a time, and often occurs during welding or an improper heat treatment. When zones of such material form due to welding, the resulting corrosion is termed weld decay. Stainless steels can be stabilized against this behavior by addition of titanium, niobium, or tantalum, which form titanium carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide preferentially to chromium carbide, by lowering the content of carbon in the steel and in case of welding also in the filler metal under 0.02%, or by heating the entire part above 1000 °C and quenching it in water, leading to dissolution of the chromium carbide in the grains and then preventing its precipitation. Another possibility is to keep the welded parts thin enough so that, upon cooling, the metal dissipates heat too quickly for chromium carbide to precipitate. The ASTM A923, ASTM A262, and other similar tests are often used to determine when stainless steels are susceptible to intergranular corrosion. The tests require etching with chemicals that reveal the presence of intermetallic particles, sometimes combined with Charpy V-Notch and other mechanical testing. Another related kind of intergranular corrosion is termed knifeline attack (KLA). Knifeline attack impacts steels stabilized by niobium, such as 347 stainless steel. Titanium, niobium, and their carbides dissolve in steel at very high temperatures. At some cooling regimes (depending on the rate of cooling), niobium carbide does not precipitate and the steel then behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot and increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a whole to about 1065 °C (1950 °F), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium carbide forms. The cooling rate after this treatment is not important, as the carbon that would otherwise pose risk of formation of chromium carbide is already sequestered as niobium carbide. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060421214659/http://httd.njuct.edu.cn/matweb/corrosie/c_iga.htm] Aluminium-based alloys may be sensitive to intergranular corrosion if there are layers of materials acting as anodes between the aluminium-rich crystals. High strength aluminium alloys, especially when extruded or otherwise subjected to high degree of working, can undergo exfoliation corrosion (metallurgy), where the corrosion products build up between the flat, elongated grains and separate them, resulting in lifting or leafing effect and often propagating from edges of the material through its entire structure. [http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms-exfoliation/exfoliation.htm] Intergranular corrosion is a concern especially for alloys with high content of copper. Other kinds of alloys can undergo exfoliation as well; the sensitivity of cupronickel increases together with its nickel content. A broader term for this class of corrosion is lamellar corrosion. Alloys of iron are susceptible to lamellar corrosion, as the volume of iron oxides is about seven times higher than the volume of original metal, leading to formation of internal tensile stresses tearing the material apart. Similar effect leads to formation of lamellae in stainless steels, due to the difference of thermal expansion of the oxides and the metal. [http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms/lamellar.htm] Copper-based alloys become sensitive when depletion of copper content in the grain boundaries occurs. Anisotropic alloys, where extrusion or heavy working leads to formation of long, flat grains, are especially prone to intergranular corrosion. [http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms-intergranular/intergranular.htm] Intergranular corrosion induced by environmental stresses is termed stress corrosion cracking. Inter granular corrosion can be detected by ultrasonic and eddy current methods.

Metallurgy

The dithionite is the oxyanion with the formula [SO]. It is commonly encountered as the salt sodium dithionite. For historical reasons, it is sometimes called hydrosulfite, but it contains no hydrogen and is not a sulfite. The dianion has a steric number of 4 and trigonal pyramidal geometry.

Metallurgy

Many TRIM proteins are induced by interferons, which are important component of resistance to pathogens and several TRIM proteins are known to be required for the restriction of infection by lentiviruses. TRIM proteins are involved in pathogen-recognition and by regulation of transcriptional pathways in host defence.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Since an axon can be unmyelinated or myelinated, the action potential has two methods to travel down the axon. These methods are referred to as continuous conduction for unmyelinated axons, and saltatory conduction for myelinated axons. Saltatory conduction is defined as an action potential moving in discrete jumps down a myelinated axon. This process is outlined as the charge passively spreading to the next node of Ranvier to depolarize it to threshold which will then trigger an action potential in this region which will then passively spread to the next node and so on. Saltatory conduction provides one advantage over conduction that occurs along an axon without myelin sheaths. This is that the increased speed afforded by this mode of conduction assures faster interaction between neurons. On the other hand, depending on the average firing rate of the neuron, calculations show that the energetic cost of maintaining the resting potential of oligodendrocytes can outweigh the energy savings of action potentials. So, axon myelination does not necessarily save energy.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

An arrastra (or arastra) is a primitive mill for grinding and pulverizing (typically) gold or silver ore. Its simplest form is two or more flat-bottomed drag stones placed in a circular pit paved with flat stones, and connected to a center post by a long arm. With a horse, mule or human providing power at the other end of the arm, the stones were dragged slowly around in a circle, crushing the ore. Some arrastras were powered by a water wheel; a few were powered by steam or gasoline engines, and even electricity. Arrastras were widely used throughout the Mediterranean region since Phoenician times. The Spanish introduced the arrastra to the New World in the 16th century. The word "arrastra" comes from the Spanish language arrastrar, meaning to drag along the ground. Arrastras were suitable for use in small or remote mines, since they could be built from local materials and required little investment capital. For gold ore, the gold was typically recovered by amalgamation with quicksilver. The miner would add clean mercury to the ground ore, continue grinding, rinse out the fines, then add more ore and repeat the process. At cleanup, the gold amalgam was carefully recovered from the low places and crevices in the arrastra floor. The amalgam was then heated in a distillation retort to recover the gold, and the mercury was saved for reuse. For silver ore, the patio process, invented in Mexico in 1554, was generally used to recover the silver from ore ground in the arrastra.

