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The first kind of muon–catalyzed fusion to be observed experimentally, by L.W. Alvarez et al., was protium (H or H) and deuterium (D or H) muon-catalyzed fusion. The fusion rate for p–d (or pd) muon-catalyzed fusion has been estimated to be about a million times slower than the fusion rate for d–t muon-catalyzed fusion.
Of more practical interest, deuterium–deuterium muon-catalyzed fusion has been frequently observed and extensively studied experimentally, in large part because deuterium already exists in relative abundance and, like protium, deuterium is not at all radioactive. (Tritium rarely occurs naturally, and is radioactive with a half-life of about 12.5 years.)
The fusion rate for d–d muon-catalyzed fusion has been estimated to be only about 1% of the fusion rate for d–t muon-catalyzed fusion, but this still gives about one d–d nuclear fusion every 10 to 100 picoseconds or so. However, the energy released with every d–d muon-catalyzed fusion reaction is only about 20% or so of the energy released with every d–t muon-catalyzed fusion reaction. Moreover, the catalyzing muon has a probability of sticking to at least one of the d–d muon-catalyzed fusion reaction products that Jackson in this 1957 paper estimated to be at least 10 times greater than the corresponding probability of the catalyzing muon sticking to at least one of the d–t muon-catalyzed fusion reaction products, thereby preventing the muon from catalyzing any more nuclear fusions. Effectively, this means that each muon catalyzing d–d muon-catalyzed fusion reactions in pure deuterium is only able to catalyze about one-tenth of the number of d–t muon-catalyzed fusion reactions that each muon is able to catalyze in a mixture of equal amounts of deuterium and tritium, and each d–d fusion only yields about one-fifth of the yield of each d–t fusion, thereby making the prospects for useful energy release from d–d muon-catalyzed fusion at least 50 times worse than the already dim prospects for useful energy release from d–t muon-catalyzed fusion.
Potential "aneutronic" (or substantially aneutronic) nuclear fusion possibilities, which result in essentially no neutrons among the nuclear fusion products, are almost certainly not very amenable to muon-catalyzed fusion. One such essentially aneutronic nuclear fusion reaction involves a deuteron from deuterium fusing with a helion (He) from helium-3, which yields an energetic alpha particle and a much more energetic proton, both positively charged (with a few neutrons coming from inevitable d–d nuclear fusion side reactions). However, one muon with only one negative electric charge is incapable of shielding both positive charges of a helion from the one positive charge of a deuteron. The chances of the requisite two muons being present simultaneously are exceptionally remote. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
Electronic components that require clear transparency for light to exit or enter (photovoltaic panels and sensors) can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV energy. The advantages are low VOC emissions and rapid curing.
Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light, polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include glass and plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of flooring, UV coating and paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and decorative fingernail "gels".
UV sources for UV curing applications include UV lamps, UV LEDs, and excimer flash lamps. Fast processes such as flexo or offset printing require high-intensity light focused via reflectors onto a moving substrate and medium so high-pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe (iron, doped)-based bulbs are used, energized with electric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power fluorescent lamps and LEDs can be used for static applications. Small high-pressure lamps can have light focused and transmitted to the work area via liquid-filled or fiber-optic light guides.
The impact of UV on polymers is used for modification of the (roughness and hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. For example, a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface can be smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet.
UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy polymers for adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the polymer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has been raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
Stripping is commonly used in industrial applications to remove harmful contaminants from waste streams. One example would be the removal of TBT and PAH contaminants from harbor soils. The soils are dredged from the bottom of contaminated harbors, mixed with water to make a slurry and then stripped with steam. The cleaned soil and contaminant rich steam mixture are then separated. This process is able to decontaminate soils almost completely.
Steam is also frequently used as a stripping agent for water treatment. Volatile organic compounds are partially soluble in water and because of environmental considerations and regulations, must be removed from groundwater, surface water, and wastewater. These compounds can be present because of industrial, agricultural, and commercial activity. | 5 | Separation Processes |
UV-A presents a potential hazard when eyes and skin are exposed, especially to high power sources. According to the World Health Organization, UV-A is responsible for the initial tanning of skin and it contributes to skin ageing and wrinkling. UV-A may also contribute to the progression of skin cancers. Additionally, UV-A can have negative effects on eyes in both the short-term and long-term. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
The stability of metals is a longstanding question of solid state physics, which can only be understood in the quantum mechanical framework by properly taking into account the interaction between the positively charged ions and the valence and conduction electrons. It is nevertheless possible to use a very simplified picture of metallic bonding and only keeps an isotropic type of interactions, leading to structures which can be represented as densely packed spheres. And indeed the crystalline simple metal structures are often either close packed face-centered cubic (fcc) or hexagonal close packing (hcp) lattices. Up to some extent amorphous metals and quasicrystals can also be modeled by close packing of spheres. The local atomic order is well modeled by a close packing of tetrahedra, leading to an imperfect icosahedral order.
A regular tetrahedron is the densest configuration for the packing of four equal spheres. The dense random packing of hard spheres problem can thus be mapped on the tetrahedral packing problem. It is a practical exercise to try to pack table tennis balls in order to form only tetrahedral configurations. One starts with four balls arranged as a perfect tetrahedron, and try to add new spheres, while forming new tetrahedra. The next solution, with five balls, is trivially two tetrahedra sharing a common face; note that already with this solution, the fcc structure, which contains individual tetrahedral holes, does not show such a configuration (the tetrahedra share edges, not faces). With six balls, three regular tetrahedra are built, and the cluster is incompatible with all compact crystalline structures (fcc and hcp). Adding a seventh sphere gives a new cluster consisting in two "axial" balls touching each other and five others touching the latter two balls, the outer shape being an almost regular pentagonal bi-pyramid. However, we are facing now a real packing problem, analogous to the one encountered above with the pentagonal tiling in two dimensions. The dihedral angle of a tetrahedron is not commensurable with 2; consequently, a hole remains between two faces of neighboring tetrahedra. As a consequence, a perfect tiling of the Euclidean space R is impossible with regular tetrahedra. The frustration has a topological character: it is impossible to fill Euclidean space with tetrahedra, even severely distorted, if we impose that a constant number of tetrahedra (here five) share a common edge.
The next step is crucial: the search for an unfrustrated structure by allowing for curvature in the space, in order for the local configurations to propagate identically and without defects throughout the whole space. | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
Lectins are one of many toxic constituents of many raw plants that are inactivated by proper processing and preparation (e.g., cooking with heat, fermentation). For example, raw kidney beans naturally contain toxic levels of lectin (e.g. phytohaemagglutinin). Adverse effects may include nutritional deficiencies, and immune (allergic) reactions. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
The amount of luminescence is proportional to the original dose of radiation received. In thermoluminescence dating, this can be used to date buried objects that have been heated in the past, since the ionizing dose received from radioactive elements in the soil or from cosmic rays is proportional to age. This phenomenon has been applied in the thermoluminescent dosimeter, a device to measure the radiation dose received by a chip of suitable material that is carried by a person or placed with an object.
Thermoluminescence is a common geochronology tool for dating pottery or other fired archeological materials, as heat empties or resets the thermoluminescent signature of the material (Figure 1). Subsequent recharging of this material from ambient radiation can then be empirically dated by the equation:
Age = (subsequently accumulated dose of ambient radiation) / (dose accumulated per year)
This technique was modified for use as a passive sand migration analysis tool (Figure 2). The research shows direct consequences resulting from the improper replenishment of starving beaches using fine sands. Beach nourishment is a problem worldwide and receives large amounts of attention due to the millions of dollars spent yearly in order to keep beaches beautified for tourists, e.g. in Waikiki, Hawaii. Sands with sizes 90–150 μm (very fine sand) were found to migrate from the swash zone 67% faster than sand grains of 150-212 μm (fine sand; Figure 3). Furthermore, the technique was shown to provide a passive method of policing sand replenishment and a passive method of observing riverine or other sand inputs along shorelines (Figure 4). | 0 | Luminescence |
The waste discharge can be sent into incineration plant, where the organic solid undergoes combustion process. The combustion process produces heat that can be used to generate electricity. | 5 | Separation Processes |
Some hepatitis C viral glycoproteins may attach to C-type lectins on the host cell surface (liver cells) to initiate infection. To avoid clearance from the body by the innate immune system, pathogens (e.g., virus particles and bacteria that infect human cells) often express surface lectins known as adhesins and hemagglutinins that bind to tissue-specific glycans on host cell-surface glycoproteins and glycolipids. Multiple viruses, including influenza and several viruses in the Paramyxoviridae family, use this mechanism to bind and gain entry to target cells. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Lectins are considered a major family of protein antinutrients, which are specific sugar-binding proteins exhibiting reversible carbohydrate-binding activities. Lectins are similar to antibodies in their ability to agglutinate red blood cells.
Many legume seeds have been proven to contain high lectin activity, termed hemagglutination. Soybean is the most important grain legume crop in this category. Its seeds contain high activity of soybean lectins (soybean agglutinin or SBA). | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Electroluminescent lighting is now used as an application for public safety identification involving alphanumeric characters on the roof of vehicles for clear visibility from an aerial perspective.
Electroluminescent lighting, especially electroluminescent wire (EL wire), has also made its way into clothing as many designers have brought this technology to the entertainment and nightlife industry. From 2006, t-shirts with an electroluminescent panel stylized as an audio equalizer, the T-Qualizer, saw a brief period of popularity.
Engineers have developed an electroluminescent "skin" that can stretch more than six times its original size while still emitting light. This hyper-elastic light-emitting capacitor (HLEC) can endure more than twice the strain of previously tested stretchable displays. It consists of layers of transparent hydrogel electrodes sandwiching an insulating elastomer sheet. The elastomer changes luminance and capacitance when stretched, rolled, and otherwise deformed. In addition to its ability to emit light under a strain of greater than 480% of its original size, the group's HLEC was shown to be capable of being integrated into a soft robotic system. Three six-layer HLEC panels were bound together to form a crawling soft robot, with the top four layers making up the light-up skin and the bottom two the pneumatic actuators. The discovery could lead to significant advances in health care, transportation, electronic communication and other areas. | 0 | Luminescence |
*Radioluminescence, a result of bombardment by ionizing radiation
*Electroluminescence, a result of an electric current passed through a substance
**Cathodoluminescence, a result of a luminescent material being struck by electrons
*Chemiluminescence, the emission of light as a result of a chemical reaction
**Bioluminescence, a result of biochemical reactions in a living organism
**Electrochemiluminescence, a result of an electrochemical reaction
**Lyoluminescence, a result of dissolving a solid (usually heavily irradiated) in a liquid solvent
**Candoluminescence, is light emitted by certain materials at elevated temperatures, which differs from the blackbody emission expected at the temperature in question.
*Mechanoluminescence, a result of a mechanical action on a solid
**Triboluminescence, generated when bonds in a material are broken when that material is scratched, crushed, or rubbed
**Fractoluminescence, generated when bonds in certain crystals are broken by fractures
**Piezoluminescence, produced by the action of pressure on certain solids
**Sonoluminescence, a result of imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by sound
*Crystalloluminescence, produced during crystallization
*Thermoluminescence, the re-emission of absorbed energy when a substance is heated
**Cryoluminescence, the emission of light when an object is cooled (an example of this is wulfenite)
*Photoluminescence, a result of the absorption of photons
**Fluorescence, traditionally defined as the emission of light that ends immediately after the source of excitation is removed. As the definition does not fully describe the phenomenon, quantum mechanics is employed where it is defined as there is no change in spin multiplicity from the state of excitation to emission of light.
**Phosphorescence, traditionally defined as persistent emission of light after the end of excitation. As the definition does not fully describe the phenomenon, quantum mechanics is employed where it is defined as there is a change in spin multiplicity from the state of excitation to the emission of light. | 0 | Luminescence |
Reis is a researcher who has been involved in the field of biomaterials since 1990. He has worked with several universities and companies abroad.
Some of Reis' research has been on liver and neurological tissues regeneration, new strategies for antimicrobial materials, innovative high-throughput approaches for studying cell/materials interactions, as well as on TE approaches for developing different 3D disease models, including different cancer models, and therapies for treatment of diabetes and Alzheimers.
