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+0,"Typical examples are Bulgarian ( Simov et al. , 2005 ; Simov and Osenova , 2003 ) , Chinese ( Chen et al. , 2003 ) , Danish ( Kromann , 2003 ) , and Swedish ( Nilsson et al. , 2005 ) .",0,0
+1,"This appeared to solve the problem , and the results presented later for the average degree of generalisation do not show an over-generalisation compared with those given in Li and Abe ( 1998 ) .",1,2
+2,"These observations and this line of reasoning has not escaped the attention of theoretical linguists : Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) propose that argument structure is , in fact , encoded syntactically .",2,0
+3,"inter-document references in the form of hyperlinks ( Agrawal et al. , 2003 ) .",3,0
+4,"While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .",4,0
+5,"Arabic has two kinds of plurals : broken plurals and sound plurals ( Wightwick and Gaafar , 1998 ; Chen and Gey , 2002 ) .",5,0
+6,"Secondly , as ( Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) show , marginalizing out the different segmentations during decoding leads to improved performance .",6,5
+7,"Nivre ( 2008 ) reports experiments on Arabic parsing using his MaltParser ( Nivre et al. 2007 ) , trained on the PADT .",7,0
+8,"More recently , ( Sebastiani , 2002 ) has performed a good survey of document categorization ; recent works can also be found in ( Joachims , 2002 ) , ( Crammer and Singer , 2003 ) , and ( Lewis et al. , 2004 ) .",8,0
+9,"The grammar conversion from LTAG to HPSG ( Yoshinaga and Miyao , 2001 ) is the core portion of the RenTAL system .",9,0
+10,"This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks .",10,0
+11,"Our knowledge extractors rely extensively on MetaMap ( Aronson 2001 ) , a system for identifying segments of text that correspond to concepts in the UMLS Metathesaurus .",11,1
+12,"We study the cases where a 9Recall that even the Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) system , built on the world 's largest corpus , achieves only 34 % recall ( Table 1 ) ( with only 48 % of positives and 27 % of all pairs previously observed , but see Footnote 5 ) .",12,2
+13,"Inspired by ( Blunsom et al. , 2009 ) and ( Cohn and Blunsom , 2009 ) , we define P ( str | frag ) as follows : where csw is the number of words in the source string .",13,4
+14,"Inspired by ( Blunsom et al. , 2009 ) and ( Cohn and Blunsom , 2009 ) , we define P ( str | frag ) as follows : where csw is the number of words in the source string .",14,4
+15,"The TNT POS tagger ( Brants , 2000 ) has also been designed to train and run very quickly , tagging between 30,000 and 60,000 words per second .",15,0
+16,"Some previous works ( Bannard and Callison-Burch , 2005 ; Zhao et al. , 2009 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) indicate , as main limitations of the mentioned resources , their limited coverage , their low precision , and the fact that they are mostly suitable to capture relations mainly between single words .",16,0
+17,"Similarly , Cowan and Collins ( 2005 ) report that the use of a subset of Spanish morphological features ( number for adjectives , determiners , nouns , pronouns , and verbs ; and mode for verbs ) outperforms other combinations .",17,0
+18,"To solve these scaling issues , we implement Online Variational Bayesian Inference ( Hoffman et al. , 2010 ; Hoffman et al. , 2012 ) for our models .",18,1
+19,"Other studies which view lR as a query generation process include Maron and Kuhns , 1960 ; Hiemstra and Kraaij , 1999 ; Ponte and Croft , 1998 ; Miller et al , 1999 .",19,2
+20,"As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al. ( 2004 ) ) or Wikipedia ( Ponzetto and Strube , 2006 ) , and the contextual role played by an NP ( see Bean and Riloff ( 2004 ) ) .",20,0
+21,"There have been many studies on parsing techniques ( Poller and Becker , 1998 ; Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) , ones on disambiguation models ( Chiang , 2000 ; Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) , and ones on programming/grammar-development environ -",21,0
+22,"An example of this is the estimation of maximum entropy models , from simple iterative estimation algorithms used by Ratnaparkhi ( 1998 ) that converge very slowly , to complex techniques from the optimisation literature that converge much more rapidly ( Malouf , 2002 ) .",22,0
+23,"For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .",23,0
+24,"Later works , such as Atallah et al. ( 2001a ) , Bolshakov ( 2004 ) , Taskiran et al. ( 2006 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006b ) , further made use of part-ofspeech taggers and electronic dictionaries , such as WordNet and VerbNet , to increase the robustness of the method .",24,0
+25,"results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( Tiedemann 2007 ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En → Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( Koehn 2005 ) .",25,1
+26,"We work with a semi-technical text on meteorological phenomena ( Larrick , 1961 ) , meant for primary school students .",26,1
+27,"This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .",27,2
+28,The candidate feature templates include : Voice from Sun and Jurafsky ( 2004 ) .,28,1
+29,"Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) .",29,0
+30,The PICO framework ( Richardson et al. 1995 ) for capturing well-formulated clinical queries ( described in Section 2 ) can serve as the basis of a knowledge representation that bridges the needs of clinicians and analytical capabilities of a system .,30,0
+31,The Chinese PropBank has labeled the predicateargument structures of sentences from the Chinese TreeBank ( Xue et al. 2005 ) .,31,1
+32,"Furthermore , manually selected word pairs are often biased towards highly related pairs ( Gurevych , 2006 ) , because human annotators tend to select only highly related pairs connected by relations they are aware of .",32,0
+33,"Disjunctive feature descriptions are also possible ; WIT incorporates an efficient method for handling disjunctions ( Nakano , 1991 ) .",33,1
+34,Our strategy is based on the approach presented by Johnson et al. ( 2007 ) .,34,1
+35,"Indeed , contrary to the more classical statistical methods ( Mutual Information , Loglike ... , see below ) used for collocation acquisition ( see ( Pearce , 2002 ) for a review ) , these patterns allow :",35,0