Metallurgy

First, adhesive from the HybriWell is peeled off and the HybriWell is attached over the area of the slide printed with the gelatin-DNA solution. Second, 200ul of transfection mix is pipetted into one of the HybriWell ports; the mixture will distribute evenly over the array. The array is then incubated, with temperature and time dependent on the cell types used. Third, the transfection mix is pipetted away and the HybriWell removed with a thin-tipped forceps. Fourth, the printed slide treated with transfection reagent is placed into a square dish with the printed side facing up. Fifth, the harvested cells are gently poured onto the slides (not on the printed areas). Finally, the dish is placed in a 37°C, 5% CO humidified incubator and incubated overnight.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

RNAPII can exist in two forms: RNAPII0, with a highly phosphorylated CTD, and RNAPIIA, with a nonphosphorylated CTD. Phosphorylation occurs principally on Ser2 and Ser5 of the repeats, although these positions are not equivalent. The phosphorylation state changes as RNAPII progresses through the transcription cycle: The initiating RNAPII is form IIA, and the elongating enzyme is form II0. While RNAPII0 does consist of RNAPs with hyperphosphorylated CTDs, the pattern of phosphorylation on individual CTDs can vary due to differential phosphorylation of Ser2 versus Ser5 residues and/or to differential phosphorylation of repeats along the length of the CTD. The PCTD (phosphoCTD of an RNAPII0) physically links pre-mRNA processing to transcription by tethering processing factors to elongating RNAPII, e.g., 5′-end capping, 3′-end cleavage, and polyadenylation. Ser5 phosphorylation (Ser5PO) near the 5′ ends of genes depends principally on the kinase activity of TFIIH (Kin28 in yeast; CDK7 in metazoans). The transcription factor TFIIH is a kinase and will hyperphosphorylate the CTD of RNAP, and in doing so, causes the RNAP complex to move away from the initiation site. Subsequent to the action of TFIIH kinase, Ser2 residues are phosphorylated by CTDK-I in yeast (CDK9 kinase in metazoans). Ctk1 (CDK9) acts in complement to phosphorylation of serine 5 and is, thus, seen in middle to late elongation. CDK8 and cyclin C (CCNC) are components of the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme that phosphorylate the carboxy-terminal domain (CTD). CDK8 regulates transcription by targeting the CDK7/cyclin H subunits of the general transcription initiation factor IIH (TFIIH), thereby providing a link between the mediator and the basal transcription machinery. The gene CTDP1 encodes a phosphatase that interacts with the carboxy-terminus of transcription initiation factor TFIIF, a transcription factor that regulates elongation as well as initiation by RNA polymerase II. Also involved in the phosphorylation and regulation of the RPB1 CTD is cyclin T1 (CCNT1). Cyclin T1 tightly associates and forms a complex with CDK9 kinase, both of which are involved in the phosphorylation and regulation. : ATP + [DNA-directed RNA polymerase II] <=> ADP + [DNA-directed RNA polymerase II] phosphate : catalyzed by CDK9 EC 2.7.11.23. TFIIF and FCP1 cooperate for RNAPII recycling. FCP1, the CTD phosphatase, interacts with RNA polymerase II. Transcription is regulated by the state of phosphorylation of a heptapeptide repeat. The nonphosphorylated form, RNAPIIA, is recruited to the initiation complex, whereas the elongating polymerase is found with RNAPII0. RNAPII cycles during transcription. CTD phosphatase activity is regulated by two GTFs (TFIIF and TFIIB). The large subunit of TFIIF (RAP74) stimulates the CTD phosphatase activity, whereas TFIIB inhibits TFIIF-mediated stimulation. Dephosphorylation of the CTD alters the migration of the largest subunit of RNAPII (RPB1).

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. Related decarburizing with air processes had been used outside Europe for hundreds of years, but not on an industrial scale. One such process (similar to puddling) was known in the 11th century in East Asia, where the scholar Shen Kuo of that era described its use in the Chinese iron and steel industry. In the 17th century, accounts by European travelers detailed its possible use by the Japanese. The modern process is named after its inventor, the Englishman Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1856. The process was said to be independently discovered in 1851 by the American inventor William Kelly though the claim is controversial. The process using a basic refractory lining is known as the "basic Bessemer process" or Gilchrist–Thomas process after the English discoverers Percy Gilchrist and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas.