Reis has also been responsible for several cooperation programs with universities and companies worldwide. He has coordinated four major EU research projects, including the STREP "HIPPOCRATES".
Under HORIZON 2020, Reis was the coordinator of the ERA Chairs FoReCast grant for 3B's-UMinho. He has coordinated two TWINNING projects Gene2Skin and Chem2Nature, and is currently coordinating another TWINNING project. Until 2021, he was the coordinator of the 15 MEuros EC funded TEAMING proposal, "The Discoveries Centre for Regenerative and Precision Medicine" with UCL - University College London, UPorto, UAveiro, ULisboa, and UNova Lisboa. He is also the PI of a major project of the Portuguese roadmap for strategic infrastructures, TERM Research Hub. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
Some have argued that the Rayleigh–Plesset equation described above is unreliable for predicting bubble temperatures and that actual temperatures in sonoluminescing systems can be far higher than 20,000 kelvins. Some research claims to have measured temperatures as high as 100,000 kelvins and speculates temperatures could reach into the millions of kelvins. Temperatures this high could cause thermonuclear fusion. This possibility is sometimes referred to as bubble fusion and is likened to the implosion design used in the fusion component of thermonuclear weapons.
Experiments in 2002 and 2005 by R. P. Taleyarkhan using deuterated acetone showed measurements of tritium and neutron output consistent with fusion. However, the papers were considered low quality and there were doubts cast by a report about the author's scientific misconduct. This made the report lose credibility among the scientific community.
On January 27, 2006, researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute claimed to have produced fusion in sonoluminescence experiments. | 0 | Luminescence |
By the 2020s, work was being done to create safer glow sticks and alternatives. Canadian company LUX BIO, for example, developed glow stick alternatives such as the Light Wand which is biodegradable and glows with bioluminescence, rather than the chemiluminescence and LÜMI, which is a reusable and non-toxic alternative that glows with phosphorescence and is chemically and biologically inert. | 0 | Luminescence |
A mixture of dimethyl ether and propane is used in some "freeze spray" preparations such as Dr. Scholl's Freeze Away. The mixture is stored in an aerosol spray type container at room temperature and drops to when dispensed. The mixture is often dispensed into a straw with a cotton-tipped swab. Similar products may use tetrafluoroethane or other substances. | 1 | Cryobiology |
The term "cold fusion" was coined to refer to muon-catalyzed fusion in a 1956 New York Times article about Luis W. Alvarez's paper.
In 1957 Theodore Sturgeon wrote a novelette, "The Pod in the Barrier", in which humanity has ubiquitous cold fusion reactors that work with muons. The reaction is "When hydrogen one and hydrogen two are in the presence of Mu mesons, they fuse into helium three, with an energy yield in electron volts of 5.4 times ten to the fifth power". Unlike the thermonuclear bomb contained in the Pod (which is used to destroy the Barrier) they can become temporarily disabled by "concentrated disbelief" that muon fusion works.
In Sir Arthur C. Clarkes third novel in the Space Odyssey series, 2061: Odyssey Three', muon-catalyzed fusion is the technology that allows mankind to achieve easy interplanetary travel. The main character, Heywood Floyd, compares Luis Alvarez to Lord Rutherford for underestimating the future potential of their discoveries. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
Select filter cloth to obtain good wear and solid binding characteristics. Use moderate blowback pressure to avoid high wear. Adjust duration of blow back pressure short enough to remove the cake from the filter cloth. The tuning of valve body is important for the blow back to prevent the excess filtrated being force back out of the pipe to with the release cake solid as this minimises wear and filter media maintenance. | 5 | Separation Processes |
Lectins from legume plants, such as PHA or concanavalin A, have been used widely as model systems to understand the molecular basis of how proteins recognize carbohydrates, because they are relatively easy to obtain and have a wide variety of sugar specificities. The many crystal structures of legume lectins have led to a detailed insight of the atomic interactions between carbohydrates and proteins.
Legume seed lectins have been studied for their insecticidal potential and have shown harmful effects for the development of pest. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
In 2017, General Fusion developed its plasma injector technology and Tri Alpha Energy constructed and operated its C-2U device. In August 2014, Phoenix Nuclear Labs announced the sale of a high-yield neutron generator that could sustain 5×10 deuterium fusion reactions per second over a 24-hour period.
In October 2014, Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works announced the development of a high beta fusion reactor, the Compact Fusion Reactor. Although the original concept was to build a 20-ton, container-sized unit, the team conceded in 2018 that the minimum scale would be 2,000 tons.
In January 2015, the polywell was presented at Microsoft Research. TAE Technologies announced that its Norman reactor had achieved plasma.
In 2017, Helion Energy's fifth-generation plasma machine went into operation, seeking to achieve plasma density of 20 T and fusion temperatures. ST40 generated "first plasma".
In 2018, Eni announced a $50 million investment in Commonwealth Fusion Systems, to attempt to commercialize ARC technology using a test reactor (SPARC) in collaboration with MIT. The reactor planned to employ yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO) high-temperature superconducting magnet technology. Commonwealth Fusion Systems in 2021 tested successfully a 20 T magnet making it the strongest high-temperature superconducting magnet in the world. Following the 20 T magnet CFS raised $1.8 billion from private investors.
General Fusion began developing a 70% scale demo system. In 2018, TAE Technologies' reactor reached nearly 20 M°C. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
To create this effect, a stream of negative muons, most often created by decaying pions, is sent to a block that may be made up of all three hydrogen isotopes (protium, deuterium, and/or tritium), where the block is usually frozen, and the block may be at temperatures of about 3 kelvin (−270 degrees Celsius) or so. The muon may bump the electron from one of the hydrogen isotopes. The muon, 207 times more massive than the electron, effectively shields and reduces the electromagnetic repulsion between two nuclei and draws them much closer into a covalent bond than an electron can. Because the nuclei are so close, the strong nuclear force is able to kick in and bind both nuclei together. They fuse, release the catalytic muon (most of the time), and part of the original mass of both nuclei is released as energetic particles, as with any other type of nuclear fusion. The release of the catalytic muon is critical to continue the reactions. The majority of the muons continue to bond with other hydrogen isotopes and continue fusing nuclei together. However, not all of the muons are recycled: some bond with other debris emitted following the fusion of the nuclei (such as alpha particles and helions), removing the muons from the catalytic process. This gradually chokes off the reactions, as there are fewer and fewer muons with which the nuclei may bond. The number of reactions achieved in the lab can be as high as 150 d–t fusions per muon (average). | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
In April 2005, a UCLA team headed by chemistry professor James K. Gimzewski and physics professor Seth Putterman utilized a tungsten probe attached to a pyroelectric crystal to increase the electric field strength. Brian Naranjo, a graduate student working under Putterman, conducted the experiment demonstrating the use of a pyroelectric power source for producing fusion on a laboratory bench top device. The device used a lithium tantalate () pyroelectric crystal to ionize deuterium atoms and to accelerate the deuterons towards a stationary erbium dideuteride (ErD) target. Around 1000 fusion reactions per second took place, each resulting in the production of an 820 keV helium-3 nucleus and a 2.45 MeV neutron. The team anticipates applications of the device as a neutron generator or possibly in microthrusters for space propulsion.
A team at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, led by Yaron Danon and his graduate student Jeffrey Geuther, improved upon the UCLA experiments using a device with two pyroelectric crystals and capable of operating at non-cryogenic temperatures.
Pyroelectric fusion has been hyped in the news media, which overlooked the work of Dougar Jabon, Fedorovich and Samsonenko. Pyroelectric fusion is not related to the earlier claims of fusion reactions, having been observed during sonoluminescence (bubble fusion) experiments conducted under the direction of Rusi Taleyarkhan of Purdue University. Naranjo of the UCLA team was one of the main critics of these earlier prospective fusion claims from Taleyarkhan. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
In 1951 Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) developed the Teller-Ulam design for a thermonuclear weapon, allowing for the development of multi-megaton yield fusion bombs. Fusion work in the UK was classified after the Klaus Fuchs affair.
In the mid-1950s the theoretical tools used to calculate the performance of fusion machines were not predicting their actual behavior. Machines invariably leaked plasma at rates far higher than predicted. In 1954, Edward Teller gathered fusion researchers at the Princeton Gun Club. He pointed out the problems and suggested that any system that confined plasma within concave fields was doomed due to what became known as interchange instability. Attendees remember him saying in effect that the fields were like rubber bands, and they would attempt to snap back to a straight configuration whenever the power was increased, ejecting the plasma. He suggested that the only way to predictably confine plasma would be to use convex fields: a "cusp" configuration.
When the meeting concluded, most researchers turned out papers explaining why Tellers concerns did not apply to their devices. Pinch machines did not use magnetic fields in this way, while the mirror and stellarator claques proposed various solutions. This was soon followed by Martin David Kruskal and Martin Schwarzschilds paper discussing pinch machines, however, which demonstrated those devices' instabilities were inherent. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
Site-directed mutagenesis of O-GlcNAc-modified serine or threonine residues to alanine may be used to evaluate the function of O-GlcNAc at specific residues. As alanines side chain is a methyl group and is thus not able to act as an O-GlcNAc site, this mutation effectively permanently removes O-GlcNAc at a specific residue. While serine/threonine phosphorylation may be modeled by mutagenesis to aspartate or glutamate, which have negatively charged carboxylate side chains, none of the 20 canonical amino acids sufficiently recapitulate the properties of O-GlcNAc. Mutagenesis to tryptophan has been used to mimic the steric bulk of O-GlcNAc, though tryptophan is much more hydrophobic than O-GlcNAc. Mutagenesis may also perturb other post-translational modifications, e.g., if a serine is alternatively phosphorylated or O-GlcNAcylated, alanine mutagenesis permanently eliminates the possibilities of both phosphorylation and O'-GlcNAcylation. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Nuclear binding energy in experimental physics is the minimum energy that is required to disassemble the nucleus of an atom into its constituent protons and neutrons, known collectively as nucleons. The binding energy for stable nuclei is always a positive number, as the nucleus must gain energy for the nucleons to move apart from each other. Nucleons are attracted to each other by the strong nuclear force. In theoretical nuclear physics, the nuclear binding energy is considered a negative number. In this context it represents the energy of the nucleus relative to the energy of the constituent nucleons when they are infinitely far apart. Both the experimental and theoretical views are equivalent, with slightly different emphasis on what the binding energy means.
The mass of an atomic nucleus is less than the sum of the individual masses of the free constituent protons and neutrons. The difference in mass can be calculated by the Einstein equation, , where E is the nuclear binding energy, c is the speed of light, and m is the difference in mass. This missing mass is known as the mass defect, and represents the energy that was released when the nucleus was formed.
The term "nuclear binding energy" may also refer to the energy balance in processes in which the nucleus splits into fragments composed of more than one nucleon. If new binding energy is available when light nuclei fuse (nuclear fusion), or when heavy nuclei split (nuclear fission), either process can result in release of this binding energy. This energy may be made available as nuclear energy and can be used to produce electricity, as in nuclear power, or in a nuclear weapon. When a large nucleus splits into pieces, excess energy is emitted as gamma rays and the kinetic energy of various ejected particles (nuclear fission products).
These nuclear binding energies and forces are on the order of one million times greater than the electron binding energies of light atoms like hydrogen. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
Electrically charged particles (such as fuel ions) will follow magnetic field lines (see Guiding centre). The fusion fuel can therefore be trapped using a strong magnetic field. A variety of magnetic configurations exist, including the toroidal geometries of tokamaks and stellarators and open-ended mirror confinement systems. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
Short-path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate traveling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure. Short-path distillation systems often have a variety of names depending on the manufacturer of the system and what compounds are being distilled within them. A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate traveling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower at reduced pressure than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus which can contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions. To increase the evaporation rate without increasing temperature there are several modern techniques that increase the surface area of the liquid such as thin film, wiped film or wiper film, and rolled film all of which involve mechanically spreading a film of the liquid over a large surface. | 5 | Separation Processes |
To better understand the challenges for building full-thickness engineered oral mucosa it is important to first understand the structure of normal oral mucosa. Normal oral mucosa consists of two layers, the top stratified squamous epithelial layer and the bottom lamina propria. The epithelial layer consists of four layers:
* Stratum basale (basal layer)
* Stratum spinosum (spinous layer)
* Stratum granulosum (granular layer)
* Stratum corneum (keratinized/superficial layer)
Depending on the region of the mouth the epithelium may be keratinized or non-keratinized. Non-keratinized squamous epithelium covers the soft palate, lips, cheeks and the floor of the mouth. Keratinized squamous epithelium is present in the gingiva and hard palate. Keratinization is the differentiation of keratinocytes in the granular layer into dead surface cells to form the stratum corneum. The cells terminally differentiate as they migrate to the surface (from the basal layer where the progenitor cells are located to the dead superficial surface).
