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Through this post I am going to explain How Linear Regression works? Let us start with what is regression and how it works? Regression is widely used for prediction and forecasting in field of machine learning. Focus of regression is on the relationship between dependent and one or more independent variables. The “dependent variable” represents the output or effect, or is tested to see if it is the effect. The “independent variables” represent the inputs or causes, or are tested to see if they are the cause. Regression analysis helps to understand how the value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while the other independent variables are kept unchanged. In the regression, dependent variable is estimated as function of independent variables which is called regression function. Regression model involves following variables. - Independent variables X. - Dependent variable Y - Unknown parameter θ In the regression model Y is function of (X,θ). There are many techniques for regression analysis, but here we will consider linear regression. In the Linear regression, dependent variable(Y) is the linear combination of the independent variables(X). Here regression function is known as hypothesis which is defined as below. hθ(X) = f(X,θ) Suppose we have only one independent variable(x), then our hypothesis is defined as below. The goal is to find some values of θ(known as coefficients), so we can minimize the difference between real and predicted values of dependent variable(y). If we take the values of all θ are zeros, then our predicted value will be zero. Cost function is used as measurement factor of linear regression model and it calculates average squared error for m observations. Cost function is denoted by J(θ) and defined as below. As we can see from the above formula, if cost is large then, predicted value is far from the real value and if cost is small then, predicted value is nearer to real value. Therefor, we have to minimize cost to meet more accurate prediction. Linear regression in R R is language and environment for statistical computing. R has powerful and comprehensive features for fitting regression models. We will discuss about how linear regression works in R. In R, basic function for fitting linear model is lm(). The format is fit <- lm(formula, data) where formula describes model(in our case linear model) and data describes which data are used to fit model. The resulting object(fit in this case) is a list that contains information about the fitted model. The formula typically written as Y ~ x1 + x2 + … + xk where ~ separates the dependent variable(y) on the left from independent variables(x1, x2, ….. , xk) from right, and the independent variables are separated by + signs. let’s see simple regression example(example is from book R in action). We have the dataset women which contains height and weight for a set of 15 women ages 30 to 39. we want to predict weight from height. R code to fit this model is as below. >fit <-lm(weight ~ height, data=women) >summary(fit) Output of the summary function gives information about the object fit. Output is as below Call: lm(formula = weight ~ height, data = women) Residuals: Min 1Q Median 3Q Max -1.7333 -1.1333 -0.3833 0.7417 3.1167 Coefficients: Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|) (Intercept) -87.51667 5.93694 -14.74 1.71e-09 *** height 3.45000 0.09114 37.85 1.09e-14 *** --- Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1 Residual standard error: 1.525 on 13 degrees of freedom Multiple R-squared: 0.991, Adjusted R-squared: 0.9903 F-statistic: 1433 on 1 and 13 DF, p-value: 1.091e-14 Let’s understand the output. Values of coefficients(θs) are -87.51667 and 3.45000, hence prediction equation for model is as below Weight = -87.52 + 3.45*height In the output, residual standard error is cost which is 1.525. Now, we will look at real values of weight of 15 women first and then will look at predicted values. Actual values of weight of 15 women are as below Output 115 117 120 123 126 129 132 135 139 142 146 150 154 159 164 Predicted values of 15 women are as below Output 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 112.5833 116.0333 119.4833 122.9333 126.3833 129.8333 133.2833 136.7333 140.1833 10 11 12 13 14 15 143.6333 147.0833 150.5333 153.9833 157.4333 160.8833 We can see that predicted values are nearer to the actual values.Finally, we understand what is regression, how it works and regression in R. Here, I want to beware you from the misunderstanding about correlation and causation. In the regression, dependent variable is correlated with the independent variable. This means, as the value of the independent variable changes, value of the dependent variable also changes. But, this does not mean that independent variable cause to change the value of dependent variable. Causation implies correlation , but reverse is not true. For example, smoking causes the lung cancer and smoking is correlated with alcoholism. Many discussions are there on this topic. if we go deep into than one blog is not enough to explain this.But, we will keep in mind that we will consider correlation between dependent variable and independent variable in regression. In the next blog, I will discuss about the real world business problem and how to use regression into it. Liked this? Get more by Signing up for our free newsletter! Would you like to understand the value of predictive analysis when applied on web analytics data to help improve your understanding relationship between different variables? So register now for our Upcoming Webinar: How to perform predictive analysis on your web analytics tool data. Get More Info & Book Your Seat Now!