Metallurgy

By the end of 1941, the Germans occupied most of the industrial territory of the USSR, where 59 blast furnaces, 126 open-hearth furnaces and 13 Electric arc furnace, 16 converters and 105 rolling mills functioned, about 66% of Soviet pig iron, more than 50% of steel and 60% of aluminum were produced. During 1941-1942, equipment and personnel of 832 large factories, which ended up in the front-line zone, were evacuated to the Urals. At the Novotagilsk Plant, an armored mill was launched, removed from the Kirov Plant. At the Sinarsky Plant, a thin-walled pipe workshop was launched from the equipment of the Dnepropetrovsk Pipe Plant. A middle-sheet workshop was built at the Magnitogorsk plant with equipment from Zaporizhstal, and an armored mill was evacuated from the Mariupol Plant. The Urals became the main supplier of metal in the country. The production of civilian products was minimized. All metallurgical plants switched to the production of weapons. To increase the production of alloy steels required for the manufacture of military equipment, the production of ferroalloys was often carried out in units not intended for this - blast furnaces and open-hearth furnaces. During the war years, the construction of metallurgical enterprises continued. Magnitogorsk and Nizhnetagilsky combines, Zlatoust, Pervouralsky, Beloretsk Iron and Steel Works, Chusovsky Metallurgical, Magnitogorsk Hardware, and Chelyabinsk Ferroalloy Plant were declared shock construction sites. In total, during the war years, 10 blast furnaces and 32 open-hearth furnaces, 16 electric furnaces, 16 ferroalloy furnaces, 2 Bessemer converters, 12 rolling and 6 pipe rolling mills, 11 coke batteries, more than 100 shafts and coal mines were built, and launched in the Urals. Chelyabinsk and Chebarkul Metallurgical, Chelyabinsk Pipe Rolling, Magnitogorsk Calibration, Berezniki Magnesium, Bogoslovsky Aluminum, and Miass Machine-Building Plant were also built. In conditions of martial law, it was required to dramatically increase the volume of mined ore. Priority was given to the rich and accessible deposits of the Magnitnaya and Vysokaya mountains, which in 1943 accounted for 81.1% of all Ural iron ore. Intensive production at these fields led to their rapid depletion. To provide manganese in a short time, the Polunochnoye and Marsyatskoye fields were developed in the north of the modern Sverdlovsk Oblast. At the Magnitogorsk Combine, the smelting of armor steel in open-hearth furnaces was first mastered and extended to other plants. During the war years, the Izhevsky Metallurgical Plant mastered the smelting of 19 new grades of steel, and for the first time applied stamping of breeches and planting of barrels on horizontal forging machines. At the Pervouralsk Novotrubny plant, reinforced with evacuated equipment from Ukrainian factories, during the war, 5 new workshops were built and the production of 129 types of pipes was mastered. At Uralvagonzavod, Uralmash, and the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant, the production of tanks was launched in the shortest possible time. In Sverdlovsk, and Ust-Katav, from the framework of the evacuated equipment, the production of artillery pieces and shells was built, supplementing the potential of the Motovilikhinsky, Zlatoust, and Izhevsky arms factories. Due to the expansion of the Ural Aluminum Plant, the volume of aluminum production increased during the war years from 13.3 to 71.5 thousand tons. In 1942, UAZ produced 100% of aluminum in the USSR. About 80% of all shell and cartridge cases during the war years were made of copper smelted by the Pyshminsky plant. The South Ural Nickel Plant significantly increased the production of nickel and cobalt. The Chelyabinsk Zinc Plant provided 75% of zinc supplies by the end of the war. At the Solikamsk Magnesium Plant, the design capacity was closed 4.5 times due to the addition of evacuated equipment. On July 22, 1943, the first magnesium was produced by the Bereznikovsky Plant, having been completed in a short time because of a simplification of the project. Evacuated equipment spread to Revda, Kamensk-Uralsky, Verkhnyaya Salda, and Orsk. Plants for the processing of non-ferrous metals and the production of aluminum and magnesium alloys were created. In 1942, the Kirovgrad Hard Alloys Plant was commissioned, which began to produce hard alloy armor-piercing cores for shells and cartridges. In March 1942, the Kamensk-Uralsky Foundry was launched, which throughout the war was the only enterprise that produced aircraft wheels. During the Great Patriotic War, the scientific potential of the Urals was strengthened by evacuated institutes. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR was located in Sverdlovsk. Academicians I. P. Bardin and M. A. Pavlov made a great contribution to the development of Ural metallurgy during the war years. Geological research in the Urals was led by A. N. Zavaritsky, D. V. Nalivkin, and V. I. Luchitsky. Academician L. D. Shevyakov made a significant contribution to the development of the Ural coal industry. V. V. Wolf developed and introduced a new method of processing Ural bauxite. N. S. Siunov invented a transformer to improve welding performance. A. E. Malakhov discovered new cobalt deposits. P. S. Mamykin was engaged in the development of new refractory materials. In general, up to 90% of iron ore, 70% of manganese, and 100% of aluminum, nickel, chromium, and platinum were produced in the Urals during the war years. Pig iron production increased by 88.4%, steel by 65.5%, rolled metal production by 54.9%, rough copper by 59.9%, electrolytic copper by 94.8%, nickel by 186.5%, aluminum by 554.1%, and cobalt by 1782.1%. The volume of production of defense equipment has grown sixfold. In total, the Urals produced about 40% of all military products of the country: 70% of all tanks (including 60% of medium and 100% of heavy), 50% of artillery pieces, and 50% of ammunition.

Metallurgy

HRI (encoded in humans by the gene EIF2AK1) also dimerizes in order to autophosphorylate and activate. This activation is dependent on the presence of heme. HRI has two domains that heme may bind to, including one on the N-terminus and one on the kinase insertion domain. The presence of heme causes a disulfide bond to form between the monomers of HRI, resulting in the structure of an inactive dimer. However, when heme is absent, HRI monomers form an active dimer through non-covalent interactions. Therefore, the activation of this kinase is dependent on heme deficiency. HRI activation can also occur due to other stressors such as heat shock, osmotic stress and proteasome inhibition. Activation of HRI in response to these stressors does not depend on heme, but rather relies on the help of two heat shock proteins (HSP90 and HSP70). HRI is mainly found in the precursors of red blood cells, and has been observed to increase during erythropoiesis.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Technical journals published on behalf of ASM include: * Alloy Digest * International Materials Reviews (IMR) * Journal of Failure Analysis & Prevention (JFAP) * Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance (JMEP) * Journal of Phase Equilibria and Diffusion (JPED) * Journal of Thermal Spray Technology (JTST) * Metallography, Microstructure, and Analysis (MMA) * Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A and B (MetTransA & MetTransB) * Shape Memory and Superelasticity.

Metallurgy

TAD locations are defined by applying an algorithm to Hi-C data. For example, TADs are often called according to the so-called "directionality index". The directionality index is calculated for individual 40kb bins, by collecting the reads that fall in the bin, and observing whether their paired reads map upstream or downstream of the bin (read pairs are required to span no more than 2Mb). A positive value indicates that more read pairs lie downstream than upstream, and a negative value indicates the reverse. Mathematically, the directionality index is a signed chi-square statistic. The development of specialized genome browsers and visualization tools such as Juicebox, HiGlass/HiPiler, The 3D Genome Browser, 3DIV, 3D-GNOME, and TADKB have enabled us to visualize the TAD organization of regions of interest in different cell types.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