+36,"A further complication is that different speakers can regard very different values as prototypical , making it difficult to assess which of two objects is greener even on one dimension ( Berlin and Kay 1969 , pages 10 -- 12 ) .",36,0
+37,"The M step then treats c as fixed , observed data and adjusts 0 until the predicted vector of total feature counts equals c , using Improved Iterative Scaling ( Della Pietra et al. , 1997 ; Chen and",37,1
+38,"Both kinds of annotation were carried out using ANVIL ( Kipp , 2004 ) .",38,1
+39,The article classifier is a discriminative model that draws on the state-of-the-art approach described in Rozovskaya et al. ( 2012 ) .,39,1
+40,"The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm ¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .",40,0
+41,"Church ( 1995 , p. 294 ) studied , among other simple text normalization techniques , the effect of case normalization for different words and showed that `` sometimes case variants refer to the same thing ( hurricane and Hurricane ) , sometimes they refer to different things ( continental and Continental ) and sometimes they do n't refer to much of anything ( e.g. , anytime and Anytime ) . ''",41,0
+42,We follow the notation convention of Lari and Young ( 1990 ) .,42,1
+43,"Later works , such as Atallah et al. ( 2001a ) , Bolshakov ( 2004 ) , Taskiran et al. ( 2006 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006b ) , further made use of part-ofspeech taggers and electronic dictionaries , such as WordNet and VerbNet , to increase the robustness of the method .",43,0
+44,Finkelstein et al. ( 2002 ) did not report inter-subject correlation for their larger dataset .,44,2
+45,This is a similar conclusion to our previous work in Salloum and Habash ( 2011 ) .,45,2
+46,We then use the program Snob ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) to cluster these experiences .,46,1
+47,"The priorities are used for disambiguating interpretation in the incremental understanding method ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) .",47,1
+48,"A number of alignment techniques have been proposed , varying from statistical methods ( Brown et al. , 1991 ; Gale and Church , 1991 ) to lexical methods ( Kay and Roscheisen , 1993 ; Chen , 1993 ) .",48,0
+49,"Alshawi and Crouch ( 1992 ) present an illustrative first-order fragment along these lines and are able to supply a coherent formal semantics for the CLF-QLFs themselves , using a technique essentially equivalent to supervaluations : a QLF is true iff all its possible RQLFs are , false iff they are all false , and undefined otherwise .",49,0
+50,"We use the open-source Moses toolkit ( Koehn et al. , 2007 ) to build a phrase-based SMT system trained on mostly MSA data ( 64M words on the Arabic side ) obtained from several LDC corpora including some limited DA data .",50,1
+51,"This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) .",51,2
+52,"This confirms that although Kozima 's approach ( Kozima , 1993 ) is computationally expensive , it does produce more precise segmentation .",52,2
+53,Park and Byrd ( 2001 ) recently described a hybrid method for finding abbreviations and their definitions .,53,0
+54,"More specifically , the notion of the phrasal lexicon ( used first by Becker 1975 ) has been used successfully in a number of areas :",54,0
+55,Ushioda et al. ( 1993 ) run a finite-state NP parser on a POS-tagged corpus to calculate the relative frequency of the same six subcategorization verb classes .,55,0
+56,"This section , which elaborates on preliminary results reported in Demner-Fushman and Lin ( 2005 ) , describes extraction algorithms for population , problems , interventions , outcomes , and the strength of evidence .",56,3
+57,It would seem therefore that the iteration of the PT operation to form a closure is needed ( cfXXX Zadrozny 1987b ) .,57,2
+58,Sedivy et al. ( 1999 ) asked subjects to identify the target of a vague description in a visual scene .,58,0
+59,"Our most accurate single grammar achieves an F score of 91.6 on the WSJ test set , rivaling discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ) and products of latent variable grammars ( Petrov , 2010 ) , despite being a single generative PCFG .",59,2
+60,"Our recovery policy is modeled on the TargetedHelp ( Hockey et al. , 2003 ) policy used in task-oriented dialogue .",60,3
+61,"It has been argued that , in an incremental approach , gradable properties should be given a low preference ranking because they are difficult to process ( Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .",61,2
+62,"` See ( King , 1994 ) for a discussion of the appropriateness of TIG for HPSG and a comparison with other feature logic approaches designed for HPSG .",62,0
+63,"Specifically , we used Decision Graphs ( Oliver 1993 ) for Doc-Pred , and SVMs ( Vapnik 1998 ) for Sent-Pred .11 Additionally , we used unigrams for clustering documents and sentences , and unigrams and bigrams for predicting document clusters and sentence clusters ( Sections 3.1.2 and 3.2.2 ) .",63,1
+64,"There are many plausible representations , such as pairs of trees from synchronous tree adjoining grammars ( Abeille et al. 1990 ; Shieber 1994 ; Candito 1998 ) , lexical conceptual structures ( Dorr 1992 ) and WordNet synsets ( Fellbaum 1998 ; Vossen 1998 ) .",64,0
+65,"ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .",65,0
+66,"In the latter case , we can also take care of transferring the value of z. However , as discussed by Meurers ( 1994 ) , creating several instances of lexical rules can be avoided .",66,4
+67,"It maximizes the probability of getting the entire DA sequence correct , but it does not necessarily find the DA sequence that has the most DA labels correct ( Dermatas and Kokkinakis 1995 ) .",67,0
+68,"A substring in the sentence that corresponds to a node in the representation tree is denoted by assigning the interval of the substring to SNODE of 2 These definitions are based on the discussion in ( Tang , 1994 ) and Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) .",68,1
+69,"We found that the oldest system ( Brown et al. , 1992 ) yielded the best prototypes , and that using these prototypes gave state-of-the-art performance on WSJ , as well as improvements on nearly all of the non-English corpora .",69,0
+70,"Other definitions of predicates may be found in ( Gomez , 1998 ) .",70,0