http://www.tatvic.com/blog/linear-regression-using-r/

You can use the teaching and learning outcomes in each phase to support your unit planning and help you plan for the children's learning across the unit. The teaching sequences model good practice. You will need to tailor and develop this unit to match the needs of your pupils and the curriculum of your school. - Phase 1: Familiarisation Around four days Prior to teaching the unit, whole-class collections of fantasy or science fiction texts are established to support independent reading for pleasure. Texts could include films, comics, picture books, television programmes and written texts. One particular text could be chosen as the whole-class novel for children to experience how a narrative builds over a period of time. - As a whole class, read, share and discuss different fantasy or science fiction texts. Investigate the themes of the narratives and identify the key elements of the narrative structure using an interactive whiteboard (IWB) to create a framework for a story skeleton plan. The framework can be printed out as a template plan for children later in the unit. - Compare and contrast settings from the texts. Display the text using the IWB and use the IWB tools to highlight how the author created mood and atmosphere. Note the findings on the IWB setting and atmosphere comparison grid. - Children read descriptions of other fantasy settings to identify and discuss the atmosphere evoked. Children compare the settings to find common techniques for creating different atmospheres and highlight evidence in the text. - During the plenary, collate children's findings on the IWB grid to decide which atmospheres are most commonly associated with which settings. - In shared reading, return to the IWB comparison grid. Explain that, for children's writing to be successful, the atmosphere of the setting influence the characters' reactions. Different characters may react in different ways. Revisit the texts from previous sessions and model how to highlight evidence that illustrates how the author has communicated to the reader the thinking and feelings of different characters, for example, descriptions of their facial expressions, body posture, speech and behaviour. - Divide children into groups. Each group focuses on one of the texts used in the previous sessions. Ask each child in a group to focus on one particular character, for example, the main character or the main character's best friend. Children locate and highlight evidence in the texts that demonstrates how the author has shown what a character is thinking and feeling in response to a setting. - During the plenary, explore the range of responses displayed by characters, using the emotional response scale on the IWB. Identify the range of reactions displayed by characters in response to a setting and record the findings on the comparison grid. Children can express opinions about an author's intended impact on a reader. - Phase 2: Capturing ideas and planning Around seven days A range of photographs is needed to create children's fantasy settings using photo editing software. Children could source the images on the Internet or take their own digital photographs using the local environment. - Remind children about the need to have settings that create a particular atmosphere. Explain that children are going to use the filters and cutting tool in photo editing software to create their own fantasy settings to support their writing. Model how to add filters to a photograph of a landscape. Experiment with the filters and discuss how, for example, changing the colour saturation can make the image appear warm and welcoming or cold and hostile. Save the different examples of enhanced images in a central folder for children to access later. - Arrange children into pairs. Ask them to take four of the images they have sourced and alter the images using the software program. Children keep notes of the filters or effects they have used to create particular atmospheres so that the process can be repeated at a later date or shared with peers. Ask children to save the images in a central folder using an appropriate word to describe the atmosphere of the image. - During the plenary, ask each group to choose one image to share with the rest of the class. From their notes the group describe which filters were used and what atmosphere these are intended to communicate to a reader. Other members of the class can provide feedback on the effectiveness of the filters used. Time will be needed to enable children to make adjustments to their images in response to the feedback. - In the shared session, project one of the images made in the previous session onto the IWB. Ask children to refer back to the notes made during reading about characters' responses to settings. Discuss how the image could make the characters feel and decide on appropriate facial gestures and body postures to reflect their inner thoughts. Freeze-frame children in front of the images showing various responses to the settings. Take digital photographs of the freeze-frames to record the ideas and for later use to support children's writing. - Return to the story skeleton plan on the IWB created in phase 1. Insert onto the page the four altered images of fantasy settings made in phase 2 and discuss which of the four settings would be most suitable at different stages in the story. Experiment with the order of the images, alternating threatening environments with calmer places of safety. Explain to children how alternating the setting in this way gives the reader a period of rest and increases the impact of the next dramatic encounter. - Each group repeats the ordering process with their own images. Encourage children to copy and paste the images into different orders so that the different alternatives can be kept for future reference and to enable discussion and comparison. - Encourage the children to critically reflect on the different order of their images to assess which sequence of settings would have the most impact on a reader, creating the feeling of tension followed by a breathing space. - Use modelled and shared teaching approaches to demonstrate how to use the planner and the image sequences as a support for telling an oral version of a fantasy narrative. Small-world role-play figures could be used to provide a stimulus for the main characters. Remind children that each box on the story planner will be equivalent to one paragraph of their final narrative. - Children follow the example set in the shared session and work in pairs or small groups to re-tell their narratives. Encourage children to use appropriate language to describe the characters' reactions to the settings and to develop the narrative in paragraphs using the boxes as a support to structure their ideas. - Ask children to add brief notes to their paragraph planner to remind them of ideas gained from the oral storytelling. - To extend the use of adverbs and conjunctions within paragraphs, use the original text examples and identify key words and phrases used by the authors. Use the IWB to create a word bank. Drag and drop words onto the planner and model how to include the words in a second oral draft of the narrative. Keep the word bank on display to support children in adding appropriate adverbs and conjunctions to their own plans. Children then perform their second oral draft with their peer, making sure that they have included the cohesive words and phrases. - Encourage children to add notes of the vocabulary used in the session onto their planner. Children can tell a story orally based on their role-play using the organisational and language features of the text type. - Phase 3: Writing Around seven to nine days - Use modelled, shared and supported composition to write a first draft of the narrative. Refer back to the word bank, plans and oral versions of the narrative to model, drawing on a range of sources to support the writing process. Make explicit reference to organising the ideas from each box on the paragraph planner into written paragraphs. Using supported composition, children suggest different options for connecting the ideas within a paragraph using their oral storytelling and the word bank created in previous sessions. - Extend the writing process over an appropriate number of days to suit the pace and confidence of the children. Assess the progress of the writing against the success criteria of the text type at appropriate intervals in the writing process. Provide time for children to revise and adapt their drafts based on the assessments against the success criteria. - Review the use of adverbs and conjunctions to create cohesion within a paragraph. Use supported composition to re-draft the whole-class narrative on the IWB ensuring that the ideas flow naturally for the reader. - Ask children, working in pairs in the shared session, to review their work and revise the cohesive devices that link the ideas together within and across the paragraphs. - During the plenary, ask children to identify three successful cohesive devices they have used and one area of the narrative that needs a stronger link between ideas. Share the top three ideas from the children as a class and provide time for children to use the ideas to alter the area they identified as a possible weakness. - Publish the work in an appropriate format. Children's narratives could be word processed with the images created as part of the planning and inserted as illustrations. Additional illustrations of the main characters could be created and added by scanning in children's drawings or using photo editing software. Children can write a narrative using paragraphs to organise ideas maintaining cohesion within and between paragraphs.