While introns do not encode protein products, they are integral to gene expression regulation. Some introns themselves encode functional RNAs through further processing after splicing to generate noncoding RNA molecules. Alternative splicing is widely used to generate multiple proteins from a single gene. Furthermore, some introns play essential roles in a wide range of gene expression regulatory functions such as nonsense-mediated decay and mRNA export. After the initial discovery of introns in protein-coding genes of the eukaryotic nucleus, there was significant debate as to whether introns in modern-day organisms were inherited from a common ancient ancestor (termed the introns-early hypothesis), or whether they appeared in genes rather recently in the evolutionary process (termed the introns-late hypothesis). Another theory is that the spliceosome and the intron-exon structure of genes is a relic of the RNA world (the introns-first hypothesis). There is still considerable debate about the extent to which of these hypotheses is most correct but the popular consensus at the moment is that following the formation of the first eukaryotic cell, group II introns from the bacterial endosymbiont invaded the host genome. In the beginning these self-splicing introns excised themselves from the mRNA precursor but over time some of them lost that ability and their excision had to be aided in trans by other group II introns. Eventually a number of specific trans-acting introns evolved and these became the precursors to the snRNAs of the spliceosome. The efficiency of splicing was improved by association with stabilizing proteins to form the primitive spliceosome. Early studies of genomic DNA sequences from a wide range of organisms show that the intron-exon structure of homologous genes in different organisms can vary widely. More recent studies of entire eukaryotic genomes have now shown that the lengths and density (introns/gene) of introns varies considerably between related species. For example, while the human genome contains an average of 8.4 introns/gene (139,418 in the genome), the unicellular fungus Encephalitozoon cuniculi contains only 0.0075 introns/gene (15 introns in the genome). Since eukaryotes arose from a common ancestor (common descent), there must have been extensive gain or loss of introns during evolutionary time. This process is thought to be subject to selection, with a tendency towards intron gain in larger species due to their smaller population sizes, and the converse in smaller (particularly unicellular) species. Biological factors also influence which genes in a genome lose or accumulate introns. Alternative splicing of exons within a gene after intron excision acts to introduce greater variability of protein sequences translated from a single gene, allowing multiple related proteins to be generated from a single gene and a single precursor mRNA transcript. The control of alternative RNA splicing is performed by a complex network of signaling molecules that respond to a wide range of intracellular and extracellular signals. Introns contain several short sequences that are important for efficient splicing, such as acceptor and donor sites at either end of the intron as well as a branch point site, which are required for proper splicing by the spliceosome. Some introns are known to enhance the expression of the gene that they are contained in by a process known as intron-mediated enhancement (IME). Actively transcribed regions of DNA frequently form R-loops that are vulnerable to DNA damage. In highly expressed yeast genes, introns inhibit R-loop formation and the occurrence of DNA damage. Genome-wide analysis in both yeast and humans revealed that intron-containing genes have decreased R-loop levels and decreased DNA damage compared to intronless genes of similar expression. Insertion of an intron within an R-loop prone gene can also suppress R-loop formation and recombination. Bonnet et al. (2017) speculated that the function of introns in maintaining genetic stability may explain their evolutionary maintenance at certain locations, particularly in highly expressed genes.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

KAP1 facilitates the establishment of viral latency in certain cell types for Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and other endogenous retroviruses . KAP1 acts as a transcriptional corepressor of the viral genome. The protein binds to the histones of the viral chromatin and then recruits Mi2α and SETB1. SETB1 is a histone methyltransferase that recruits HP1, thus inducing heterochromatin formation. This heterochromatin formation prevents the transcription of the viral genome. mTOR has been implicated in the phosphorylation of KAP1 resulting in a switch from latency to the lytic cycle.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Alternative Splicing Annotation Project (ASAP) in computational biology was a database for alternative splicing data maintained by the University of California from 2003 to 2013. The purpose of ASAP was to provide a source for data mining projects by consolidating the information generated by genomics and proteomics researchers.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

By the 14th century, the majority of the more easily accessible ore deposits were exhausted. Thus, more advanced technological achievements were introduced in order to keep up with the demand in metal. The alchemical laboratory, separating precious metals from the baser ones they are typically found with, was an essential feature of the metallurgical enterprise. A significant hiatus in underground mining was noted during the 14th and the early 15th century due to a series of historical events with severe social and economic impacts. The Great Famine (1315–1317), the Black Death (1347–1353), which diminished the European population by one third to one half, and the Hundred Years War (1337–1453) between England and France, that, amongst others, caused severe deforestation, and had dramatic influences in metallurgical industry and trade. Lead mining, for example, ground to a halt due to the Black Death pandemic, when atmospheric lead pollution from smelting dropped to natural levels (zero) for the first and only time in the last 2000 years. The great demand of metals, e.g. for armor, could not be met due to the lack of manpower and capital investment. It was only by the end of the 13th century that great capital expenditures were invested and more sophisticated machinery was installed in underground mining, which resulted in reaching greater depths. The wider application of water and horse power was necessary for draining water out of these deep shafts. Also, acid parting in separating gold from silver was introduced in the 14th century (Bayley 2008). Signs of recovery were present only after the mid 15th century, when the improved methods were widely adopted (Nef 1987, 723). The discovery of the New World had an impact on European metal production and trade, which has affected the world economy ever since. New, rich ore deposits found in Central Europe during the 15th century were dwarfed by the large amounts of precious metal imports from the Americas.

Metallurgy

The blowing of air through the molten pig iron introduces oxygen into the melt which results in oxidation, removing impurities found in the pig iron, such as silicon, manganese, and carbon in the form of oxides. These oxides either escape as gas or form a solid slag. The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion — clay linings may be used when there is little phosphorus in the raw material, and Bessemer himself used ganister sandstone – this is known as the acid Bessemer process. When the phosphorus content is high, dolomite, or sometimes magnesite, linings are required in the basic Bessemer limestone process, see below. In order to produce steel with desired properties, additives such as spiegeleisen (a ferromanganese alloy), can be added to the molten steel once the impurities have been removed.

Metallurgy

Masking is the process of applying the maskant material to the surface to ensure that only desired areas are etched. Liquid maskants may be applied via dip-masking, in which the part is dipped into an open tank of maskant and then the maskant dried. Maskant may also be applied by flow coating: liquid maskant is flowed over the surface of the part. Certain conductive maskants may also be applied by electrostatic deposition, where electrical charges are applied to particles of maskant as it is sprayed onto the surface of the material. The charge causes the particles of maskant to adhere to the surface.