+71,"For the sake of completeness , we report in this section also the results obtained adopting the `` basic solution '' proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) .",71,2
+72,"The representations used by Danlos ( 2000 ) , Gardent and Webber ( 1998 ) , or Stone and Doran ( 1997 ) are similar , but do not ( always ) explicitly represent the clause combining operations as labeled nodes .",72,0
+73,"Since earlier versions of the SNoW based CSCL were used only to identify single phrases ( Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ) and never to identify a collection of several phrases at the same time , as we do here , we also trained and tested it under the exact conditions of CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) to compare it to other shallow parsers .",73,3
+74,"If differences in meaning between senses are very fine-grained , distinguishing between them is hard even for humans ( Mihalcea and Moldovan , 2001 ) .6 Pairs containing such words are not suitable for evaluation .",74,0
+75,"The application of domain models and deep semantic knowledge to question answering has been explored by a variety of researchers ( e.g. , Jacquemart and Zweigenbaum 2003 , Rinaldi et al. 2004 ) , and was also the focus of recent workshops on question answering in restricted domains at ACL 2004 and AAAI 2005 .",75,0
+76,"Griffiths et al. ( 2007 ) helped pave the path for cognitive-linguistic multimodal research , showing that Latent Dirichlet Allocation outperformed Latent Semantic Analysis ( Deerwester et al. , 1990 ) in the prediction of association norms .",76,0
+77,"Although not the first to employ a generative approach to directly model content , the seminal work of Barzilay and Lee ( 2004 ) is a noteworthy point of reference and comparison .",77,2
+78,"Others include selectional preferences , transitivity ( Schoenmackers et al. , 2008 ) , mutual exclusion , symmetry , etc. .",78,0
+79,"• cross-language information retrieval ( e.g. , McCarley 1999 ) , • multilingual document filtering ( e.g. , Oard 1997 ) , • computer-assisted language learning ( e.g. , Nerbonne et al. 1997 ) , • certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. , Macklovitch 1994 ; Melamed 1996a ) , • concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( e.g. , Catizone , Russell , and Warwick 1989 ; Gale and Church 1991 ) ,",79,0
+80,"For example , ( Fang et al. , 2001 ) discusses the evaluation of two different text categorization strategies with several variations of their feature spaces .",80,0
+81,"As stated before , the experiments are run in the ACE '04 framework ( NIST , 2004 ) where the system will identify mentions and will label them ( cfXXX Section 4 ) with a type ( person , organization , etc ) , a sub-type ( OrgCommercial , OrgGovernmental , etc ) , a mention level ( named , nominal , etc ) , and a class ( specific , generic , etc ) .",81,1
+82,"Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( Riley 1989 ) , neural networks ( Palmer and Hearst 1994 ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) .",82,0
+83,or quotation of messages in emails or postings ( see Mullen and Malouf ( 2006 ) but cfXXX Agrawal et al. ( 2003 ) ) .,83,0
+84,The first work to do this with topic models is Feng and Lapata ( 2010b ) .,84,0
+85,"The language chosen for semantic representation is a flat semantics along the line of ( Bos , 1995 ; Copestake et al. , 1999 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) .",85,2
+86,"Tetreault 's contribution features comparative evaluation involving the author 's own centering-based pronoun resolution algorithm called the Left-Right Centering algorithm ( LRC ) as well as three other pronoun resolution methods : Hobbs 's naive algorithm ( Hobbs 1978 ) , BFP ( Brennan , Friedman , and Pollard 1987 ) , and Strube 's 5list approach ( Strube 1998 ) .",86,0
+87,"For future work , we might investigate how machine learning algorithms , which are specifically designed for the problem of domain adaptation ( Blitzer et al. , 2007 ; Jiang and Zhai , 2007 ) , perform in comparison to our approach .",87,5
+88,"The X2 statistic is performing at least as well as G2 , throwing doubt on the claim by Dunning ( 1993 ) that the G2 statistic is better suited for use in corpus-based NLP .",88,2
+89,"Provided with the candidate fragment elements , we previously ( Wang and Callison-Burch , 2011 ) used a chunker3 to finalize the output fragments , in order to follow the linguistic definition of a ( para - ) phrase .",89,3
+90,"There is a rich literature on organization and lexical access of morphologically complex words where experiments have been conducted mainly for derivational suffixed words of English , Hebrew , Italian , French , Dutch , and few other languages ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 2008 ; Frost et al. , 1997 ; Grainger , et al. , 1991 ; Drews and Zwitserlood , 1995 ) .",90,0
+91,"This method of incorporating dictionary information seems simpler than the method proposed by Brown et al. for their models ( Brown et al. , 1993b ) .",91,2
+92,"One important example is the constituentcontext model ( CCM ) of Klein and Manning ( 2002 ) , which was specifically designed to capture the linguistic observation made by Radford ( 1988 ) that there are regularities to the contexts in which constituents appear .",92,0
+93,"Japanese ( Kawata and Bartels , 2000 ) , despite a very high accuracy , is different in that attachment score drops from 98 % to 85 % , as we go from length 1 to 2 , which may have something to do with the data consisting of transcribed speech with very short utterances .",93,2
+94,"7 We ignore the rare `` false idafa '' construction ( Habash 2010 , p. 102 ) .",94,0
+95,"Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .",95,0
+96,"Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .",96,0
+97,"We follow Lewis and Steedman ( 2014 ) in allowing a small set of generic , linguistically-plausible unary and binary grammar rules .",97,1
+98,( 7 ) NEIGHBOR : Research in lexical semantics suggests that the SC of an NP can be inferred from its distributionally similar NPs ( see Lin ( 1998a ) ) .,98,4
+99,"Discrepancies in length throw constituents off balance , and so prosodic phrasing will cross constituent boundaries in order to give the phrases similar lengths ; this is the case in Chickens were eating II the remaining green vegetables , where the subject-predicate boundary finds no prosodic correspondent .4 The most explicit version of this approach is the analysis presented in Gee and Grosjean ( 1983 ) ( henceforth G&G ) .",99,2