The lamina propria is a fibrous connective tissue layer that consists of a network of type I and III collagen and elastin fibers. The main cells of the lamina propria are the fibroblasts, which are responsible for the production of the extracellular matrix. The basement membrane forms the border between the epithelial layer and the lamina propria. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
The phosphors in color CRTs need higher contrast and resolution than the black-and-white ones. The energy density of the electron beam is about 100 times greater than in black-and-white CRTs; the electron spot is focused to about 0.2 mm diameter instead of about 0.6 mm diameter of the black-and-white CRTs. Effects related to electron irradiation degradation are therefore more pronounced.
Color CRTs require three different phosphors, emitting in red, green and blue, patterned on the screen. Three separate electron guns are used for color production (except for displays that use beam-index tube technology, which is rare). The red phosphor has always been a problem, being the dimmest of the three necessitating the brighter green and blue electron beam currents be adjusted down to make them equal the red phosphor's lower brightness. This made early color TVs only usable indoors as bright light made it impossible to see the dim picture, while portable black-and-white TVs viewable in outdoor sunlight were already common.
The composition of the phosphors changed over time, as better phosphors were developed and as environmental concerns led to lowering the content of cadmium and later abandoning it entirely. The was replaced with with lower cadmium/zinc ratio, and then with cadmium-free .
The blue phosphor stayed generally unchanged, a silver-doped zinc sulfide. The green phosphor initially used manganese-doped zinc silicate, then evolved through silver-activated cadmium-zinc sulfide, to lower-cadmium copper-aluminium activated formula, and then to cadmium-free version of the same. The red phosphor saw the most changes; it was originally manganese-activated zinc phosphate, then a silver-activated cadmium-zinc sulfide, then the europium(III) activated phosphors appeared; first in an yttrium vanadate matrix, then in yttrium oxide and currently in yttrium oxysulfide. The evolution of the phosphors was therefore (ordered by B-G-R):
* – –
* – –
* – – (1964–?)
* – – or
* – or – | 0 | Luminescence |
A positive correlation has been observed between acid attacks and ease of acid purchase. Sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acid are most commonly used and are all cheap and readily available in many instances. For example, often acid throwers can purchase a liter of concentrated sulfuric acid at motorbike mechanic shops for about 40 U.S. cents. Nitric acid costs around $1.50 per liter and is available for purchase at gold or jewelry shops, as polishers generally use it to purify gold and metals. Hydrochloric acid is also used for polishing jewelry, as well as for making soy sauce, cosmetics, and traditional medicine/amphetamine drugs.
Due to such ease of access, many organizations call for a stricter regulation on the acid economy. Specific actions include required licenses for all acid traders, a ban on concentrated acid in certain areas, and an enhanced system of monitoring for acid sales, such as the need to document all transactions involving acid. However, some scholars have warned that such stringent regulation may result in black market trading of acid, which law enforcements must keep in mind. | 4 | Acids + Bases |
Mutations in the GYS1 gene are associated with glycogen storage disease type 0. In humans, defects in the tight control of glucose uptake and utilization are also associated with diabetes and hyperglycemia. Patients with type 2 diabetes normally exhibit low glycogen storage levels because of impairments in insulin-stimulated glycogen synthesis and suppression of glycogenolysis. Insulin stimulates glycogen synthase by inhibiting glycogen synthase kinases or/and activating protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) among other mechanisms. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
In the second half of the 20th century, radium was progressively replaced with promethium-147. Promethium is only a relatively low-energy beta-emitter, which, unlike alpha emitters, does not degrade the phosphor lattice and the luminosity of the material does not degrade as fast. Promethium-based paints are significantly safer than radium, but the half-life of Pm is only 2.62 years and therefore it is not suitable for long-life applications.
Promethium-based paint was used to illuminate Apollo Lunar Module electrical switch tips, the Apollo command and service module hatch and EVA handles, and control panels of the Lunar Roving Vehicle. | 0 | Luminescence |
Known instances of nuclear reactions, aside from producing energy, also produce nucleons and particles on readily observable ballistic trajectories. In support of their claim that nuclear reactions took place in their electrolytic cells, Fleischmann and Pons reported a neutron flux of 4,000 neutrons per second, as well as detection of tritium. The classical branching ratio for previously known fusion reactions that produce tritium would predict, with 1 watt of power, the production of 10 neutrons per second, levels that would have been fatal to the researchers. In 2009, Mosier-Boss et al. reported what they called the first scientific report of highly energetic neutrons, using CR-39 plastic radiation detectors, but the claims cannot be validated without a quantitative analysis of neutrons.
Several medium and heavy elements like calcium, titanium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper and zinc have been reported as detected by several researchers, like Tadahiko Mizuno or George Miley. The report presented to the United States Department of Energy (DOE) in 2004 indicated that deuterium-loaded foils could be used to detect fusion reaction products and, although the reviewers found the evidence presented to them as inconclusive, they indicated that those experiments did not use state-of-the-art techniques.
In response to doubts about the lack of nuclear products, cold fusion researchers have tried to capture and measure nuclear products correlated with excess heat. Considerable attention has been given to measuring He production. However, the reported levels are very near to background, so contamination by trace amounts of helium normally present in the air cannot be ruled out. In the report presented to the DOE in 2004, the reviewers' opinion was divided on the evidence for He, with the most negative reviews concluding that although the amounts detected were above background levels, they were very close to them and therefore could be caused by contamination from air.
One of the main criticisms of cold fusion was that deuteron-deuteron fusion into helium was expected to result in the production of gamma rays—which were not observed and were not observed in subsequent cold fusion experiments. Cold fusion researchers have since claimed to find X-rays, helium, neutrons and nuclear transmutations. Some researchers also claim to have found them using only light water and nickel cathodes. The 2004 DOE panel expressed concerns about the poor quality of the theoretical framework cold fusion proponents presented to account for the lack of gamma rays. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
All cells require ATP as an energy source for their metabolic activity. The kidney is damaged by anoxia when kidney cortical cells are unable to generate sufficient ATP under anaerobic conditions to meet the needs of the cells. When excising a kidney some anoxia is inevitable in the interval between dividing the renal artery and cooling the kidney. It has been shown by Bergstrom that 50% of a dogs kidneys cortical cells ATP content is lost within 1 minute of clamping the renal artery, and similar results were found by Warnick in whole mice kidneys, with a fall in cellular ATP by 50% after about 30 seconds of warm anoxia. Warnick and Bergstrom also showed that cooling the kidney immediately after removal markedly reduced any further ATP loss. When these non warm-injured kidneys were perfused with oxygenated hypothermic plasma, ATP levels were reduced by 50% after 24-hour storage and, after 48 hours, mean tissue ATP levels were a little higher than this indicating that synthesis of ATP had occurred. Pegg has shown that rabbit kidneys can resynthesize ATP after a period of perfusion storage following warm injury, but no resynthesis occurred in non warm-injured kidneys.
Warm anoxia can also occur during reimplantation of the kidney after storage. Lannon showed, by measurements of succinate metabolism, how the kidney was more sensitive to a period of warm hypoxia occurring after storage than to the same period of warm hypoxia occurring immediately prior to storage. | 1 | Cryobiology |
Multicolumn countercurrent solvent gradient purification (MCSGP) is a form of chromatography that is used to separate or purify biomolecules from complex mixtures. It was developed at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich by Aumann and Morbidelli. The process consists of two to six chromatographic columns which are connected to one another in such a way that as the mixture moves through the columns the compound is purified into several fractions. | 5 | Separation Processes |
A Rotary Vacuum Filter Drum consists of a cylindrical filter membrane that is partly sub-merged in a slurry to be filtered. The inside of the drum is held lower than the ambient pressure. As the drum rotates through the slurry, the liquid is sucked through the membrane, leaving solids to cake on the membrane surface while the drum is submerged. A knife or blade is positioned to scrape the product from the surface.
The technique is well suited to slurries, flocculated suspensions, and liquids with a high solid content, which could clog other forms of filter. It is common to pre-coated with a filter aid, typically of diatomaceous earth (DE) or Perlite. In some implementations, the knife also cuts off a small portion of the filter media to reveal a fresh media surface that will enter the liquid as the drum rotates. Such systems advance the knife automatically as the surface is removed. | 5 | Separation Processes |
In the Sun and other similar stars, those fusion reactions involve hydrogen ions. The high temperatures needed to sustain fusion reactions are maintained by a self-heating process in which energy from the fusion reaction heats the thermal plasma ions via particle collisions. A plasma enters what scientists call the burning plasma regime when the self-heating power exceeds any external heating.
The Sun is a burning plasma that has reached fusion ignition, meaning the Sun's plasma temperature is maintained solely by energy released from fusion. The Sun has been burning hydrogen for 4.5 billion years and is about halfway through its life cycle. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
Electrical hysteresis typically occurs in ferroelectric material, where domains of polarization contribute to the total polarization. Polarization is the electrical dipole moment (either C·m or C·m). The mechanism, an organization of the polarization into domains, is similar to that of magnetic hysteresis. | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
Immunological effects resulting from the cryoablation of tumors was first observed in the 1960s. Since the 1960s, Tanaka treated metastatic breast cancer patients with cryotherapy and reported cryoimmunological reaction resulting from cryotherapy. In the 1970s, systemic immunological response from local cryoablation of prostate cancer was also clinically observed. In the 1980s, Tanaka, of Japan, continued to advance the clinical practice of cryoimmunology with combination treatments including: cryochemotherapy and cryoimmunotherapy. In 1997, Russian scientists confirmed the efficacy of cryoimmunotherapy in inhibiting metastases in advanced cancer. In 2000s, China, following closely with the exciting developments, enthusiastically embraced cryoablation treatment for cancer and has been leading the practice ever since with cryoimmunotherapy treatments available for cancer patients in numerous hospitals and medical clinics throughout China. In the 2010s, American researchers and medical professionals, started to explore cryoimmunotherapy for systemic treatment of cancer. | 1 | Cryobiology |
The phenomenon of hysteresis in ferromagnetic materials is the result of two effects: rotation of magnetization and changes in size or number of magnetic domains. In general, the magnetization varies (in direction but not magnitude) across a magnet, but in sufficiently small magnets, it does not. In these single-domain magnets, the magnetization responds to a magnetic field by rotating. Single-domain magnets are used wherever a strong, stable magnetization is needed (for example, magnetic recording).
Larger magnets are divided into regions called domains. Across each domain, the magnetization does not vary; but between domains are relatively thin domain walls in which the direction of magnetization rotates from the direction of one domain to another. If the magnetic field changes, the walls move, changing the relative sizes of the domains. Because the domains are not magnetized in the same direction, the magnetic moment per unit volume is smaller than it would be in a single-domain magnet; but domain walls involve rotation of only a small part of the magnetization, so it is much easier to change the magnetic moment. The magnetization can also change by addition or subtraction of domains (called nucleation and denucleation). | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
The variables and design considerations for strippers are many. Among them are the entering conditions, the degree of recovery of the solute needed, the choice of the stripping agent and its flow, the operating conditions, the number of stages, the heat effects, and the type and size of the equipment.
The degree of recovery is often determined by environmental regulations, such as for volatile organic compounds like chloroform.