Metallurgy

Calcium carbide, also known as calcium acetylide, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula of CaC. Its main use industrially is in the production of acetylene and calcium cyanamide. The pure material is colorless, while pieces of technical-grade calcium carbide are grey or brown and consist of about 80–85% of CaC (the rest is CaO (calcium oxide), CaP (calcium phosphide), CaS (calcium sulfide), CaN (calcium nitride), SiC (silicon carbide), etc.). In the presence of trace moisture, technical-grade calcium carbide emits an unpleasant odor reminiscent of garlic. Applications of calcium carbide include manufacture of acetylene gas, generation of acetylene in carbide lamps, manufacture of chemicals for fertilizer, and steelmaking.

Metallurgy

While a thermocouple wire type is often described by its chemical composition, the actual aim is to produce a pair of wires that follow a standardized curve. Impurities affect each batch of metal differently, producing variable Seebeck coefficients. To match the standard behaviour, thermocouple wire manufacturers will deliberately mix in additional impurities to "dope" the alloy, compensating for uncontrolled variations in source material. As a result, there are standard and specialized grades of thermocouple wire, depending on the level of precision demanded in the thermocouple behaviour. Precision grades may only be available in matched pairs, where one wire is modified to compensate for deficiencies in the other wire. A special case of thermocouple wire is known as "extension grade", designed to carry the thermoelectric circuit over a longer distance. Extension wires follow the stated curve but for various reasons they are not designed to be used in extreme environments and so they cannot be used at the sensing junction in some applications. For example, an extension wire may be in a different form, such as highly flexible with stranded construction and plastic insulation, or be part of a multi-wire cable for carrying many thermocouple circuits. With expensive noble metal thermocouples, the extension wires may even be made of a completely different, cheaper material that mimics the standard type over a reduced temperature range.

Metallurgy

Examples of intermetallics through history include: # Roman yellow brass, CuZn # Chinese high tin bronze, CuSn # Type metal, SbSn # Chinese white copper, CuNi German type metal is described as breaking like glass, not bending, softer than copper but more fusible than lead. The chemical formula does not agree with the one above; however, the properties match with an intermetallic compound or an alloy of one.

Metallurgy

Chinese mythology generally reflects a time when metallurgy had long been practiced. According to the Romanian anthropologist, orientalist, and philosopher Mircea Eliade, the Iron Age produced a large number of rites, myths and symbols; the blacksmith was the main agent of diffusion of mythology, rites and metallurgical mysteries. The secret knowledge of metallurgists and their powers made them founders of the human world and masters of the spirit world. This metallurgical model was reinterpreted again by Taoist alchemists. Some metalworkers illustrate the close relationship between Chinese mystical and sovereign power and the mining and metallurgy industries. Although the name Huangdi is absent from Shang or Zhou inscriptions, it appears in the Spring and Autumn periods Guoyu and Zuo zhuan'. According to Mitarai (1984), Huangdi may have lived in early antiquity and led a regional ethnic group who worshiped him as a deity; "The Yellow Emperor fought Chiyou at Mount Kunwu whose summit was covered with a large quantity of red copper". "The seventy-two brothers of Chiyou had copper heads and iron fronts; they ate iron and stones [...] In the province of Ji where Chiyou is believed to have lived (Chiyou shen), when we dig the earth and we find skulls that seem to be made of copper and iron, they are identified as the bones of Chiyou." Chiyou was the leader of the indigenous Sanmiao (or Jiuli) tribes who defeated Xuanyuan, the future Yellow Emperor. Chiyou, a rival of the Yellow Emperor, belonged to a clan of blacksmiths. The advancement of weaponry is sometimes attributed to the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou, and Chiyou reportedly discovered the process of casting. Kunwu is associated with a people, a royal blacksmith, a mountain which produces metals, and a sword. Kui, a master of music and dance cited by Shun, was succeeded by Yu the Great. Yu the Great, reported founder of the Xia dynasty (China's first), spent many years working on flood control and is credited with casting the Nine Tripod Cauldrons. Helped by dragons descended from heaven, he died on Mount Xianglu in Zhejiang. In these myths and legends, mines and forges are associated with leadership.

Metallurgy

The Secretin family are peptides that act as local hormones which regulate activity of G-protein coupled receptors. Most often found in the pancreas and the intestines. Secretin was discovered in 1902 by E. H. Starling. It was later linked to chemical regulation and was the first substance to be deemed a hormone. #Secretin #Glucagon #Glicentin (GLI) #Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) #Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP)

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Calcium silicide is used for manufacture of special metal alloys, e.g. for removing phosphorus and as a deoxidizer.

Metallurgy

One of the theories on the specific formation mechanism for bainite is that it occurs by a shear transformation, as in martensite. The crystal structure change is achieved by a deformation rather than by diffusion. The shape change associated with bainite is an invariant—plane strain with a large shear component. This kind of deformation implies a disciplined motion of atoms (rather than a chaotic transfer associated with diffusion), and is typical of all displacive transformations in steels, for example, martensite, bainite and Widmanstaetten ferrite. There is a strain energy associated with such relief, that leads to the plate shape of the transformation product Any diffusion is subsequent to the diffusionless transformation of austenite, for example the partitioning of carbon from supersaturated bainitic ferrite, or the precipitation of carbides; this is analogous to the tempering of martensite. There are many features of bainite that are correctly predicted by this theory, including: * the plate shape, which is a consequence of the minimisation of strain energy due to the shape deformation accompanying transformation. * The fact that excess carbon is retained inside the even defect-free regions of bainitic ferrite. * The fact that the unit cell of bainitic ferrite can be tetragonal rather than cubic. * The fact that the bainite transformation can be dramatically retarded when the austenite is first plastically deformed, a phenomenon known as mechanical stabilisation, which is unique to displacive transformations. * The obvious fact that displacements occur when bainite grows. The transformation is a combination of deformation and crystal structure change, just like martensite.