http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809091832/http:/www.teachingandlearningresources.org.uk/node/2937

Factory Method Pattern An important facet of system design is the manner in which objects are created. One of the most widely used creational patterns is the Factory Method Pattern. Creational patterns describe object-creation mechanisms that enable greater levels of reuse in evolving systems Let’s consider that, the client is an object that requires an instance of another object (the product) for some purpose. Rather than creating the product instance directly, the client delegates this responsibility to the factory. Once invoked, the factory creates a new instance of the product, passing it back to the client. Put simply, the client uses the factory to create an instance of the product. CLIENT ---uses----> FACTORY (Creator) ----create---->PRODUCT The Factory completely abstracts the creation and initialization of the Product from the Client, which helps client to focus on its discrete role. As the product implementation changes in future, the client remains unchanged. “Factory Method Pattern defines an interface for creating an object but let’s subclass decide which class to instantiate” Most implementations of the Factory method pattern use two abstract classes, Factory and Product. Consider the following example for Factory Method Pattern. Let consider AbstractProduct.java class as abstract product class which return the cost of the product. This abstract product class is extended and two concrete classes are created i.e. ProductSubClass_One.java and ProductSubClass_Sec.java ProductSubClass_One.java-This class extends AbstractProduct class and provide first concrete implementation of getProductCost() method. ProductSubClass_Sec.java-This class extends AbstractProduct class and provide second concrete implementation of getProductCost() method. Next consider the Factory (Creator) class AbstractCreator.java is an abstract class which contains one method createProduct(String) method for creating the Product. Now we will create a concrete class of the Factory (creator) i.e. ConcreteCreator.java which override the createProduct (String) method to return object of the concrete Product Sub Class based on the type. Till now we have created Factory and Product related classes, now we will create a Client class which in turn uses Factory (creator) class to obtain a Product object. Here in this class we are creating a Factory (creator) object and using this factory object to obtain the product based on “type” which passed as argument in createProduct (String) method. When we run the Client.java class we will get object of ProductSubClass_One class which gives following output. Factory method pattern should be used, - When the object creation depends upon the user data or some event; - When object which is getting created is abstracted from the user; - When the type of object created is to be decided at runtime.