Frequently, steam, air, inert gases, and hydrocarbon gases are used as stripping agents. This is based on solubility, stability, degree of corrosiveness, cost, and availability. As stripping agents are gases, operation at nearly the highest temperature and lowest pressure that will maintain the components and not vaporize the liquid feed stream is desired. This allows for the minimization of flow. As with all other variables, minimizing cost while achieving efficient separation is the ultimate goal.
The size of the equipment, and particularly the height and diameter, is important in determining the possibility of flow channeling that would reduce the contact area between the liquid and vapor streams. If flow channeling is suspected to be occurring, a redistribution plate is often necessary to, as the name indicates, redistribute the liquid flow evenly to reestablish a higher contact area.
As mentioned previously, strippers can be trayed or packed. Packed columns, and particularly when random packing is used, are usually favored for smaller columns with a diameter less than 2 feet and a packed height of not more than 20 feet. Packed columns can also be advantageous for corrosive fluids, high foaming fluids, when fluid velocity is high, and when particularly low pressure drop is desired. Trayed strippers are advantageous because of ease of design and scale up. Structured packing can be used similar to trays despite possibly being the same material as dumped (random) packing. Using structured packing is a common method to increase the capacity for separation or to replace damaged trays.
Trayed strippers can have sieve, valve, or bubble cap trays while packed strippers can have either structured packing or random packing. Trays and packing are used to increase the contact area over which mass transfer can occur as mass transfer theory dictates. Packing can have varying material, surface area, flow area, and associated pressure drop. Older generation packing include ceramic Raschig rings and Berl saddles. More common packing materials are metal and plastic Pall rings, metal and plastic Zbigniew Białecki rings, and ceramic Intalox saddles. Each packing material of this newer generation improves the surface area, the flow area, and/or the associated pressure drop across the packing. Also important, is the ability of the packing material to not stack on top of itself. If such stacking occurs, it drastically reduces the surface area of the material. Lattice design work has been increasing of late that will further improve these characteristics.
During operation, monitoring the pressure drop across the column can help to determine the performance of the stripper. A changed pressure drop over a significant range of time can be an indication that the packing may need to be replaced or cleaned. | 5 | Separation Processes |
Carbons from dietary fructose are found in both the FFA and glycerol moieties of plasma triglycerides (TG). Excess dietary fructose can be converted to pyruvate, enter the Krebs cycle and emerges as citrate directed toward free fatty acid synthesis in the cytosol of hepatocytes. The DHAP formed during fructolysis can also be converted to glycerol and then glycerol 3-phosphate for TG synthesis. Thus, fructose can provide trioses for both the glycerol 3-phosphate backbone, as well as the free fatty acids in TG synthesis. Indeed, fructose may provide the bulk of the carbohydrate directed toward de novo TG synthesis in humans. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
In the human, the uterine lining (endometrium) needs to be appropriately prepared so that the embryo can implant. In a natural cycle the embryo transfer takes place in the luteal phase at a time where the lining is appropriately undeveloped in relation to the status of the present Luteinizing Hormone. In a stimulated or cycle where a "frozen" embryo is transferred, the recipient woman could be given first estrogen preparations (about 2 weeks), then a combination of estrogen and progesterone so that the lining becomes receptive for the embryo. The time of receptivity is the implantation window. A scientific review in 2013 came to the conclusion that it is not possible to identify one method of endometrium preparation in frozen embryo transfer as being more effective than another.
Limited evidence also supports removal of cervical mucus before transfer. | 1 | Cryobiology |
Magnetic anisotropy arises due to a combination of crystal structure and spin-orbit interaction. It can be generally written as:
where F, the anisotropy energy density, is a function of the orientation of the magnetization. Minimum-energy directions for F are called easy axes.
Time-reversal symmetry ensures that F is an even function of m. The simplest such function is
where K is called the anisotropy constant. In this approximation, called uniaxial anisotropy, the easy axis is the z direction.
The anisotropy energy favors magnetic configurations where the magnetization is everywhere aligned along an easy axis. | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
Spinning band distillation may sometimes be used to recycle waste solvents which contain different solvents, and other chemical compounds. | 5 | Separation Processes |
In this model the magnetization
where is the volume. The propagation of spin waves is described by the Landau-Lifshitz equation of motion:
where is the gyromagnetic ratio and is the damping constant. The cross-products in this forbidding-looking equation show that the propagation of spin waves is governed by the torques generated by internal and external fields. (An equivalent form is the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation, which replaces the final term by a more "simple looking" equivalent one.)
The first term on the right hand side of the equation describes the precession of the magnetization under the influence of the applied field, while the above-mentioned final term describes how the magnetization vector "spirals in" towards the field direction as time progresses. In metals the damping forces described by the constant are in many cases dominated by the eddy currents.
One important difference between phonons and magnons lies in their dispersion relations. The dispersion relation for phonons is to first order linear in wavevector , namely , where is frequency, and is the velocity of sound. Magnons have a parabolic dispersion relation: where the parameter represents a "spin stiffness." The form is the third term of a Taylor expansion of a cosine term in the energy expression originating from the dot product. The underlying reason for the difference in dispersion relation is that the order parameter (magnetization) for the ground-state in ferromagnets violates time-reversal symmetry. Two adjacent spins in a solid with lattice constant that participate in a mode with wavevector have an angle between them equal to . | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
The criticism most often directed at DPN is the patterning speed. The reason for this has more to do with how it is compared to other techniques rather than any inherent weaknesses. For example, the soft lithography method, microcontact printing (μCP), is the current standard for low cost, bench-top micro and nanoscale patterning, so it is easy to understand why DPN is compared directly to microcontact printing. The problem is that the comparisons are usually based upon applications that are strongly suited to μCP, instead of comparing them to some neutral application. μCP has the ability to pattern one material over a large area in a single stamping step, just as photolithography can pattern over a large area in a single exposure. Of course DPN is slow when it is compared to the strength of another technique. DPN is a maskless direct write technique that can be used to create multiple patterns of varying size, shape, and feature resolution, all on a single substrate. No one would try to apply microcontact printing to such a project because then it would never be worth the time and money required to fabricate each master stamp for each new pattern. Even if they did, microcontact printing would not be capable of aligning multiple materials from multiple stamps with nanoscale registry. The best way to understand this misconception is to think about the different ways to apply photolithography and e-beam lithography. No one would try to use e-beam to solve a photolithography problem and then claim e-beam to be "too slow". Directly compared to photolithography's large area patterning capabilities, e-beam lithography is slow and yet, e-beam instruments can be found in every lab and nanofab in the world. The reason for this is because e-beam has unique capabilities that cannot be matched by photolithography, just as DPN has unique capabilities that cannot be matched by microcontact printing. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
The hydrodynamic resistance force is evaluated following the Stokes’ law.
The electrophoretic force is evaluated following the Coulomb’s law.
In these equations r presents the hydrodynamic radius of the colloids, – the speed of electrophoretic migration, – the dynamic viscosity of the solutions, – dielectric constant in vacuum, is water’s relative dielectric constant at 298 K, is the zeta potential, E is the electric field. The hydrodynamic radius is the sum of particles’ radiuses and the stationary solvent interface.
By steady state electrophoretic migration of charged colloids the electrophoretic force and the hydrodynamic resistance force are in equilibrium, described by:
:F + F = 0
Those effects influence the electrofiltration of biopolymers, which could be also charged, not only by the hydrodynamic resistance force but also by the electric field force. Focusing on the cathode side reveals that the negatively charged particles are affected by the electric field force, which is opposite to the hydrodynamic resistance force. In this manner the formation of filter cake on this side is impeded or in ideal situation filter cake is not formed at all. In this case the electric field is referred as critical electric field E. As a result of the equilibrium of those forces, liquids subjected to the influence of electric force become charged. In addition to the applied hydraulic pressure ∆pH the process is influenced also by the electro-osmotic pressure P.
Modifying the Darcy’s basic equation, describing filter cake formation, with electro-kinetic effects by integration under assumption of using the constants of electro-osmotic pressure P, the critical electric field E and the electric field E results:
Previous scientific works conducted in the [http://www.bio-ag.de/ Dept. of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Engineering in Life Sciences, University of Karlsruhe] demonstrated that electrofiltration is effective for the concentration of charged biopolymers. Very promising results concerning purification of the charged polysaccharide xanthan are already obtained. Figure 2 represents xanthan filter cake. | 5 | Separation Processes |
Wheat germ agglutinin, a plant lectin, is able to recognize terminal GlcNAc residues and is thus often used for detection of O-GlcNAc. This lectin has been applied in lectin affinity chromatography for the enrichment and detection of O-GlcNAc. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
In 1991 JETs Preliminary Tritium Experiment achieved the worlds first controlled release of fusion power.
In 1992, Physics Today published Robert McCory's outline of the current state of ICF, advocating for a national ignition facility. This was followed by a review article from John Lindl in 1995, making the same point. During this time various ICF subsystems were developed, including target manufacturing, cryogenic handling systems, new laser designs (notably the NIKE laser at NRL) and improved diagnostics including time of flight analyzers and Thomson scattering. This work was done at the NOVA laser system, General Atomics, Laser Mégajoule and the GEKKO XII system in Japan. Through this work and lobbying by groups like the fusion power associates and John Sethian at NRL, Congress authorized funding for the NIF project in the late nineties.
In 1992 the United States and the former republics of the Soviet Union stopped testing nuclear weapons.
In 1993 TFTR at PPPL experimented with 50% deuterium, 50% tritium, eventually reaching 10 megawatts.
In the early nineties, theory and experimental work regarding fusors and polywells was published. In response, Todd Rider at MIT developed general models of these devices, arguing that all plasma systems at thermodynamic equilibrium were fundamentally limited. In 1995, William Nevins published a criticism arguing that the particles inside fusors and polywells would acquire angular momentum, causing the dense core to degrade.
In 1995, the University of Wisconsin–Madison built a large fusor, known as HOMER. Dr George H. Miley at Illinois built a small fusor that produced neutrons using deuterium and discovered the "star mode" of fusor operation. At this time in Europe, an IEC device was developed as a commercial neutron source by Daimler-Chrysler and NSD Fusion.
The next year, Tore Supra reached a record plasma duration of two minutes with a current of almost 1 M amperes driven non-inductively by 2.3 MW of lower hybrid frequency waves (i.e. 280 MJ of injected and extracted energy), enabled by actively cooled plasma-facing components.
The upgraded Z-machine opened to the public in August 1998. The key attributes were its 18 million ampere current and a discharge time of less than 100 nanoseconds. This generated a magnetic pulse inside a large oil tank, which struck a liner (an array of tungsten wires). Firing the Z-machine became a way to test high energy, high temperature (2 billion degrees) conditions. In 1996.
In 1997, JET reached 16.1 MW (65% of heat to plasma), sustaining over 10 MW for over 0.5 sec. As of 2020 this remained the record output level. Four megawatts of alpha particle self-heating was achieved.
ITER was officially announced as part of a seven-party consortium (six countries and the EU). ITER was designed to produce ten times more fusion power than the input power. ITER was sited in Cadarache. The US withdrew from the project in 1999.
JT-60 produced a reversed shear plasma with the equivalent fusion amplification factor of 1.25 - as of 2021 this remained the world record.
In the late nineties, a team at Columbia University and MIT developed the levitated dipole, a fusion device that consisted of a superconducting electromagnet, floating in a saucer shaped vacuum chamber. Plasma swirled around this donut and fused along the center axis.
In 1999 MAST replaced START. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
In 1890 the Danish physician Niels Ryberg Finsen developed a carbon arc lamp ("Finsen's light" or a "Finsen lamp") that produced ultraviolet radiation for use in skin therapy, including to treat lupus vulgaris. He won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work.
Until the late 19th century in Europe and the United States, pale skin was a symbol of high social class among white people. Victorian women would carry parasols and wear wide-brimmed hats and gloves; their homes featured heavy curtains that kept out the sun. But as the working classes moved from country work to city factories, and to crowded, dark, unsanitary homes, pale skin became increasingly associated with poverty and ill health. In 1923 Coco Chanel returned from a holiday in Cannes with a tan, later telling Vogue magazine: "A golden tan is the index of chic!" Tanned skin had become a fashion accessory.