Metallurgy

Devereux recruited E A G Liddiard from The British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association (BNF) to be Fulmer's Director of Research Among other senior staff recruited were: * Philipp Gross a refugee from Vienna who was an expert in chemical thermodynamics and had been working at International Alloys (another Almin company) on the direct reduction of magnesite to magnesium, appointed Principal Scientist * Ted Calnan, appointed Principal Physicist * Arthur Sully, recruited from Special Metals Wiggin Limited, was an expert on the creep of jet engine turbine blades. He established Fulmer's reputation in physical metallurgy * Harold Hardy, another metallurgist, worked on the development of new aluminium alloys * Gordon Metcalfe, recruited from the Royal Aircraft Establishment to head the corrosion section * Tom Heal, a physicist who had served in the Navy working on counter measures against acoustic and magnetic mines, became head of physics * Eric Brandes, a process metallurgist from the Ford Motor Company * Leon Levi, a physical chemist By the end of 1946 Fulmer had about 40 Staff.

Metallurgy

Among the diverse range of defense strategies plants utilize against pathogens, Ca signaling is very common. Free Ca levels in the cytoplasm increases in response to a pathogenic infection. Ca signatures of this nature usually activate the plant defense system by inducing defense-related genes and the hypersensitive cell death. CaMs, CMLs and CaM-binding proteins are some of the recently identified elements of the plant defense signaling pathways. Several CML genes in tobacco, bean and tomato are responsive to pathogens. CML43 is a CaM-related protein that, as isolated from APR134 gene in the disease-resistant leaves of Arabidopsis for gene expression analysis, is rapidly induced when the leaves are inoculated with Pseudomonas syringae. These genes are also found in tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum). The CML43 from the APR134 also binds to Ca ions in vitro which shows that CML43 and APR134 are, hence, involved in the Ca-dependent signaling during the plant immune response to bacterial pathogens. The CML9 expression in Arabidopsis thaliana is rapidly induced by phytopathogenic bacteria, flagellin and salicylic acid. Expression of soybean SCaM4 and SCaM5 in transgenic tobacco and Arabidopsis causes an activation of genes related to pathogen resistance and also results in enhanced resistance to a wide spectrum of pathogen infection. The same is not true for soybean SCaM1 and SCaM2 that are highly conserved CaM isoforms. The AtBAG6 protein is a CaM-binding protein that binds to CaM only in the absence of Ca and not in the presence of it. AtBAG6 is responsible for the hypersensitive response of programmed cell death in order to prevent the spread of pathogen infection or to restrict pathogen growth. Mutations in the CaM binding proteins can lead to severe effects on the defense response of the plants towards pathogen infections. Cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (CNGCs) are functional protein channels in the plasma membrane that have overlapping CaM binding sites transport divalent cations such as Ca. However, the exact role of the positioning of the CNGCs in this pathway for plant defense is still unclear.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

The Sepro Blackhawk 100 Cone Crusher is a modern, hydraulically operated cone crusher designed to be simple, rugged and effective for heavy duty mining and aggregate applications. The combination of the speed and eccentric throw of the crusher provides fine crushing capability and high capacity in a very compact design. The Blackhawk is capable of being applied as a secondary or tertiary crusher as well as a pebble crusher. The Blackhawk 100 is driven directly via a flexible coupling to the electric drive motor. This arrangement eliminates the need for sheaves and v-belts, allowing for simplified operation and maintenance. A variable speed drive package is included to optimize the speed of the machine to the given liner profile, feed and production conditions.

Metallurgy

The alloy contains about 35–50% uranium and 1.5–4.0% carbon. At least two intermetallic compounds of iron and uranium were identified: UFe and UFe. Small amounts of uranium can drastically lower the melting point of iron and vice versa. reportedly melts at 1230 °C, at 805 °C; a mixture of these two can have melting point as low as 725 °C, a mixture of iron and can have melting point of 1055 °C. As ferrouranium readily dissolves in mineral acids, its chemical analysis is not problematic.

Metallurgy

The movement of grain boundaries (HAGB) has implications for recrystallization and grain growth while subgrain boundary (LAGB) movement strongly influences recovery and the nucleation of recrystallization. A boundary moves due to a pressure acting on it. It is generally assumed that the velocity is directly proportional to the pressure with the constant of proportionality being the mobility of the boundary. The mobility is strongly temperature dependent and often follows an Arrhenius type relationship: The apparent activation energy (Q) may be related to the thermally activated atomistic processes that occur during boundary movement. However, there are several proposed mechanisms where the mobility will depend on the driving pressure and the assumed proportionality may break down. It is generally accepted that the mobility of low-angle boundaries is much lower than that of high-angle boundaries. The following observations appear to hold true over a range of conditions: * The mobility of low-angle boundaries is proportional to the pressure acting on it. * The rate controlling process is that of bulk diffusion * The boundary mobility increases with misorientation. Since low-angle boundaries are composed of arrays of dislocations and their movement may be related to dislocation theory. The most likely mechanism, given the experimental data, is that of dislocation climb, rate limited by the diffusion of solute in the bulk. The movement of high-angle boundaries occurs by the transfer of atoms between the neighbouring grains. The ease with which this can occur will depend on the structure of the boundary, itself dependent on the crystallography of the grains involved, impurity atoms and the temperature. It is possible that some form of diffusionless mechanism (akin to diffusionless phase transformations such as martensite) may operate in certain conditions. Some defects in the boundary, such as steps and ledges, may also offer alternative mechanisms for atomic transfer. Since a high-angle boundary is imperfectly packed compared to the normal lattice it has some amount of free space or free volume where solute atoms may possess a lower energy. As a result, a boundary may be associated with a solute atmosphere that will retard its movement. Only at higher velocities will the boundary be able to break free of its atmosphere and resume normal motion. Both low- and high-angle boundaries are retarded by the presence of particles via the so-called Zener pinning effect. This effect is often exploited in commercial alloys to minimise or prevent recrystallization or grain growth during heat-treatment.