http://technical-tutorials.blogspot.com/

Pre-Algebra, Algebra 1, and Algebra 2 all require you to master new math skills. Do you find solving equations and word problems difficult in Algebra class? Are the exponents, proportions, and variables of Algebra keeping you up at night? Intercepts, functions, and expressions can be confusing to most Algebra students, but a qualified tutor can clear it all up! Our Algebra tutors are experts in math and specialize in helping students like you understand Algebra. If you are worried about an upcoming Algebra test or fear not passing your Algebra class for the term, getting an Algebra tutor will make all the difference. Pre-algebra - The goal of Pre-algebra is to develop fluency with rational numbers and proportional relationships. Students will: extend their elementary skills and begin to learn algebra concepts that serve as a transition into formal Algebra and Geometry; learn to think flexibly about relationships among fractions, decimals, and percents; learn to recognize and generate equivalent expressions and solve single-variable equations and inequalities; investigate and explore mathematical ideas and develop multiple strategies for analyzing complex situations; analyze situations verbally, numerically, graphically, and symbolically; and apply mathematical skills and make meaningful connections to life's experiences. Algebra I - The main goal of Algebra is to develop fluency in working with linear equations. Students will: extend their experiences with tables, graphs, and equations and solve linear equations and inequalities and systems of linear equations and inequalities; extend their knowledge of the number system to include irrational numbers; generate equivalent expressions and use formulas; simplify polynomials and begin to study quadratic relationships; and use technology and models to investigate and explore mathematical ideas and relationships and develop multiple strategies for analyzing complex situations. Algebra II - A primary goal of Algebra II is for students to conceptualize, analyze, and identify relationships among functions. Students will: develop proficiency in analyzing and solving quadratic functions using complex numbers; investigate and make conjectures about absolute value, radical, exponential, logarithmic and sine and cosine functions algebraically, numerically, and graphically, with and without technology; extend their algebraic skills to compute with rational expressions and rational exponents; work with and build an understanding of complex numbers and systems of equations and inequalities; analyze statistical data and apply concepts of probability using permutations and combinations; and use technology such as graphing calculators. College Algebra – Topics for this course include basic concepts of algebra; linear, quadratic, rational, radical, logarithmic, exponential, and absolute value equations; equations reducible to quadratic form; linear, polynomial, rational, and absolute value inequalities, and complex number system; graphs of linear, polynomial, exponential, logarithmic, rational, and absolute value functions; conic sections; inverse functions; operations and compositions of functions; systems of equations; sequences and series; and the binomial theorem. No matter the level of the algebra course that the student is taking, we have expert tutors available and ready to help. All of our algebra tutors have a degree in mathematics, science, or a related field (like accounting). We are so confident in our algebra tutors that you can meet with them for free. Just ask your tutoring coordinator about our Meet and Greet program. Our Tutoring Service We offer our clients choice when searching for a tutor, and we work with you all the way through the selection process. When you choose to work with one of our tutors, expect quality, professionalism, and experience. We will never offer you a tutor that is not qualified in the specific subject area you request. We will provide you with the degrees, credentials, and certifications each selected tutor holds so that you have the same confidence in them that we do. And for your peace of mind, we conduct a nation-wide criminal background check, sexual predator check and social security verification on every single tutor we offer you. We will find you the right tutor so that you can find success!