+100,"Our approach to the problem is more compatible with the empirical evidence we presented in our prior work ( Li et al. , 2014 ) where we analyzed the output of Chinese to English machine translation and found that there is no correlation between sentence length and MT quality .",100,2
+101,"For all experiments reported in this section we used the syntactic dependency parser MaltParser v1 .3 ( Nivre 2003 , 2008 ; Kübler , McDonald , and Nivre 2009 ) , a transition-based parser with an input buffer and a stack , which uses SVM classifiers",101,1
+102,"Against the background of a growing interest in multilingual NLP , multilingual anaphora / coreference resolution has gained considerable momentum in recent years ( Aone and McKee 1993 ; Azzam , Humphreys , and Gaizauskas 1998 ; Harabagiu and Maiorano 2000 ; Mitkov and Barbu 2000 ; Mitkov 1999 ; Mitkov and Stys 1997 ; Mitkov , Belguith , and Stys 1998 ) .",102,0
+103,"We use the same data setting with Xue ( 2008 ) , however a bit different from Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) .",103,2
+104,"They proved to be useful in a number of NLP applications such as natural language generation ( Iordanskaja et al. , 1991 ) , multidocument summarization ( McKeown et al. , 2002 ) , automatic evaluation of MT ( Denkowski and Lavie , 2010 ) , and TE ( Dinu and Wang , 2009 ) .",104,4
+105,"Moreover , a sandbox is a temporary view of a document itself i.e. a sandbox can not cause a change in the history ( Cunningham and Leuf , 2001 ) .",105,0
+106,"Regarding future work , there are many research line that may be followed : i ) Capturing more features by employing external knowledge such as ontological , lexical resource or WordNet-based features ( Basili et al. , 2005a ; Basili et al. , 2005b ; Bloehdorn et al. , 2006 ; Bloehdorn and Moschitti , 2007 ) or shallow semantic trees , ( Giuglea and Moschitti , 2004 ; Giuglea and Moschitti , 2006 ; Moschitti and Bejan , 2004 ; Moschitti et al. , 2007 ; Moschitti , 2008 ; Moschitti et al. , 2008 ) .",106,5
+107,"Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .",107,0
+108,"Future research should apply the work of Blunsom et al. ( 2008 ) and Blunsom and Osborne ( 2008 ) , who marginalize over derivations to find the most probable translation rather than the most probable derivation , to these multi-nonterminal grammars .",108,5
+109,"We have since improved the interface by incorporating a capability in the recognizer to propose additional solutions in turn once the first one fails to parse ( Zue et al. 1991 ) To produce these `` N-best '' alternatives , we make use of a standard A * search algorithm ( Hart 1968 , Jelinek 1976 ) .",109,1
+110,Curran ( 2003 ),110,0
+111,"OT therefore holds out the promise of simplifying grammars , by factoring all complex phenomena into simple surface-level constraints that partially mask one another .1 Whether this is always possible under an appropriate definition of `` simple constraints '' ( e.g. , Eisner 1997b ) is of course an empirical question .",111,0
+112,"Consider , for example , the lexical rule in Figure 2 , which encodes a passive lexical rule like the one presented by Pollard and Sag ( 1987 , 215 ) in terms of the setup of Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , ch .",112,0
+113,"This result is consistent with other works using this model with these features ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .",113,2

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+0,"Resnik ( 1995 ) reported a correlation of r = .9026.10 The results are not directly comparable , because he only used noun-noun pairs , words instead of concepts , a much smaller dataset , and measured semantic similarity instead of semantic relatedness .",0,2
+1,"Similar observation for surface word frequency was also observed by ( Bertram et al. , 2000 ; Bradley , 1980 ; Burani et al. , 1987 ; Burani et al. , 1984 ; Schreuder et al. , 1997 ; Taft 1975 ; Taft , 2004 ) where it has been claimed that words having low surface frequency tends to decompose .",1,0
+2,"But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .",2,4
+3,"Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit",3,0
+4,"However , the method we are currently using in the ATIS domain ( Seneff et al. 1991 ) represents our most promising approach to this problem .",4,1
+5,"Henceforth the collaborative traits of blogs and wikis ( McNeill , 2005 ) emphasize annotation , comment , and strong editing .",5,0
+6,"The ICA system ( Hepple , 2000 ) aims to reduce the training time by introducing independence assumptions on the training samples that dramatically reduce the training time with the possible downside of sacrificing performance .",6,0
+7,"To this end , several toolkits for building spoken dialogue systems have been developed ( Barnett and Singh , 1997 ; Sasajima et al. , 1999 ) .",7,0
+8,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",8,0
+9,"Task properties Determining whether or not a speaker supports a proposal falls within the realm of sentiment analysis , an extremely active research area devoted to the computational treatment of subjective or opinion-oriented language ( early work includes Wiebe and Rapaport ( 1988 ) , Hearst ( 1992 ) , Sack ( 1994 ) , and Wiebe ( 1994 ) ; see Esuli ( 2006 ) for an active bibliography ) .",9,0
+10,"Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .",10,0
+11,"Both tasks are performed with a statistical framework : the mention detection system is similar to the one presented in ( Florian et al. , 2004 ) and the coreference resolution system is similar to the one described in ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) .",11,2
+12,The advantage of tuning similarity to the application of interest has been shown previously by Weeds and Weir ( 2005 ) .,12,2
+13,"Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .",13,2
+14,"Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .",14,0
+15,"We experiment with four learners commonly employed in language learning : Decision List ( DL ) : We use the DL learner as described in Collins and Singer ( 1999 ) , motivated by its success in the related tasks of word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky , 1995 ) and NE classification ( Collins and Singer , 1999 ) .",15,4