Metallurgy

Battery leakage is the escape of chemicals, such as electrolytes, within an electric battery due to generation of pathways to the outside environment caused by factory or design defects, excessive gas generation, or physical damage to the battery. The leakage of battery chemical often causes destructive corrosion to the associated equipment and may pose a health hazard.

Metallurgy

Chemokine-like factor (CKLF) is a member of the CKLF-like MARVEL transmembrane domain-containing family of proteins that in humans is encoded by the CKLF gene. This gene is located on band 22.1 in the long (i.e. "q") arm of chromosome 16.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Transfer RNA-like structures (tRNA-like structures) are RNA sequences, which have a similar tertiary structure to tRNA; they frequently contain a pseudoknot close to the 3' end. The presence of tRNA-like structures has been demonstrated in many plant virus RNA genomes. These tRNA-like structures are linked to regulation of plant virus replication. tRNA-like structures mimic some tRNA function, such as aminoacylation. There are three aminoacylation specificities, valine, histidine and tyrosine. For example, valine binds to the tRNA-like structure of the turnip yellow mosaic virus genome whilst tyrosine binds to the tRNA-like structure of the barley stripe mosaic virus genome. tRNA-like structures which lack the 3' termini lack complete or partial tRNA mimicry. tRNA-like structures are required for RNA encapsulation and increase RNA stability. They also act as 3'-translational enhancers and regulators of minus strand synthesis.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Solder is a metallic material that is used to connect metal workpieces. The choice of specific solder alloys depends on their melting point, chemical reactivity, mechanical properties, toxicity, and other properties. Hence a wide range of solder alloys exist, and only major ones are listed below. Since early 2000s the use of lead in solder alloys is discouraged by several governmental guidelines in the European Union, Japan and other countries, such as Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive.

Metallurgy

From studies and predictions such as Dreyer and Bennett's, it shows that the light chains and heavy chains are encoded by separate multigene families on different chromosomes. They are referred to as gene segments and are separated by non-coding regions. The rearrangement and organization of these gene segments during the maturation of B cells produce functional proteins. The entire process of rearrangement and organization of these gene segments is the vital source where our body immune system gets its capabilities to recognize and respond to variety of antigens.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

The EDM process is most widely used by the mold-making, tool, and die industries, but is becoming a common method of making prototype and production parts, especially in the aerospace, automobile and electronics industries in which production quantities are relatively low. In sinker EDM, a graphite, copper tungsten, or pure copper electrode is machined into the desired (negative) shape and fed into the workpiece on the end of a vertical ram.

Metallurgy

G proteins were discovered in 1980 when Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell investigated stimulation of cells by adrenaline. They found that when adrenaline binds to a receptor, the receptor does not stimulate enzymes (inside the cell) directly. Instead, the receptor stimulates a G protein, which then stimulates an enzyme. An example is adenylate cyclase, which produces the second messenger cyclic AMP. For this discovery, they won the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Nobel prizes have been awarded for many aspects of signaling by G proteins and GPCRs. These include receptor antagonists, neurotransmitters, neurotransmitter reuptake, G protein-coupled receptors, G proteins, second messengers, the enzymes that trigger protein phosphorylation in response to cAMP, and consequent metabolic processes such as glycogenolysis. Prominent examples include (in chronological order of awarding): * The 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Carl Cori, Gerty Cori and Bernardo Houssay, for their discovery of how glycogen is broken down to glucose and resynthesized in the body, for use as a store and source of energy. Glycogenolysis is stimulated by numerous hormones and neurotransmitters including adrenaline. * The 1970 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Julius Axelrod, Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler for their work on the release and reuptake of neurotransmitters. * The 1971 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Earl Sutherland for discovering the key role of adenylate cyclase, which produces the second messenger cyclic AMP. * The 1988 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to George H. Hitchings, Sir James Black and Gertrude Elion "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment" targeting GPCRs. * The 1992 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Edwin G. Krebs and Edmond H. Fischer for describing how reversible phosphorylation works as a switch to activate proteins, and to regulate various cellular processes including glycogenolysis. * The 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell for their discovery of "G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells". * The 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Eric Kandel, Arvid Carlsson and Paul Greengard, for research on neurotransmitters such as dopamine, which act via GPCRs. * The 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Richard Axel and Linda B. Buck for their work on G protein-coupled olfactory receptors. * The 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Brian Kobilka and Robert Lefkowitz for their work on GPCR function.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

The notch/STAT3-Ser/Hes3 signaling axis is a recently identified signal transduction branch of the notch signaling pathway, originally shown to regulate the number of neural stem cells in culture and in the living adult brain. Pharmacological activation of this pathway opposed the progression of neurodegenerative disease in rodent models. More recent efforts have implicated it in carcinogenesis and diabetes. The pathway can be activated by soluble ligands of the notch receptor which induce the sequential activation of intracellular kinases and the subsequent phosphorylation of STAT3 on the serine residue at amino acid position 727 (STAT3-Ser). This modification is followed by an increase in the levels of Hes3, a transcription factor belonging to the Hes/Hey family of genes (see HES1). Hes3 has been used as a biomarker to identify putative endogenous stem cells in tissues. The pathway is an example of non-canonical signaling as it represents a new branch of a previously established signaling pathway (notch). Several efforts are currently aimed at relating this pathway to other signaling pathways and to manipulate it in a therapeutic context.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Root systems in plants with an expressed BIK1 gene and in plants with a loss-of-function mutant show that without an expressed BIK1 gene, roots grow more laterally, in greater numbers, and with shorter primary roots. With a functional BIK1 gene, roots grew downward into the soil and had less root hairs. Additionally, without a functional BIK1 gene, leaves showed serrated edges and considerable wrinkles whereas leaves with a functional BIK1 gene showed stronger, smoother leaves. Flowering plants that lack a functional BIK1 gene flower an average of six days before those with a functional BIK1 gene and show weaker stem strengths, reduced fertility, and smaller siliques. The BIK1 protein contributes to overall stronger stems, broader leaves, and a healthy flowering timeline. Plants lacking a BIK1 protein or that have a BIK1 protein whose functions are being inhibited may exhibit a shorter flowering period and a smaller stature for the plant overall. This suggests that BIK1 plays a significant role in a plant's ability to grow properly as well as its ability to maintain an adequate rigidity and stem strength that contribute to overall plant health.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