In parallel physicians began advising their patients on the benefits of the "sun cure", citing its antiseptic properties. Sunshine was promoted as a treatment for depression, diabetes, constipation, pneumonia, high and low blood pressure, and many other ailments. Home-tanning equipment was introduced in the 1920s in the form of "sunlamps" or "health lamps", UV lamps that emitted a large percentage of UVB, leading to burns. Friedrich Wolff, a German scientist, began using UV light on athletes, and developed beds that emitted 95% UVA and 5% UVB, which reduced the likelihood of burning. The worlds first tanning salon opened in 1977 in Berlin, followed by tanning salons in Europe and North America in the late 1970s. In 1978 Wolffs devices began selling in the United States, and the indoor tanning industry was born. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
An engineered protein biosensor has been developed that can detect changes in O-GlcNAc levels using Förster resonance energy transfer. This sensor consists of four components linked together in the following order: cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), an O-GlcNAc binding domain (based on GafD, a lectin sensitive for terminal β-O-GlcNAc), a CKII peptide that is a known OGT substrate, and yellow fluorescent protein (YFP). Upon O-GlcNAcylation of the CKII peptide, the GafD domain binds the O-GlcNAc moiety, bringing the CFP and YFP domains into close proximity and generating a FRET signal. Generation of this signal is reversible and can be used to monitor O-GlcNAc dynamics in response to various treatments. This sensor may be genetically encoded and used in cells. Addition of a localization sequence allows for targeting of this O-GlcNAc sensor to the nucleus, cytoplasm, or plasma membrane. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Typically, the mixture of "compound A" and "impurity B" is dissolved in the smallest amount of hot solvent to fully dissolve the mixture, thus making a saturated solution. The solution is then allowed to cool. As the solution cools the solubility of compounds in the solution drops. This results in the desired compound dropping (recrystallizing) from the solution. The slower the rate of cooling, the bigger the crystals form.
In an ideal situation the solubility product of the impurity, B, is not exceeded at any temperature. In that case, the solid crystals will consist of pure A and all the impurities will remain in the solution. The solid crystals are collected by filtration and the filtrate is discarded. If the solubility product of the impurity is exceeded, some of the impurities will co-precipitate. However, because of the relatively low concentration of the impurity, its concentration in the precipitated crystals will be less than its concentration in the original solid. Repeated recrystallization will result in an even purer crystalline precipitate. The purity is checked after each recrystallization by measuring the melting point, since impurities lower the melting point. NMR spectroscopy can also be used to check the level of impurity. Repeated recrystallization results in some loss of material because of the non-zero solubility of compound A.
The crystallization process requires an initiation step, such as the addition of a "seed" crystal. In the laboratory, a minuscule fragment of glass, produced by scratching the side of the glass recrystallization vessel, may provide the nucleus on which crystals may grow.
Successful recrystallization depends on finding the right solvent. This is usually a combination of prediction/experience and trial/error. The compounds must be more soluble at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. Any insoluble impurity is removed by the technique of hot filtration. | 5 | Separation Processes |
A dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC, DSC, DYSC or Grätzel cell) is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin film solar cells. It is based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a photoelectrochemical system. The modern version of a dye solar cell, also known as the Grätzel cell, was originally co-invented in 1988 by Brian O'Regan and Michael Grätzel at UC Berkeley and this work was later developed by the aforementioned scientists at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) until the publication of the first high efficiency DSSC in 1991. Michael Grätzel has been awarded the 2010 Millennium Technology Prize for this invention.
The DSSC has a number of attractive features; it is simple to make using conventional roll-printing techniques, is semi-flexible and semi-transparent which offers a variety of uses not applicable to glass-based systems, and most of the materials used are low-cost. In practice it has proven difficult to eliminate a number of expensive materials, notably platinum and ruthenium, and the liquid electrolyte presents a serious challenge to making a cell suitable for use in all weather. Although its conversion efficiency is less than the best thin-film cells, in theory its price/performance ratio should be good enough to allow them to compete with fossil fuel electrical generation by achieving grid parity. Commercial applications, which were held up due to chemical stability problems, had been forecast in the European Union Photovoltaic Roadmap to significantly contribute to renewable electricity generation by 2020. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
Pyroelectric fusion refers to the technique of using pyroelectric crystals to generate high strength electrostatic fields to accelerate deuterium ions (tritium might also be used someday) into a metal hydride target also containing deuterium (or tritium) with sufficient kinetic energy to cause these ions to undergo nuclear fusion. It was reported in April 2005 by a team at UCLA. The scientists used a pyroelectric crystal heated from −34 to 7 °C (−29 to 45 °F), combined with a tungsten needle to produce an electric field of about 25 gigavolts per meter to ionize and accelerate deuterium nuclei into an erbium deuteride target. Though the energy of the deuterium ions generated by the crystal has not been directly measured, the authors used 100 keV (a temperature of about 10 K) as an estimate in their modeling. At these energy levels, two deuterium nuclei can fuse to produce a helium-3 nucleus, a 2.45 MeV neutron and bremsstrahlung. Although it makes a useful neutron generator, the apparatus is not intended for power generation since it requires far more energy than it produces. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
*1. The (ordinary) Hall effect changes sign upon magnetic field reversal and it is an orbital effect (unrelated to spin) due to the Lorentz force. Transversal AMR (planar Hall effect) does not change sign and it is caused by spin-orbit interaction. | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
It was agreed that there would be a World Congress every three years, with each Chapter organizing its own conference in the intervening two years. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
Woods lamp is useful in diagnosing conditions such as tuberous sclerosis and erythrasma (caused by Corynebacterium minutissimum, see above). Additionally, detection of porphyria cutanea tarda can sometimes be made when urine turns pink upon illumination with Woods lamp. Woods lamps have also been used to differentiate hypopigmentation from depigmentation such as with vitiligo. A vitiligo patients skin will appear yellow-green or blue under the Wood's lamp. Its use in detecting melanoma has been reported. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
To achieve a near tenfold increase in fusion power density, the design makes use of REBCO superconducting tape for its toroidal field coils. This material enables higher magnetic field strength to contain heated plasma in a smaller volume. In theory, fusion power density is proportional to the fourth power of the magnetic field strength. The most probable candidate material is yttrium barium copper oxide, with a design temperature of , allowing various coolants (e.g. liquid hydrogen, liquid neon, or helium gas) instead of the much more complicated liquid helium refrigeration chosen by ITER. The official SPARC brochure displays a YBCO cable section that is commercially available and that should allow fields up to 30 T.
ARC is planned to be a 270 MWe tokamak reactor with a major radius of , a minor radius of , and an on-axis magnetic field of .
The design point has a fusion energy gain factor Q ≈ 13.6 (the plasma produces 13 times more fusion energy than is required to heat it), yet is fully non-inductive, with a bootstrap fraction of ~63%.
The design is enabled by the ~23 T peak field on coil. External current drive is provided by two inboard RF launchers using of lower hybrid and of ion cyclotron fast wave power. The resulting current drive provides a steady-state core plasma far from disruptive limits. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
The ISI identified cold fusion as the scientific topic with the largest number of published papers in 1989, of all scientific disciplines. The Nobel Laureate Julian Schwinger declared himself a supporter of cold fusion in the fall of 1989, after much of the response to the initial reports had turned negative. He tried to publish his theoretical paper "Cold Fusion: A Hypothesis" in Physical Review Letters, but the peer reviewers rejected it so harshly that he felt deeply insulted, and he resigned from the American Physical Society (publisher of PRL) in protest.
The number of papers sharply declined after 1990 because of two simultaneous phenomena: first, scientists abandoned the field; second, journal editors declined to review new papers. Consequently, cold fusion fell off the ISI charts. Researchers who got negative results turned their backs on the field; those who continued to publish were simply ignored. A 1993 paper in Physics Letters A was the last paper published by Fleischmann, and "one of the last reports [by Fleischmann] to be formally challenged on technical grounds by a cold fusion skeptic."
The Journal of Fusion Technology (FT) established a permanent feature in 1990 for cold fusion papers, publishing over a dozen papers per year and giving a mainstream outlet for cold fusion researchers. When editor-in-chief George H. Miley retired in 2001, the journal stopped accepting new cold fusion papers. This has been cited as an example of the importance of sympathetic influential individuals to the publication of cold fusion papers in certain journals.
The decline of publications in cold fusion has been described as a "failed information epidemic". The sudden surge of supporters until roughly 50% of scientists support the theory, followed by a decline until there is only a very small number of supporters, has been described as a characteristic of pathological science. The lack of a shared set of unifying concepts and techniques has prevented the creation of a dense network of collaboration in the field; researchers perform efforts in their own and in disparate directions, making the transition to "normal" science more difficult.
Cold fusion reports continued to be published in a few journals like Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Il Nuovo Cimento. Some papers also appeared in Journal of Physical Chemistry, Physics Letters A, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, and a number of Japanese and Russian journals of physics, chemistry, and engineering. Since 2005, Naturwissenschaften has published cold fusion papers; in 2009, the journal named a cold fusion researcher to its editorial board. In 2015 the Indian multidisciplinary journal Current Science published a special section devoted entirely to cold fusion related papers.
In the 1990s, the groups that continued to research cold fusion and their supporters established (non-peer-reviewed) periodicals such as Fusion Facts, Cold Fusion Magazine, Infinite Energy Magazine and New Energy Times to cover developments in cold fusion and other fringe claims in energy production that were ignored in other venues. The internet has also become a major means of communication and self-publication for CF researchers. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
In 2020, the first cloned Przewalski's horse was born, the result of a collaboration between San Diego Zoo Global, ViaGen Equine and Revive & Restore. The cloning was carried out by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), whereby a viable embryo is created by transplanting the DNA-containing nucleus of a somatic cell into an immature egg cell (oocyte) that has had its own nucleus removed, producing offspring genetically identical to the somatic cell donor. Since the oocyte used was from a domestic horse, this was an example of interspecies SCNT.
The somatic cell donor was a Przewalskis horse stallion named Kuporovic, born in the UK in 1975, and relocated three years later to the US, where he died in 1998. Due to concerns over the loss of genetic variation in the captive Przewalskis horse population, and in anticipation of the development of new cloning techniques, tissue from the stallion was cryopreserved at the San Diego Zoos Frozen Zoo. Breeding of this individual in the 1980s had already substantially increased the genetic diversity of the captive population, after he was discovered to have more unique alleles than any other horse living at the time, including otherwise-lost genetic material from two of the original captive founders. To produce the clone, frozen skin fibroblasts were thawed, and grown in cell culture. An oocyte was collected from a domestic horse, and its nucleus replaced by a nucleus collected from a cultured Przewalskis horse fibroblast. The resulting embryo was induced to begin division and was cultured until it reached the blastocyst stage, then implanted into a domestic horse surrogate mare, which carried the embryo to term and delivered a foal with the Przewalski's horse DNA of the long-deceased stallion.
The cloned horse was named Kurt, after Dr. Kurt Benirschke, a geneticist who developed the idea of cryopreserving genetic material from species considered to be endangered. His ideas led to the creation of the Frozen Zoo as a genetic library. There is a breeding herd in the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Once the foal matures, he will be relocated to the breeding herd at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, so as to pass Kuporovics genes into the larger captive Przewalskis horse population and increase the genetic variation of the species. | 1 | Cryobiology |
Quantum dots are unique fluorophores relative to organic dyes, like fluorescein or rhodamine because they are composed of semiconductor metals, instead of a π-conjugated carbon-bonding framework. With organic dyes, the length of the π-conjugated framework (quantum confinement), as well as side-groups (electron donating/withdrawing or halogens) tend to dictate the absorption and emission spectra of the molecule. Semiconductor quantum dots also work on the concept of quantum confinement, (often referred to as "Particle in a Box" theory) where an exciton is formed inside the crystal lattice by an incident photon of higher energy. The electron and hole of the exciton have an interaction energy that is tuned by changing the physical size of the quantum dot. The absorption and emission colors are tuned such that smaller quantum dots confine the exciton into a tighter physical space and increase the energy. Alternatively, a larger quantum dot confines the exciton into a larger physical space, lowering the interaction energy of the electron and hole, and decreasing the energy of the system. As shown in the table above, the diameter of the CdSe quantum dots is related to the emission energy such that the smaller quantum dots emit photons toward the blue wavelength range (higher energy) and the larger quantum dots emit photons toward the red wavelength range (lower energy.)