+16,"A central technique is to define a joint relation as a noisy-channel model , by composing a joint relation with a cascade of one or more conditional relations as in Fig. 1 ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ; Knight and Graehl , 1998 ) .",16,0
+17,"We use the same set of binary features as in previous work on this dataset ( Pang et al. , 2002 ; Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Zaidan et al. , 2007 ) .",17,1
+18,"Our classification framework , directly inspired by Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , integrates both perspectives , optimizing its labeling of speech segments based on both individual speech-segment classification scores and preferences for groups of speech segments to receive the same label .",18,1
+19,"As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .",19,0
+20,"For instance , Palmer and Hearst ( 1997 ) report that the SATZ system ( decision tree variant ) was trained on a set of about 800 labeled periods , which corresponds to a corpus of about 16,000 words .",20,2
+21,"One possible direction is to consider linguistically motivated approaches , such as the extraction of syntactic phrase tables as proposed by ( Yamada and Knight , 2001 ) .",21,5
+22,"Later works , such as Atallah et al. ( 2001a ) , Bolshakov ( 2004 ) , Taskiran et al. ( 2006 ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006b ) , further made use of part-ofspeech taggers and electronic dictionaries , such as WordNet and VerbNet , to increase the robustness of the method .",22,0
+23,"A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .",23,2
+24,"The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ; Collins , 2000 ; Bod , 2001 ) .",24,2
+25,"The basic Python reflection has already been implemented and used for large scale experiments with POS tagging , using pyMPI ( a message passing interface library for Python ) to coordinate experiments across a cluster of over 100 machines ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) .",25,0
+26,"This imbalance foils thresholding strategies , clever as they might be ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Wu & Xia , 1994 ; Chen , 1996 ) .",26,0
+27,"Training was done on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) Wall Street Journal data , sections 02-21 .",27,1
+28,"We performed Latent Semantic Analysis ( LSA ) over Wikipedia using the jLSI tool ( Giuliano , 2007 ) to measure the relatedness between words in the dataset .",28,1
+29,"For example , our previous work ( Nakov and Ng , 2009 ; Nakov and Ng , 2012 ) experimented with various techniques for combining a small bi-text for a resource-poor language ( Indonesian or Spanish , pretending that Spanish is resource-poor ) with a much larger bi-text for a related resource-rich language ( Malay or Portuguese ) ; the target language of all bi-texts was English .",29,2
+30,"Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .",30,0
+31,"Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .",31,0
+32,Gurevych ( 2005 ) replicated the experiment of Rubenstein and Goodenough with the original 65 word pairs translated into German .,32,0
+33,"One approach to this more general problem , taken by the ` Nitrogen ' generator ( Langkilde and Knight , 1998a ; Langkilde and Knight , 1998b ) , takes advantage of standard statistical techniques by generating a lattice of all possible strings given a semantic representation as input and selecting the most likely output using a bigram language model .",33,1
+34,"where mk is one mention in entity e , and the basic model building block PL ( L = 1 | e , mk , m ) is an exponential or maximum entropy model ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) .",34,1
+35,"13 We also employed sequence-based measures using the ROUGE tool set ( Lin and Hovy 2003 ) , with similar results to those obtained with the word-by-word measures .",35,1
+36,"Second , using continuous distributions allows us to leverage a variety of tools ( e.g. , LDA ) that have been shown to be successful in other fields , such as speech recognition ( Evermann et al. , 2004 ) .",36,0
+37,"In this section , we validate the contribution of key tag sets and morphological features -- and combinations thereof -- using a different parser : the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) .",37,1
+38,"The typical solution to the redundancy problem is to group verbs according to their argument realization patterns ( Levin , 1993 ) , possibly arranged in an inheritance hierarchy .",38,2
+39,"Later , Hobbs ( 1979 , 1982 ) proposed a knowledge base in which information about language and the world would be encoded , and he emphasized the need for using `` salience '' in choosing facts from this knowledge base .",39,0
+40,"Another technique is automatic discovery of translations from parallel or non-parallel corpora ( Fung and Mckeown , 1997 ) .",40,0
+41,"ASARES is presented in detail in ( Claveau et al. , 2003 ) .",41,1
+42,"Opposition ( called `` adversative '' or `` contrary-to-expectation '' by Halliday and Hasan 1976 ; cfXXX also Quirk et al. 1972 , p. 672 ) .",42,0
+43,"A number of applications have relied on distributional analysis ( Harris , 1971 ) in order to build classes of semantically related terms .",43,0
+44,"Previous work with MaltParser in Russian , Turkish , and Hindi showed gains with CASE but not with agreement features ( Eryigit , Nivre , and Oflazer 2008 ; Nivre , Boguslavsky , and Iomdin 2008 ; Nivre 2009 ) .",44,2
+45,"Consider , for example , the lexical rule in Figure 2 , which encodes a passive lexical rule like the one presented by Pollard and Sag ( 1987 , 215 ) in terms of the setup of Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , ch .",45,2
+46,"Two applications that , like help-desk , deal with question -- answer pairs are : summarization of e-mail threads ( Dalli , Xia , and Wilks 2004 ; Shrestha and McKeown 2004 ) , and answer extraction in FAQs ( Frequently Asked Questions ) ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ;",46,2
+47,"The language grounding problem has received significant attention in recent years , owed in part to the wide availability of data sets ( e.g. Flickr , Von Ahn ( 2006 ) ) , computing power , improved computer vision models ( Oliva and Torralba , 2001 ; Lowe , 2004 ; Farhadi et al. , 2009 ; Parikh and Grauman , 2011 ) and neurological evidence of ties between the language , perceptual and motor systems in the brain ( Pulverm ¨ uller et al. , 2005 ; Tettamanti et al. , 2005 ; Aziz-Zadeh et al. , 2006 ) .",47,0