For transcription to take place, the enzyme that synthesizes RNA, known as RNA polymerase, must attach to the DNA near a gene. Promoters contain specific DNA sequences such as response elements that provide a secure initial binding site for RNA polymerase and for proteins called transcription factors that recruit RNA polymerase. These transcription factors have specific activator or repressor sequences of corresponding nucleotides that attach to specific promoters and regulate gene expression. ;In bacteria: The promoter is recognized by RNA polymerase and an associated sigma factor, which in turn are often brought to the promoter DNA by an activator protein's binding to its own DNA binding site nearby. ;In eukaryotes: The process is more complicated, and at least seven different factors are necessary for the binding of an RNA polymerase II to the promoter. Promoters represent critical elements that can work in concert with other regulatory regions (enhancers, silencers, boundary elements/insulators) to direct the level of transcription of a given gene. A promoter is induced in response to changes in abundance or conformation of regulatory proteins in a cell, which enable activating transcription factors to recruit RNA polymerase.

Gene expression + Signal Transduction

Fungi can cause microbial corrosion of concrete. With adequate environmental factors, such as humidity, temperature, and organic carbon sources, fungi will produce colonies on concrete. Some fungi can reproduce asexually. This common process among fungi allows many new fungal spores to quickly spread to new environments, developing entire colonies where nothing existed. These colonies and the new spores produced use hyphae to absorb environmental nutrients. Hyphae are incredibly tiny and thin, growing only 2 to 6 micrometers in diameter. Fungal hyphae are used to reach deep into minuscule holes, cracks, and ravines in concrete. These areas contain moisture and nutrients the fungus survives on. As more hyphae force their way into these tiny cracks and crevices, the pressure causes those gaps to expand, similar to how water freezes in tiny holes and cracks, causing them to widen. The mechanical pressure enables cracks to expand, leading to more moisture getting inside, and thus, the fungi have more nutrients, allowing them to travel deeper into the concrete structure. By altering their environment, fungi break down concrete and its alkaline layer, thus providing ideal conditions for corrosion-causing bacteria to further degrade concrete structures. Another way fungi cause corrosion on concrete is through organic acids naturally produced by the fungi. These organic acids chemically react with Calcium 2+ in the concrete which produces water-soluble salts as a product. The Calcium 2+ is then released, causing extensive damage over time to the structure. Due to the fact that fungi expel digestive juices to gain nutrients, the structure they grow on will begin to dissolve. This is no different for concrete when fungi such as Fusarium take root. An experiment compared the corrosion of the bacteria Tiobacillus to the corrosion of a fungus called Fusarium. In the experiment, both groups of organisms were provided with adequate conditions to grow, along with an equal piece of concrete in each experiment. After 147 days, the Tiobacillus bacterium caused an 18% mass reduction. However, the Fusarium fungus caused a 24% mass reduction in the same time frame, thus showcasing its corrosive abilities. Bhattacharyya did a study on the three separate types of fungi that are known to cause concrete corrosion: Aspergillus tamarii, Aspergillus niger, and Fusarium. Aspergillus tamarii was the most destructive of the three fungi. It causes cracks to widen and deepen, quickly and efficiently takes root, and promotes calcium oxalate. By causing calcium oxalate, there is an increase in the speed of calcium ion leaching, which lowers the overall strength of concrete. In 90 days, exposure to the fungus resulted in a mass reduction of 7.2% in the concrete. Aspergillus niger was the second worst offender out of the three, followed by Fusarium, which can lower the mass of concrete by 6.2 grams in a single year, as well as cause the pH to down from 12 to 8 in the same time frame.

Metallurgy

(AD 900–1500) Objects of personal adornment and ceremonial objects #Cerro Montoso, Veracruz #Chachalacas, Veracruz #El Tajin, Veracruz #Isla de Sacrificios, Veracruz #Pánuco, Veracruz #Tampico, Veracruz

Metallurgy

An example of undesirable work hardening is during machining when early passes of a cutter inadvertently work-harden the workpiece surface, causing damage to the cutter during the later passes. Certain alloys are more prone to this than others; superalloys such as Inconel require machining strategies that take it into account. For metal objects designed to flex, such as springs, specialized alloys are usually employed in order to avoid work hardening (a result of plastic deformation) and metal fatigue, with specific heat treatments required to obtain the necessary characteristics.

Metallurgy

The deformation fields around large (over 1 μm) non-deformable particles are characterised by high dislocation densities and large orientation gradients and so are ideal sites for the development of recrystallization nuclei. This phenomenon, called particle stimulated nucleation (PSN), is notable as it provides one of the few ways to control recrystallization by controlling the particle distribution. The size and misorientation of the deformed zone is related to the particle size and so there is a minimum particle size required to initiate nucleation. Increasing the extent of deformation will reduce the minimum particle size, leading to a PSN regime in size-deformation space. If the efficiency of PSN is one (i.e. each particle stimulates one nuclei), then the final grain size will be simply determined by the number of particles. Occasionally the efficiency can be greater than one if multiple nuclei form at each particle but this is uncommon. The efficiency will be less than one if the particles are close to the critical size and large fractions of small particles will actually prevent recrystallization rather than initiating it (see above).

Metallurgy