To the right are representative absorption (blue) and emission (red) spectra for the eFluor-605 nanocrystal. The absorption spectrum of nanocrystals displays a number of peaks overlaid on background that rises exponentially toward the ultraviolet, where the lowest energy absorption peak arises from the 1S-1S transition, and has been correlated to the physical size of the quantum dot. Generally referred to as the "1st exciton," and is the primary absorption characteristic used to determine both size and concentration for most quantum dots.
The photoluminescence spectra of quantum dots are also unique relative to organic dyes in that they are typically Gaussian-shaped curves with no red-tailing to the spectrum. The width of the photoluminescence peak represents the heterogeneity in size dispersion of the quantum dots, where a large size dispersion will lead to broad emission peaks, and tight size-dispersion will lead to narrow emission peaks, often quantified by the full width at half maximum (FWHM) value. eFluor Nanocrystals are specified at ≤30nm FWHM for the CdSe nanocrystals, and ≤70nm FWHM for the InGaP eFluor 700 nanocrystals. | 0 | Luminescence |
Selective laser sintering (SLS) uses powdered material as the substrate for printing new objects. SLS can be used to create metal, plastic, and ceramic objects. This technique uses a laser controlled by a computer as the power source to sinter powdered material. The laser traces a cross-section of the shape of the desired object in the powder, which fuses it together into a solid form. A new layer of powder is then laid down and the process repeats itself, building each layer with every new application of powder, one by one, to form the entirety of the object. One of the advantages of SLS printing is that it requires very little additional tooling, i.e. sanding, once the object is printed. Recent advances in organ printing using SLS include 3D constructs of craniofacial implants as well as scaffolds for cardiac tissue engineering. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
A 1991 review by a cold fusion proponent had calculated "about 600 scientists" were still conducting research. After 1991, cold fusion research only continued in relative obscurity, conducted by groups that had increasing difficulty securing public funding and keeping programs open. These small but committed groups of cold fusion researchers have continued to conduct experiments using Fleischmann and Pons electrolysis setups in spite of the rejection by the mainstream community. The Boston Globe estimated in 2004 that there were only 100 to 200 researchers working in the field, most suffering damage to their reputation and career. Since the main controversy over Pons and Fleischmann had ended, cold fusion research has been funded by private and small governmental scientific investment funds in the United States, Italy, Japan, and India. For example, it was reported in Nature, in May, 2019, that Google had spent approximately $10 million on cold fusion research. A group of scientists at well-known research labs (e.g., MIT, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, and others) worked for several years to establish experimental protocols and measurement techniques in an effort to re-evaluate cold fusion to a high standard of scientific rigor. Their reported conclusion: no cold fusion.
In 2021, following Natures' 2019 publication of anomalous findings that might only be explained by some localized fusion, scientists at the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head Division announced that they had assembled a group of scientists from the Navy, Army and National Institute of Standards and Technology to undertake a new, coordinated study. With few exceptions, researchers have had difficulty publishing in mainstream journals. The remaining researchers often term their field Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR), Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions (CANR), Lattice Assisted Nuclear Reactions (LANR), Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (CMNS) or Lattice Enabled Nuclear Reactions; one of the reasons being to avoid the negative connotations associated with "cold fusion". The new names avoid making bold implications, like implying that fusion is actually occurring.
The researchers who continue their investigations acknowledge that the flaws in the original announcement are the main cause of the subject's marginalization, and they complain of a chronic lack of funding and no possibilities of getting their work published in the highest impact journals. University researchers are often unwilling to investigate cold fusion because they would be ridiculed by their colleagues and their professional careers would be at risk. In 1994, David Goodstein, a professor of physics at Caltech, advocated increased attention from mainstream researchers and described cold fusion as: | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
NRF2, a transcription factor associated with the cellular response to oxidative stress, has been found to be indirectly regulated by O-GlcNAc. KEAP1, an adaptor protein for the cullin 3-dependent E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, mediates the degradation of NRF2; oxidative stress leads to conformational changes in KEAP1 that repress degradation of NRF2. O-GlcNAc modification of KEAP1 at S104 is required for efficient ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of NRF2, linking O-GlcNAc to oxidative stress. Glucose deprivation leads to a reduction in O-GlcNAc and reduces NRF2 degradation. Cells expressing a KEAP1 S104A mutant are resistant to erastin-induced ferroptosis, consistent with higher NRF2 levels upon removal of S104 O-GlcNAc.
Elevated O-GlcNAc levels have been associated with diminished synthesis of hepatic glutathione, an important cellular antioxidant. Acetaminophen overdose leads to accumulation of the strongly oxidizing metabolite NAPQI in the liver, which is detoxified by glutathione. In mice, OGT knockout has a protective effect against acetaminophen-induced liver injury, while OGA inhibition with thiamet-G exacerbates acetaminophen-induced liver injury. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
An extensive open-air planting used maintain genetic diversity of wild, agricultural, or forestry species. Typically species that are either difficult or impossible to conserve in seed banks are conserved in field gene banks. Field gene banks may also be used grow and select progeny of species stored by other ex situ techniques. | 1 | Cryobiology |
High power mercury vapor black light lamps are made in power ratings of 100 to 1,000 watts. These do not use phosphors, but rely on the intensified and slightly broadened 350–375 nm spectral line of mercury from high pressure discharge at between , depending upon the specific type. These lamps use envelopes of Woods glass or similar optical filter coatings to block out all the visible light and also the short wavelength (UVC) lines of mercury at 184.4 and 253.7 nm, which are harmful to the eyes and skin. A few other spectral lines, falling within the pass band of the Woods glass between 300 and 400 nm, contribute to the output.
These lamps are used mainly for theatrical purposes and concert displays. They are more efficient UVA producers per unit of power consumption than fluorescent tubes. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
SPMR measurements depend on the characteristics of the nanoparticle (NP) that is used. The NP must have the property that the bulk material is normally ferromagnetic in the bulk. Magnetite (FeO) is one such example as it is ferromagnetic when below its Curie temperature. However, if the NPs are single domain, and of a size less than ~50 nm, they exhibit paramagnetic properties even below the Curie temperature due to the energy of the NP being dominated by thermal activity rather than magnetic energy. If an external magnetic field is applied, the NPs align with that field and have a magnetic moment now characteristic of ferromagnetic behavior. When this external field is removed, the NPs relax back to their paramagnetic state.
The size of the NP determines the rate of decay of the relaxation process after the extinction of the external magnetization field. The NP decay rate also depends on whether the particle is bound (tethered) to a surface, or is free to rotate. The latter case is dominated by thermal activity, Brownian motion.
For the bound case, the decay rate is given by the Néel equation
Here the value of is normally taken as  ≈ 10 s, is the anisotropy energy density of the magnetic material (1.35 × 10 J/m), the magnetic core volume, is Boltzmann’s constant, and is the absolute temperature. This exponential relationship between the particle volume and the decay time implies a very strong dependence on the diameter of the NP used in SPMR studies, requiring precise size restrictions on producing these particles.
For magnetite, this requires a particle diameter of ~25 nm. The NP also require high monodispersity around this diameter as NP a few nm below this value will decay too fast and a few nm above will decay too slowly to fit into the time window of the measurement.
The value of the time constant, , depends on the method of fabrication of the NP. Different chemical procedures will produce slightly different values as well as different NP magnetic moments. Equally important characteristics of the NP are monodispersity, single domain character, and crystalline structure. | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
Purified lectins are important in a clinical setting because they are used for blood typing. Some of the glycolipids and glycoproteins on an individual's red blood cells can be identified by lectins.
* A lectin from Dolichos biflorus is used to identify cells that belong to the A1 blood group.
* A lectin from Ulex europaeus is used to identify the H blood group antigen.
* A lectin from Vicia graminea is used to identify the N blood group antigen.
* A lectin from Iberis amara is used to identify the M blood group antigen.
* A lectin from coconut milk is used to identify Theros antigen.
* A lectin from Carex is used to identify R antigen.
In neuroscience, the anterograde labeling method is used to trace the path of efferent axons with PHA-L, a lectin from the kidney bean.
A lectin (BanLec) from bananas inhibits HIV-1 in vitro. Achylectins, isolated from Tachypleus tridentatus, show specific agglutinating activity against human A-type erythrocytes. Anti-B agglutinins such as anti-BCJ and anti-BLD separated from Charybdis japonica and Lymantria dispar, respectively, are of value both in routine blood grouping and research. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Superparamagnetic relaxometry (SPMR) is a technology combining the use of sensitive magnetic sensors and the superparamagnetic properties of magnetite nanoparticles (NP). For NP of a sufficiently small size, on the order of tens of nanometers (nm), the NP exhibit paramagnetic properties, i.e., they have little or no magnetic moment. When they are exposed to a small external magnetic field, on the order of a few millitesla (mT), the NP align with that field and exhibit ferromagnetic properties with large magnetic moments. Following removal of the magnetizing field, the NP slowly become thermalized, decaying with a distinct time constant from the ferromagnetic state back to the paramagnetic state. This time constant depends strongly upon the NP diameter and whether they are unbound or bound to an external surface such as a cell. Measurement of this decaying magnetic field is typically done by superconducting quantum interference detectors (SQUIDs). The magnitude of the field during the decay process determines the magnetic moment of the NPs in the source. A spatial contour map of the field distribution determines the location of the source in three dimensions as well as the magnetic moment. | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
The laws of many countries permit IVF for only single individuals, lesbian couples, and persons participating in surrogacy arrangements. | 1 | Cryobiology |
The high pressure pump pushes water through the membrane. Typical pressures for brackish water range from 1.6 to 2.6 MPa (225 to 376 psi). In the case of seawater, they range from 5.5 to 8 MPa (800 to 1,180 psi). This requires substantial energy. Where energy recovery is used, part of the high pressure pump's work is done by the energy recovery device, reducing energy inputs. | 5 | Separation Processes |
A scaffold or matrix serves as a temporary supporting structure (extracellular matrix), the initial architecture, on which the cells can grow three-dimensionally into the desired tissue. A scaffold must provide the environment needed for cellular growth and differentiation; it must provide the strength to withstand mechanical stress and guide their growth. Moreover, scaffolds should be biodegradable and degrade at the same rate as the tissue regenerates to be optimally replaced by the host tissue. There are numerous scaffolds to choose from and when choosing a scaffold biocompatibility, porosity and stability should also be held into account. Available scaffolds for oral mucosa tissue engineering are: | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
Robert W. Bussard (August 11, 1928 – October 6, 2007) was an American physicist who worked primarily in nuclear fusion energy research. He was the recipient of the Schreiber-Spence Achievement Award for STAIF-2004. He was also a fellow of the International Academy of Astronautics and held a Ph.D. from Princeton University. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
OFM was cleared by the FDA in 2016 and 2021 for surgical applications in plastics and reconstructive surgery as a multi-layered product (Myriad Matrix™) and powdered format (Myriad Morcells™). OFM-based surgical devices are routinely used in complex lower extremity reconstruction, pilonidal sinus reconstruction, hidradenitis suppurativa and complex traumatic wounds.
OFM-based surgical devices are routinely used in plastics and reconstructive surgery for the regeneration of soft tissues when used as an artificial skin | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
Rui Luís Reis (born 19 April 1967) is a Portuguese scientist known for his research in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, biomaterials, biomimetics, stem cells, and biodegradable polymers.
Reis is a professor of at the University of Minho in Braga and Guimarães. He is the Founding Director of the 3Bs Research Group, part of the Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics (I3Bs) of UMinho (www.i3bs.uminho.pt), a group that specializes in the areas of Regenerative Medicine, Tissue Engineering, Stem Cells and Biomaterials. He is also the Director of the ICVS/3Bs Associate Laboratory of UMinho. He is the CEO of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. Rui L. Reis was, from 2013 to 2017, the Vice-Rector (vice-president) for research and innovation of UMinho. From 2007 to 2021 Reis was the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. From 2016 to 2018, he was president of the Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine International Society (TERMIS).