+48,"In addition , we find that the Bayesian SCFG grammar can not even significantly outperform the heuristic SCFG grammar ( Blunsom et al. 2009 ) 5 .",48,2
+49,"There are several grammars developed in the FB-LTAG formalism , including the XTAG English grammar , a large-scale grammar for English ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) .",49,0
+50,"Although the approach may have potential , the shifting of complex accounting into the unification algorithm is at variance with the findings of Kiefer et al. ( 1999 ) , who report large speed-ups from the elimination of disjunction processing during unification .",50,2
+51,"For the task of unsupervised dependency parsing , Smith and Eisner ( 2006 ) add a constraint of the form `` the average length of dependencies should be X '' to capture the locality of syntax ( at least half of the dependencies are between adjacent words ) , using a scheme they call structural annealing .",51,0
+52,"The speech and language processing architecture is based on that of the SRI CommandTalk system ( Moore et al. , 1997 ; Stent et a. , 1999 ) .",52,1
+53,"Second , in line with the findings of ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) , the results obtained over the MT-derived corpus are equal to those we achieve over the original RTE3 dataset ( i.e. 63.50 % ) .",53,2
+54,"Therefore , inter-subject correlation is lower than the results obtained by Gurevych ( 2006 ) .",54,2
+55,"There is a general consensus among theoretical linguists that the proper representation of verbal argument structure is event structure -- representations grounded in a theory of events that decompose semantic roles in terms of primitive predicates representing concepts such as causality and inchoativity ( Dowty , 1979 ; Jackendoff , 1983 ; Pustejovsky , 1991b ; Rappaport Hovav and Levin , 1998 ) .",55,0
+56,"For example , some similar measures have been used in stylistic experiments in information retrieval on the basis of a robust parser built for information retrieval purposes ( Strzalkowski 1994 ) .",56,0
+57,"The resulting training procedure is analogous to the one presented in ( Brown et al. , 1993 ) and ( Tillmann and Ney , 1997 ) .",57,2
+58,"successfully parses , or until a quitting criterion is reached , such as an upper bound on N. Whereas in the loosely coupled system the parser acts as a filter only on completed candidate solutions ( Zue et al. 1991 ) , the tightly coupled system allows the parser to discard partial theories that have no way of continuing .",58,1
+59,Zollmann and Venugopal ( 2006 ) substituted the non-terminal X in hierarchical phrase-based model by extended syntactic categories .,59,2
+60,"Much of the earlier work in anaphora resolution heavily exploited domain and linguistic knowledge ( Sidner 1979 ; Carter 1987 ; Rich and LuperFoy 1988 ; Carbonell and Brown 1988 ) , which was difficult both to represent and to process , and which required considerable human input .",60,0
+61,"The paradigm is `` write many , read many '' ( Cunningham and Leuf , 2001 ) .",61,0
+62,"The Praat tool was used ( Boersma and Weenink , 2009 ) .",62,1
+63,"2 The reader is asked to focus on any reasonable size measurement , for example , the maximal horizontal or vertical distance , or some combination of dimensions ( Kamp 1975 ; also Section 8.1 of the present article ) .",63,0
+64,"The implementation has been inspired by experience in extracting information from very large corpora ( Curran and Moens , 2002 ) and performing experiments on maximum entropy sequence tagging ( Curran and Clark , 2003 ; Clark et al. , 2003 ) .",64,4
+65,"Default parameters were used , although experimentation with different parameter settings is an important direction for future work ( Daelemans and Hoste , 2002 ; Munson et al. , 2005 ) .",65,5
+66,Our work is inspired by the latent left-linking model in Chang et al. ( 2013 ) and the ILP formulation from Chang et al. ( 2011 ) .,66,1
+67,"Furthermore , the availability of rich ontological resources , in the form of the Unified Medical Language System ( UMLS ) ( Lindberg et al. , 1993 ) , and the availability of software that leverages this knowledge -- MetaMap ( Aronson , 2001 ) for concept identification and SemRep ( Rindflesch and Fiszman , 2003 ) for relation extraction -- provide a foundation for studying the role of semantics in various tasks .",67,0
+68,"The names given to the components vary ; they have been called `` strategic '' and `` tactical '' components ( e.g. , McKeown 1985 ; Thompson 1977 ; Danlos 1987 ) 1 , `` planning '' and `` realization '' ( e.g. , McDonald 1983 ; Hovy 1988a ) , or simply `` what to say '' versus `` how to say it '' ( e.g. , Danlos 1987 ; Reithinger 1990 ) .",68,0
+69,"Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .",69,0
+70,"We use the TRIPS dialogue parser ( Allen et al. , 2007 ) to parse the utterances .",70,1
+71,"In order to address these limitations in a practical way , we conducted a small user study where we asked four judges ( graduate students from the Faculty of Information Technology at Monash University ) to assess the responses generated by our system ( Marom and Zukerman 2007a ) .",71,1
+72,"The understanding module utilizes ISSS ( Incremental Significant-utterance Sequence Search ) ( Nakano et al. , 1999b ) , which is an integrated parsing and discourse processing method .",72,1
+73,"We applied our system to the XTAG English grammar ( The XTAG Research Group , 2001 ) 3 , which is a large-scale FB-LTAG grammar for English .",73,1
+74,"After the extraction , pruning techniques ( Snover et al. , 2009 ) can be applied to increase the precision of the extracted paraphrases .",74,0
+75,"In this paper , we extend two classes of model adaptation methods ( i.e. , model interpolation and error-driven learning ) , which have been well studied in statistical language modeling for speech and natural language applications ( e.g. , Bacchiani et al. , 2004 ; Bellegarda , 2004 ; Gao et al. , 2006 ) , to ranking models for Web search applications .",75,0
+76,"GATE goes beyond earlier systems by using a component-based infrastructure ( Cunningham , 2000 ) which the GUI is built on top of .",76,0
+77,"Since sentences can refer to events described by other sentences , we may need also a quotation operator ; Perlis ( 1985 ) describes how first order logic can be augmented with such an operator .",77,0
+78,"The system uses a knowledge base implemented in the KM representation language ( Clark and Porter , 1999 ; Dzikovska et al. , 2006 ) to represent the state of the world .",78,1
+79,A possible future direction would be to compare the query string to retrieved results using a method similar to that of Tsuruoka and Tsujii ( 2003 ) .,79,5
+80,description-level lexical rules ( DLRs ; Meurers 1995 ) .5 2.2.1 Meta-Level Lexical Rules .,80,0
+81,"All EBMT systems , from the initial proposal by Nagao ( 1984 ) to the recent collection of Carl and Way ( 2003 ) , are premised on the availability of subsentential alignments derived from the input bitext .",81,0
+82,"The necessity of this kind of merging of arguments has been recognized before : Charniak and McDermott ( 1985 ) call it abductive unification/matching , Hobbs ( 1978 , 1979 ) refers to such operations using the terms knitting or petty conversational implicature .",82,0
+83,"In a number of proposals , lexical generalizations are captured using lexical underspecification ( Kathol 1994 ; Krieger and Nerbonne 1992 ;",83,2
+84,"These keywords are potentially useful features because some of them are subclasses of the ACE SCs shown in the left column of Table 1 , while others appear to be correlated with these ACE SCs .2 ( 6 ) INDUCED CLASS : Since the first-sense heuristic used in the previous feature may not be accurate in capturing the SC of an NP , we employ a corpusbased method for inducing SCs that is motivated by research in lexical semantics ( e.g. , Hearst ( 1992 ) ) .",84,4
+85,Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in Black and Bower ( 1979 ) and Haberlandt et al. ( 1980 ) .,85,0
+86,"The bottom panel of table 1 lists the results for the chosen lexicalized model ( SSN-Freq > 200 ) and five recent statistical parsers ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ; Collins , 2000 ; Bod , 2001 ) .",86,2
+87,"Nevertheless , the full document text is present in most systems , sometimes as the only feature ( Sugiyama and Okumura , 2007 ) and sometimes in combination with others see for instance ( Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ) - .",87,0
+88,"In a similar vain to Skut and Brants ( 1998 ) and Buchholz et al. ( 1999 ) , the method extends an existing flat shallow-parsing method to handle composite structures .",88,5
+89,"As a result , researchers have re-adopted the once-popular knowledge-rich approach , investigating a variety of semantic knowledge sources for common noun resolution , such as the semantic relations between two NPs ( e.g. , Ji et al. ( 2005 ) ) , their semantic similarity as computed using WordNet ( e.g. , Poesio et al. ( 2004 ) ) or Wikipedia ( Ponzetto and Strube , 2006 ) , and the contextual role played by an NP ( see Bean and Riloff ( 2004 ) ) .",89,0
+90,"We built a two-stage baseline system , using the perceptron segmentation model from our previous work ( Zhang and Clark , 2007 ) and the perceptron POS tagging model from Collins ( 2002 ) .",90,3
+91,"Note that although our current system uses MeSH headings assigned by human indexers , manually assigned terms can be replaced with automatic processing if needed ( Aronson et al. 2004 ) .",91,5
+92,"Furthermore , medical terminology is characterized by a typical mix of Latin and Greek roots with the corresponding host language ( e.g. , German ) , often referred to as neo-classical compounding ( McCray et al. , 1988 ) .",92,0
+93,"Previously ( Gerber and Chai 2010 ) , we assessed the importance of various implicit argument feature groups by conducting feature ablation tests .",93,3
+94,"To model d ( FWi − 1 , S → T ) , d ( FWi +1 , S → T ) , i.e. whether Li , S → T and Ri , S → T extend beyond the neighboring function word phrase pairs , we utilize the pairwise dominance model of Setiawan et al. ( 2009 ) .",94,1
+95,"For instance , Sells ( 1985 , p. 8 ) says that the sentence `` Reagan thinks bananas , '' which is otherwise strange , is in fact acceptable if it occurs as an answer to the question `` What is Kissinger 's favorite fruit ? ''",95,4
+96,Semantic Role labeling ( SRL ) was first defined in Gildea and Jurafsky ( 2002 ) .,96,0
+97,"AJAX function lets the communication works asyncronously between a client and a server through a set of messages based on HTTP protocol and XML ( Garrett , 2005 ) .",97,0
+98,"The inclusion of the coreference task in the Sixth and Seventh Message Understanding Conferences ( MUC-6 and MUC-7 ) gave a considerable impetus to the development of coreference resolution algorithms and systems , such as those described in Baldwin et al. ( 1995 ) , Gaizauskas and Humphreys ( 1996 ) , and Kameyama ( 1997 ) .",98,0
+99,"The most detailed evaluation of link tokens to date was performed by ( Macklovitch & Hannan , 1996 ) , who trained Brown et al. 's Model 2 on 74 million words of the Canadian Hansards .",99,2
+100,"Log-linear models have proved successful in a wide variety of applications , and are the inspiration behind one of the best current statistical parsers ( Charniak , 2000 ) .",100,2
+101,"While we have observed reasonable results with both G2 and Fisher 's exact test , we have not yet discussed how these results compare to the results that can be obtained with a technique commonly used in corpus linguistics based on the mutual information ( MI ) measure ( Church and Hanks 1990 ) :",101,0
+102,"Morphological alterations of a search term have a negative impact on the recall performance of an information retrieval ( IR ) system ( Choueka , 1990 ; J ¨ appinen and Niemist ¨ o , 1988 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ) , since they preclude a direct match between the search term proper and its morphological variants in the documents to be retrieved .",102,0
+103,"For shuffling paraphrases , french alternations are partially described in ( Saint-Dizier , 1999 ) and a resource is available which describes alternation and the mapping verbs/alternations for roughly 1 700 verbs .",103,0
+104,"A more recent approach , advocated by Rappaport Hovav and Levin ( 1998 ) , describes a basic set of event templates corresponding to Vendler 's event classes ( Vendler , 1957 ) : ( 3 ) a. [ x ACT <MANNER> ] ( activity ) b. [ x <STATE> ] ( state ) c. [ BECOME [ x <STATE> ] ] ( achievement ) d. [ x CAUSE [ BECOME [ x <STATE> ] ] ] ( accomplishment )",104,0
+105,Watanabe ( 1993 ) combines lexical and dependency mappings to form his generalizations .,105,0