Reis is in the board of several scientific societies, companies and associations. From 2017 to 2019, he was the President of TECMINHO - the technology transfer office of the University of Minho.
Reis is the CEO of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine in Avepark, Guimarães.
He co-founded different start up companies originating from the research and activities of 3B's research group, such as Stemmatters and HydruStent/HydruMedical.
Reis is the current president of the I3B's research institute, and one of the most cited Portuguese researchers in science. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
Lectins have these functions in animals:
* The regulation of cell adhesion
* The regulation of glycoprotein synthesis
* The regulation of blood protein levels
* The binding of soluble extracellular and intercellular glycoproteins
* As a receptor on the surface of mammalian liver cells for the recognition of galactose residues, which results in removal of certain glycoproteins from the circulatory system
* As a receptor that recognizes hydrolytic enzymes containing mannose-6-phosphate, and targets these proteins for delivery to the lysosomes; I-cell disease is one type of defect in this particular system.
* Lectins are known to play important roles in the innate immune system. Lectins such as the mannose-binding lectin, help mediate the first-line defense against invading microorganisms. Other immune lectins play a role in self-nonself discrimination and they likely modulate inflammatory and autoreactive processes. Intelectins (X-type lectins) bind microbial glycans and may function in the innate immune system as well. Lectins may be involved in pattern recognition and pathogen elimination in the innate immunity of vertebrates including fishes. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Cardiovascular diseases are often caused by changes in structure and function of small blood vessels. For instance, self-reported rates of hypertension suggest that the rate is increasing, says a 2003 report from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. A microfluidic platform simulating the biological response of an artery could not only enable organ-based screens to occur more frequently throughout a drug development trial, but also yield a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms behind pathologic changes in small arteries and develop better treatment strategies. Axel Gunther from the University of Toronto argues that such MEMS-based devices could potentially help in the assessment of a patient's microvascular status in a clinical setting (personalized medicine).
Conventional methods used to examine intrinsic properties of isolated resistance vessels (arterioles and small arteries with diameters varying between 30 µm and 300 µm) include the pressure myography technique. However, such methods currently require manually skilled personnel and are not scalable. An artery-on-a-chip could overcome several of these limitations by accommodating an artery onto a platform which would be scalable, inexpensive and possibly automated in its manufacturing.
An organ-based microfluidic platform has been developed as a lab-on-a-chip onto which a fragile blood vessel can be fixed, allowing for determinants of resistance artery malfunctions to be studied.
The artery microenvironment is characterized by surrounding temperature, transmural pressure, and luminal & abluminal drug concentrations. The multiple inputs from a microenvironment cause a wide range of mechanical or chemical stimuli on the smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and endothelial cells (ECs) that line the vessel's outer and luminal walls, respectively. Endothelial cells are responsible for releasing vasoconstriction and vasodilator factors, thus modifying tone. Vascular tone is defined as the degree of constriction inside a blood vessel relative to its maximum diameter. Pathogenic concepts currently believe that subtle changes to this microenvironment have pronounced effects on arterial tone and can severely alter peripheral vascular resistance. The engineers behind this design believe that a specific strength lies in its ability to control and simulate heterogeneous spatiotemporal influences found within the microenvironment, whereas myography protocols have, by virtue of their design, only established homogeneous microenvironments. They proved that by delivering phenylephrine through only one of the two channels providing superfusion to the outer walls, the drug-facing side constricted much more than the drug opposing side.
The artery-on-a-chip is designed for reversible implantation of the sample. The device contains a microchannel network, an artery loading area and a separate artery inspection area. There is a microchannel used for loading the artery segment, and when the loading well is sealed, it is also used as a perfusion channel, to replicate the process of nutritive delivery of arterial blood to a capillary bed in the biological tissue. Another pair of microchannels serves to fix the two ends of the arterial segment. Finally, the last pair of microchannels is used to provide superfusion flow rates, in order to maintain the physiological and metabolic activity of the organ by delivering a constant sustaining medium over the abluminal wall. A thermoelectric heater and a thermoresistor are connected to the chip and maintain physiological temperatures at the artery inspection area.
The protocol of loading and securing the tissue sample into the inspection zone helps understand how this approach acknowledges whole organ functions. After immersing the tissue segment into the loading well, the loading process is driven by a syringe withdrawing a constant flow rate of buffer solution at the far end of the loading channel. This causes the transport of the artery towards its dedicated position. This is done with closed fixation and superfusion in/outlet lines. After stopping the pump, sub-atmospheric pressure is applied through one of the fixation channels. Then after sealing the loading well shut, the second fixation channel is subjected to a sub-atmospheric pressure. Now the artery is symmetrically established in the inspection area, and a transmural pressure is felt by the segment. The remaining channels are opened and constant perfusion and superfusion are adjusted using separate syringe pumps.
Vessel-on-chips have been applied to study many disease processes. For example, Alireza Mashaghi and his co-workers developed a model to study viral hemorrhagic syndrome, which involves virus induced vascular integrity loss. The model was used to study Ebola virus disease and to study anti-Ebola drugs. In 2021, the approach has been adapted to model Lassa fever and to show the therapeutic effects of peptide FX-06 for Lassa virus disease. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
In the laboratory, for ICSI treatments, the identified eggs are stripped of surrounding cells (also known as cumulus cells) and prepared for fertilisation. An oocyte selection may be performed prior to fertilisation to select eggs that can be fertilised, as it is required they are in metaphase II. There are cases in which if oocytes are in the metaphase I stage, they can be kept being cultured so as to undergo a posterior sperm injection. In the meantime, semen is prepared for fertilisation by removing inactive cells and seminal fluid in a process called sperm washing. If semen is being provided by a sperm donor, it will usually have been prepared for treatment before being frozen and quarantined, and it will be thawed ready for use. | 1 | Cryobiology |
The first writer to advocate a lectin-free diet was Peter J. DAdamo, a naturopathic physician best known for promoting the Blood type diet. He argued that lectins may damage a persons blood type by interfering with digestion, food metabolism, hormones, insulin production—and so should be avoided. D'Adamo provided no scientific evidence nor published data for his claims, and his diet has been criticized for making inaccurate statements about biochemistry.
Steven Gundry proposed a lectin-free diet in his book The Plant Paradox (2017). It excludes a large range of commonplace foods including whole grains, legumes, and most fruit, as well as the nightshade vegetables: tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, bell peppers, and chili peppers. Gundry's claims about lectins are considered pseudoscience. His book cites studies that have nothing to do with lectins, and some that show—contrary to his own recommendations—that avoiding the whole grains wheat, barley, and rye will allow increase of harmful bacteria while diminishing helpful bacteria. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Kenneth Storey studied biochemistry at the University of Calgary (B.Sc. 71) and zoology at the University of British Columbia (Ph.D. 74). Storey is a Professor of Biochemistry, cross-appointed in the Departments of Biology, Chemistry and Neuroscience and holds the Canada Research Chair in Molecular Physiology at Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada.
Storey is an elected fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, of the Society for Cryobiology and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He has won fellowships and awards for research excellence including the Fry medal from the Canadian Society of Zoologists (2011), the Flavelle medal from the Royal Society of Canada (2010), Ottawa Life Sciences Council Basic Research Award (1998), a [https://killamprogram.canadacouncil.ca/ Killam Senior Research Fellowship] (1993–1995), the Ayerst Award from the [https://csmb-scbm.ca/ Canadian Society for Molecular Biosciences] (1989), an E.W.R. Steacie Memorial Fellowship from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (1984–1986), and four Carleton University Research Achievement Awards. Storey is the author of over 1200 research articles, the editor of seven books, has given over 500 talks at conferences and institutes worldwide, and organized numerous international symposia. | 1 | Cryobiology |
The first successful birth of a child after IVF treatment, Louise Brown, occurred in 1978. Louise Brown was born as a result of natural cycle IVF where no stimulation was made. The procedure took place at Dr Kershaws Cottage Hospital (now Dr Kershaws Hospice) in Royton, Oldham, England. Robert G. Edwards, the physiologist who co-developed the treatment, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2010. His co-workers, Patrick Steptoe and Jean Purdy, were not eligible for consideration as the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously.
The second successful birth of a test tube baby occurred in India just 67 days after Louise Brown was born. The girl, named Durga, was conceived in vitro using a method developed independently by Subhash Mukhopadhyay, a physician and researcher from Hazaribag. Mukhopadhyay had been performing experiments on his own with primitive instruments and a household refrigerator. However, state authorities prevented him from presenting his work at scientific conferences, and it was many years before Mukhopadhyay's contribution was acknowledged in works dealing with the subject.
Adriana Iliescu held the record as the oldest woman to give birth using IVF and a donor egg, when she gave birth in 2004 at the age of 66, a record passed in 2006. After the IVF treatment some couples are able to get pregnant without any fertility treatments. In 2018 it was estimated that eight million children had been born worldwide using IVF and other assisted reproduction techniques. | 1 | Cryobiology |
In the detection sub-process location and property vectors are recorded to allow particle localization for ejection and material classification for discrimination purposes. All detection technologies applied have in common to be cheap, contactless and fast. The technologies are subdivided in transmitting and reflecting groups, the first measuring the inner content of a particle while the later only uses the surface reflection for discrimination. Surface, or reflection technologies have the disadvantage that the surfaces need to be representing the content, thus need to be clean from clay and dust adhesions. But by default surface reflection technologies violate the Fundamental Sampling Principle because not all components of a particle have the same probability of being detected.
The main transmitting technologies are EM (Electromagnetics) and XRT (X-ray-Transmission). EM detection is based on the conductivity of the material passing an alternating electromagnetic field. The principle of XRT is widely known through the application in medical diagnostics and airport luggage scanners. The main surface or reflection technologies are traditionally X-ray luminescence detectors capturing the fluorescence of diamonds under the excitation of X-ray radiation and color cameras detecting brightness and colour difference. Spectroscopic methods such as near-infrared spectroscopy known from remote sensing in exploration in mining for decades, have found their way into industrial scale sensor-based sorters. Advantage of the application of near-infrared spectroscopy is that the evidence can be measured on the presence of specific molecular bonds, thus minerals composition of the near-infrared active minerals. There is more detection technologies available on industrial scale sensor-based ore sorters. Readers that want to go into detail can find more in the literature. | 5 | Separation Processes |
The glucosinolate sinigrin, among others, was shown to be responsible for the bitterness of cooked cauliflower and Brussels sprouts. Glucosinolates may alter animal eating behavior. | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Electroluminescent technologies have low power consumption compared to competing lighting technologies, such as neon or fluorescent lamps. This, together with the thinness of the material, has made EL technology valuable to the advertising industry. Relevant advertising applications include electroluminescent billboards and signs. EL manufacturers can control precisely which areas of an electroluminescent sheet illuminate, and when. This has given advertisers the ability to create more dynamic advertising that is still compatible with traditional advertising spaces.
An EL film is a so-called Lambertian radiator: unlike with neon lamps, filament lamps, or LEDs, the brightness of the surface appears the same from all angles of view; electroluminescent light is not directional. The light emitted from the surface is perfectly homogeneous and is well-perceived by the eye. EL film produces single-frequency (monochromatic) light that has a very narrow bandwidth, is uniform and visible from a great distance.
In principle, EL lamps can be made in any color. However, the commonly used greenish color closely matches the peak sensitivity of human vision, producing the greatest apparent light output for the least electrical power input. Unlike neon and fluorescent lamps, EL lamps are not negative resistance devices so no extra circuitry is needed to regulate the amount of current flowing through them. A new technology now being used is based on multispectral phosphors that emit light from 600 to 400nm depending on the drive frequency; this is similar to the color-changing effect seen with aqua EL sheet but on a larger scale. | 0 | Luminescence |
The potential of using bioartificial pancreas, for treatment of diabetes mellitus, based on encapsulating islet cells within a semi permeable membrane is extensively being studied by scientists. These devices could eliminate the need for of immunosuppressive drugs in addition to finally solving the problem of shortage of organ donors. The use of microencapsulation would protect the islet cells from immune rejection as well as allow the use of animal cells or genetically modified insulin-producing cells. It is hoped that development of these islet encapsulated microcapsules could prevent the need for the insulin injections needed several times a day by type 1 diabetic patients. The Edmonton protocol involves implantation of human islets extracted from cadaveric donors and has shown improvements towards the treatment of type 1 diabetics who are prone to hypoglycemic unawareness. However, the two major hurdles faced in this technique are the limited availability of donor organs and with the need for immunosuppresents to prevent an immune response in the patient's body.
Several studies have been dedicated towards the development of bioartificial pancreas involving the immobilization of islets of Langerhans inside polymeric capsules. The first attempt towards this aim was demonstrated in 1980 by Lim et al. where xenograft islet cells were encapsulated inside alginate polylysine microcapsules and showed significant in vivo results for several weeks. It is envisaged that the implantation of these encapsulated cells would help to overcome the use of immunosuppressive drugs and also allow the use of xenograft cells thus obviating the problem of donor shortage.
The polymers used for islet microencapsulation are alginate, chitosan, polyethylene glycol (PEG), agarose, sodium cellulose sulfate and water-insoluble polyacrylates with alginate and PEG being commonly used polymers.
With successful in vitro studies being performed using this technique, significant work in clinical trials using microencapsulated human islets is being carried out. In 2003, the use of alginate/PLO microcapsules containing islet cells for pilot phase-1 clinical trials was permitted to be carried out at the University of Perugia by the Italian Ministry of Health. In another study, the potential of clinical application of PEGylation and low doses of the immunosuppressant cyclosporine A were evaluated. The trial which began in 2005 by Novocell, now forms the phase I/II of clinical trials involving implantation of islet allografts into the subcutaneous site. However, there have been controversial studies involving human clinical trials where Living Cell technologies Ltd demonstrated the survival of functional xenogeneic cells transplanted without immunosuppressive medication for 9.5 years. However, the trial received harsh criticism from the International Xenotransplantation Association as being risky and premature.
However, even though clinical trials are under way, several major issues such as biocompatibility and immunoprotection need to be overcome.
Potential alternatives to encapsulating isolated islets (of either allo- or xenogeneic origin) are also being explored. Using sodium cellulose sulphate technology from [https://austrianova.com/ Austrianova Singapore] an islet cell line was encapsulated and it was demonstrated that the cells remain viable and release insulin in response to glucose. In pre-clinical studies, implanted, encapsulated cells were able to restore blood glucose levels in diabetic rats over a period of 6 months. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
UV rays also treat certain skin conditions. Modern phototherapy has been used to successfully treat psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, and localized scleroderma. In addition, UV light, in particular UV‑B radiation, has been shown to induce cell cycle arrest in keratinocytes, the most common type of skin cell. As such, sunlight therapy can be a candidate for treatment of conditions such as psoriasis and exfoliative cheilitis, conditions in which skin cells divide more rapidly than usual or necessary. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
The cell type chosen for this technique depends on the desired application of the cell microcapsules. The cells put into the capsules can be from the patient (autologous cells), from another donor (allogeneic cells) or from other species (xenogeneic cells). The use of autologous cells in microencapsulation therapy is limited by the availability of these cells and even though xenogeneic cells are easily accessible, danger of possible transmission of viruses, especially porcine endogenous retrovirus to the patient restricts their clinical application, and after much debate several groups have concluded that studies should involve the use of allogeneic instead of xenogeneic cells. Depending on the application, the cells can be genetically altered to express any required protein. However, enough research has to be carried out to validate the safety and stability of the expressed gene before these types of cells can be used.
This technology has not received approval for clinical trial because of the high immunogenicity of cells loaded in the capsules. They secrete cytokines and produce a severe inflammatory reaction at the implantation site around the capsules, in turn leading to a decrease in viability of the encapsulated cells. One promising approach being studied is the administration of anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce the immune response produced due to administration of the cell loaded microcapsules. Another approach which is now the focus of extensive research is the use of stem cells such as mesenchymal stem cells for long term cell microencapsulation and cell therapy applications in hopes of reducing the immune response in the patient after implantation. Another issue which compromises long term viability of the microencapsulated cells is the use of fast proliferating cell lines which eventually fill up the entire system and lead to decrease in the diffusion efficiency across the semi-permeable membrane of the capsule. A solution to this could be in the use of cell types such as myoblasts which do not proliferate after the microencapsulation procedure. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
Yuan-Cheng "Bert" Fung (September 15, 1919 – December 15, 2019) was a Chinese-American bioengineer and writer. He is regarded as a founding figure of bioengineering, tissue engineering, and the "Founder of Modern Biomechanics". | 2 | Tissue Engineering |
Solar-blind technology is a set of technologies to produce images without interference from the Sun. This is done by using wavelengths of ultraviolet light that are totally absorbed by the ozone layer, yet are transmitted in the Earth's atmosphere. Wavelengths from 240 to 280 nm are completely absorbed by the ozone layer. Elements of this technology are ultraviolet light sources, ultraviolet image detectors, and filters that only transmit the range of wavelengths that are blocked by ozone. A system will also have a signal processing system, and a way to display the results (image). | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
The critical issue of the solar neutrino problem, that many astrophysicists interested in solar neutrinos studied and attempted to solve in late 1900s and early 2000s, is solved. In the 21st century, even without a main problem to solve, there is still unique and novel research ongoing in this field of astrophysics. | 3 | Nuclear Fusion |
Several important measures are used to characterize solar cells. The most obvious is the total amount of electrical power produced for a given amount of solar power shining on the cell. Expressed as a percentage, this is known as the solar conversion efficiency. Electrical power is the product of current and voltage, so the maximum values for these measurements are important as well, J and V respectively. Finally, in order to understand the underlying physics, the "quantum efficiency" is used to compare the chance that one photon (of a particular energy) will create one electron.
In quantum efficiency terms, DSSCs are extremely efficient. Due to their "depth" in the nanostructure there is a very high chance that a photon will be absorbed, and the dyes are very effective at converting them to electrons. Most of the small losses that do exist in DSSC's are due to conduction losses in the TiO and the clear electrode, or optical losses in the front electrode. The overall quantum efficiency for green light is about 90%, with the "lost" 10% being largely accounted for by the optical losses in the top electrode. The quantum efficiency of traditional designs vary, depending on their thickness, but are about the same as the DSSC.
In theory, the maximum voltage generated by such a cell is simply the difference between the (quasi-)Fermi level of the TiO and the redox potential of the electrolyte, about 0.7 V under solar illumination conditions (V). That is, if an illuminated DSSC is connected to a voltmeter in an "open circuit", it would read about 0.7 V. In terms of voltage, DSSCs offer slightly higher V than silicon, about 0.7 V compared to 0.6 V. This is a fairly small difference, so real-world differences are dominated by current production, J.
Although the dye is highly efficient at converting absorbed photons into free electrons in the TiO, only photons absorbed by the dye ultimately produce current. The rate of photon absorption depends upon the absorption spectrum of the sensitized TiO layer and upon the solar flux spectrum. The overlap between these two spectra determines the maximum possible photocurrent. Typically used dye molecules generally have poorer absorption in the red part of the spectrum compared to silicon, which means that fewer of the photons in sunlight are usable for current generation. These factors limit the current generated by a DSSC, for comparison, a traditional silicon-based solar cell offers about 35 mA/cm, whereas current DSSCs offer about 20 mA/cm.
Overall peak power conversion efficiency for current DSSCs is about 11%. Current record for prototypes lies at 15%. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
DEHPA is used in the solvent extraction of uranium salts from solutions containing the sulfate, chloride, or perchlorate anions. This extraction is known as the “Dapex procedure” (dialkyl phosphoric extraction). Reminiscent of the behaviours of carboxylic acids, DEHPA generally exists as a hydrogen-bonded dimer in the non-polar organic solvents. For practical applications, the solvent, often called a diluent, is typically kerosene. A complex is formed from two equivalents of the conjugate base of DEHPA and one uranyl ion. Complexes of the formula (UO)[(OP(OR)] also form, and at high concentrations of uranium, polymeric complexes may form.
The extractability of Fe is similar to that of uranium, so it must be reduced to Fe before the extraction. | 5 | Separation Processes |
High-pressure lamps are much more similar to HID lamps than fluorescent lamps.
These lamps radiate a broad-band UVC radiation, rather than a single line. They are widely used in industrial water treatment, because they are very intense radiation sources. High-pressure lamps produce very bright bluish white light. | 8 | Ultraviolet Radiation |
For quantum mechanical reasons (see exchange interaction or ), the dominant coupling between two dipoles may cause nearest-neighbors to have lowest energy when they are aligned. Under this assumption (so that magnetic interactions only occur between adjacent dipoles) and on a 1-dimensional periodic lattice, the Hamiltonian can be written in the form
where is the coupling constant and dipoles are represented by classical vectors (or "spins") σ, subject to the periodic boundary condition .
The Heisenberg model is a more realistic model in that it treats the spins quantum-mechanically, by replacing the spin by a quantum operator acting upon the tensor product , of dimension . To define it, recall the Pauli spin-1/2 matrices
and for and denote , where is the identity matrix.
Given a choice of real-valued coupling constants and , the Hamiltonian is given by
where the on the right-hand side indicates the external magnetic field, with periodic boundary conditions. The objective is to determine the spectrum of the Hamiltonian, from which the partition function can be calculated and the thermodynamics of the system can be studied.
It is common to name the model depending on the values of , and : if , the model is called the Heisenberg XYZ model; in the case of , it is the Heisenberg XXZ model; if , it is the Heisenberg XXX model. The spin 1/2 Heisenberg model in one dimension may be solved exactly using the Bethe ansatz. In the algebraic formulation, these are related to particular quantum affine algebras and elliptic quantum groups in the XXZ and XYZ cases respectively. Other approaches do so without Bethe ansatz. | 7 | Magnetic Ordering |
Fahy was named as a Fellow of the Society for Cryobiology in 2014, and in 2010 he received the Distinguished Scientist Award for Reproductive Biology from the Reproductive Biology Professional Group of the American Society of Reproductive Medicine. He received the Cryopreservation Award from the International Longevity and Cryopreservation Summit held in Madrid, Spain in 2017 in recognition of his career in and dedication to the field of cryobiology. Fahy also received the Grand Prize for Medicine from INPEX in 1995 for his invention of computerized organ cryoprotectant perfusion technology. In 2005, he was recognized as a Fellow of the American Aging Association. | 1 | Cryobiology |
William C. Boyd alone and then together with Elizabeth Shapleigh introduced the term "lectin" in 1954 from the Latin word lectus, "chosen" (from the verb legere, to choose or pick out). | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Sensor-based ore sorting is the terminology used in the mining industry. It is a coarse physical coarse particle separation technology usually applied in the size range for . Aim is either to create a lumpy product in ferrous metals, coal or industrial minerals applications or to reject waste before it enters production bottlenecks and more expensive comminution and concentration steps in the process.
In the majority of all mining processes, particles of sub-economic grade enter the traditional comminution, classification and concentration steps. If the amount of sub-economic material in the above-mentioned fraction is roughly 25% or more, there is good potential that sensor-based ore sorting is a technically and financially viable option. High added value can be achieved with relatively low capital expenditure, especially when increasing the productivity through downstream processing of higher grade feed and through increased overall recovery when rejecting deleterious waste. | 5 | Separation Processes |
Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in the polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose). Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. Glucose is extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree Wollemia nobilis in Rome, the roots of Ilex asprella plants in China, and straws from rice in California.
The carbohydrate value is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fiber". | 6 | Carbohydrates |
Developing a technology to produce cultured meat by propagating animal cells without using fetal bovine serum, ideally with growth factors from their own production. BMT claims that their final technology will allow its operators to produce and offer the product at prices affordable to consumers.
In March 2023, the company said that the first cultured meat product launched on the market may not be for human consumption, but as pet food. However, BMT states that the creation of meat meant for human consumption is one of their goals. | 2 | Tissue Engineering |