+106,"Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics .",106,0
+107,"The reordering models we describe follow our previous work using function word models for translation ( Setiawan et al. , 2007 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ) .",107,3
+108,"And Collins ( 2000 ) argues for `` keeping track of counts of arbitrary fragments within parse trees '' , which has indeed been carried out in Collins and Duffy ( 2002 ) who use exactly the same set of ( all ) tree fragments as proposed in Bod ( 1992 ) .",108,4
+109,"In our work , we gather sets of sentences , and assume ( but do not employ ) existing approaches for their organization ( Goldstein et al. 2000 ; Barzilay , Elhadad , and McKeown 2001 ; Barzilay and McKeown 2005 ) .",109,0
+110,criteria and data used in our experiments are based on the work of Talbot et al. ( 2011 ) .,110,1
+111,"We present experiments on the two standard coreference resolution datasets , ACE-2004 ( NIST , 2004 ) and OntoNotes-5 .0 ( Hovy et al. , 2006 ) .",111,1
+112,• Only qualitative observations of the responses were reported ( no formal evaluation was performed ) ( Lapalme and Kosseim 2003 ; Roy and Subramaniam 2006 ) .,112,2
+113,"And subderivations headed by A1 with external nonterminals only at the leaves , internal nonterminals elsewhere , have probability 1/a1 ( Goodman 1996 ) .",113,0
+114,"• Support vector machines for mapping histories to parser actions ( Kudo and Matsumoto , 2002 ) .",114,1
+115,"Goodman ( 1996 , 1998 ) developed a polynomial time PCFG-reduction of DOP1 whose size is linear in the size of the training set , thus converting the exponential number of subtrees to a compact grammar .",115,0
+116,Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) avoids enumerating the various senses for adjectives like fast by exploiting the semantics of the nouns they modify .,116,0
+117,Hohensee and Bender ( 2012 ) have conducted a study on dependency parsing for 21 languages using features that encode whether the values for certain attributes are equal or not for a node and its governor .,117,0
+118,"Such approaches have been tried recently in restricted cases ( McCallum et al. , 2000 ; Eisner , 2001b ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ) .",118,0
+119,"The relation between discourse and prosodic phrasing has been examined in some detail by Bing ( 1985 ) , who argues that each noun phrase in an utterance constitutes a separate prosodic phrase unless it is destressed because of reference to previous discourse .",119,0
+120,"By contrast , Turkish ( Oflazer et al. , 2003 ; Atalay et al. , 2003 ) exhibits high root accuracy but consistently low attachment scores ( about 88 % for length 1 and 68 % for length 2 ) .",120,2
+121,"The candidate examples that lead to the most disagreements among the different learners are considered to have the highest TUV ( Cohn , Atlas , and Ladner 1994 ; Freund et al. 1997 ) .",121,0
+122,"Subsequently , we extracted the bilingual phrase table from the aligned corpora using the Moses toolkit ( Koehn et al. , 2007 ) .",122,1
+123,"Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .",123,0
+124,"Our rules for phonological word formation are adopted , for the most part , from G & G , Grosjean and Gee ( 1987 ) , and the account of monosyllabic destressing in Selkirk ( 1984 ) .",124,1
+125,"As a generalization , Briscoe ( 2001 ) notes that lexicons such as COMLEX tend to demonstrate high precision but low recall .",125,0
+126,"Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .",126,0
+127,"Various approaches for computing semantic relatedness of words or concepts have been proposed , e.g. dictionary-based ( Lesk , 1986 ) , ontology-based ( Wu and Palmer , 1994 ; Leacock and Chodorow , 1998 ) , information-based ( Resnik , 1995 ; Jiang and Conrath , 1997 ) or distributional ( Weeds and Weir , 2005 ) .",127,0
+128,"Besides WordNet , the RTE literature documents the use of a variety of lexical information sources ( Bentivogli et al. , 2010 ; Dagan et al. , 2009 ) .",128,0
+129,"The question answering system developed by Chu-Carroll et al. ( 2003 ) belongs to the merging category of approaches , where the output of an individual method can be used as input to a different method ( this corresponds to Burke 's cascade sub-category ) .",129,2
+130,"More recently , ( Sebastiani , 2002 ) has performed a good survey of document categorization ; recent works can also be found in ( Joachims , 2002 ) , ( Crammer and Singer , 2003 ) , and ( Lewis et al. , 2004 ) .",130,0
+131,Discriminant analysis has been employed by researchers in automatic text genre detection ( Biber 1993b ; Karlgren and Cutting 1994 ) since it offers a simple and robust solution despite the fact that it presupposes normal distributions of the discriminating variables .,131,0
+132,"This model has previously been shown to provide excellent performance on multiple tasks , including prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , semantic inferences , and word similarity ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .",132,3
+133,"In other words , existing treatments of gradables in GRE fail to take the `` efficiency of language '' into account ( Barwise and Perry 1983 ; see our Section 2 ) .",133,0
+134,"Word alignments are used primarily for extracting minimal translation units for machine translation ( MT ) ( e.g. , phrases [ Koehn , Och , and Marcu 2003 ] and rules [ Galley et al. 2004 ; Chiang et al. 2005 ] ) as well as for",134,0
+135,"Following Miller et al. , 1999 , the IR system ranks documents according to the probability that a document D is relevant given the query Q , P ( D is R IQ ) .",135,1
+136,"In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .",136,0
+137,"We have shown elsewhere ( Jensen and Binot 1988 ; Zadrozny 1987a , 1987b ) that natural language programs , such as on-line grammars and dictionaries , can be used as referential levels for commonsense reasoning -- for example , to disambiguate PP attachment .",137,3
+138,"Thus rather than a single training procedure , we can actually partition the examples by predicate , and train a 1For a fixed verb , MI is proportional to Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) 's conditional probability scores for pseudodisambiguation of ( v , n , n ′ ) triples : Pr ( v | n ) = Pr ( v , n ) / Pr ( n ) , which was shown to be a better measure of association than co-occurrence frequency f ( v , n ) .",138,4