http://www.advancedlearners.com/albuquerque/algebra/tutor/find.aspx

An introduction to the basics of Unicode, distilled from several earlier posts. In the interests of presenting the big picture, I have painted with a broad brush — large areas are summarized; nits are not picked; hairs are not split; wind resistance is ignored. Unicode = one character set, plus several encodings Unicode is actually not one thing, but two separate and distinct things. The first is a character set and the second is a set of encodings. - The first — the idea of a character set — has absolutely nothing to do with computers. - The second — the idea of encodings for the Unicode character set — has everything to do with computers. The idea of a character set has nothing to do with computers. So let’s suppose that you’re a British linguist living in, say, 1750. The British Empire is expanding and Europeans are discovering many new languages, both living and dead. You’ve known about Chinese characters for a long time, and you’ve just discovered Sumerian cuneiform characters from the Middle East and Sanskrit characters from India. Trying to deal with this huge mass of different characters, you get a brilliant idea — you will make a numbered list of every character in every language that ever existed. You start your list with your own familiar set of English characters — the upper- and lower-case letters, the numeric digits, and the various punctuation marks like period (full stop), comma, exclamation mark, and so on. And the space character, of course. 01 a 02 b 03 c ... 26 z 27 A 28 B ... 52 Z 53 0 54 1 55 2 ... 62 9 63 (space) 64 ? (question mark) 65 , (comma) ... and so on ... Then you add the Spanish, French and German characters with tildes, accents, and umlauts. You add characters from other living languages — Greek, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Sanscrit, Arabic, Hebrew, and so on. You add characters from dead alphabets — Assyrian cuneiform — and so on, until finally you have a very long list of characters. - What you have created — a numbered list of characters — is known as a character set. - The numbers in the list — the numeric identifiers of the characters in the character set — are called code points. - And because your list is meant to include every character that ever existed, you call your character set the Universal Character Set. Congratulations! You’ve just invented (something similar to) the the first half of Unicode — the Universal Character Set or UCS. Now suppose you jump into your time machine and zip forward to the present. Everybody is using computers. You have a brilliant idea. You will devise a way for computers to handle UCS. You know that computers think in ones and zeros — bits — and collections of 8 bits — bytes. So you look at the biggest number in your UCS and ask yourself: How many bytes will I need to store a number that big? The answer you come up with is 4 bytes, 32 bits. So you decide on a simple and straight-forward digital implementation of UCS — each number will be stored in 4 bytes. That is, you choose a fixed-length encoding in which every UCS character (code point) can be represented, or encoded, in exactly 4 bytes, or 32 bits. UTF-8 and variable-length encodings UCS-4 is simple and straight-forward… but inefficient. Computers send a lot of strings back and forth, and many of those strings use only ASCII characters — characters from the old ASCII character set. One byte — eight bits — is more than enough to store such characters. It is grossly inefficient to use 4 bytes to store an ASCII character. The key to the solution is to remember that a code point is nothing but a number (an integer). It may be a short number or a long number, but it is only a number. We need just one byte to store the shorter numbers of the Universal Character Set, and we need more bytes only when the numbers get longer. So the solution to our problem is a variable-length encoding. Specifically, Unicode’s UTF-8 (Unicode Transformation Format, 8 bit) is a variable-length encoding in which each UCS code point is encoded using 1, 2, 3, or 4 bytes, as necessary. In UTF-8, if the first bit of a byte is a “0″, then the remaining 7 bits of the byte contain one of the 128 original 7-bit ASCII characters. If the first bit of the byte is a “1″ then the byte is the first of multiple bytes used to represent the code point, and other bits of the byte carry other information, such as the total number of bytes — 2, or 3, or 4 bytes — that are being used to represent the code point. (For a quick overview of how this works at the bit level, see How does UTF-8 “variable-width encoding” work?) Just use UTF-8 UTF-8 is a great technology, which is why it has become the de facto standard for encoding Unicode text, and is the most widely-used text encoding in the world. Text strings that use only ASCII characters can be encoded in UTF-8 using only one byte per character, which is very efficient. And if characters — Chinese or Japanese characters, for instance — require multiple bytes, well, UTF-8 can do that, too. Byte Order Mark Unicode fixed-length multi-byte encodings such as UTF-16 and UTF-32 store UCS code points (integers) in multi-byte chunks — 2-byte chunks in the case of UTF-16 and 4-byte chunks in the case of UTF-32. Unfortunately, different computer architectures — basically, different processor chips — use different techniques for storing such multi-byte integers. In “little-endian” computers, the “little” (least significant) byte of a multi-byte integer is stored leftmost. “Big-endian” computers do the reverse; the “big” (most significant) byte is stored leftmost. - Intel computers are little-endian. - Motorola computers are big-endian. - Microsoft Windows was designed around a little-endian architecture — it runs only on little-endian computers or computers running in little-endian mode — which is why Intel hardware and Microsoft software fit together like hand and glove. Differences in endian-ness can create data-exchange issues between computers. Specifically, the possibility of differences in endian-ness means that if two computers need to exchange a string of text data, and that string is encoded in a Unicode fixed-length multi-byte encoding such as UTF-16 or UTF-32, the string should begin with a Byte Order Mark (or BOM) — a special character at the beginning of the string that indicates the endian-ness of the string. Strings encoded in UTF-8 don’t require a BOM, so the BOM is basically a non-issue for programmers who use only UTF-8. - Ned Batchelder’s Pragmatic Unicode. Highly recommended. - The Absolute Minimum Every Software Developer Absolutely, Positively Must Know About Unicode and Character Sets (No Excuses!) (2003) by Joel Spolsky is good, and widely read, but now a bit dated. I think it is rather misleading in the prominence it gives to the BOM.

http://pythonconquerstheuniverse.wordpress.com/2012/03/16/unicode-the-basics/?like=1&_wpnonce=401286028f

Brazilian and British scientists have been examining the heavy smoke plumes from wildfires in the Amazon, gathering data, to understand how the burning of biomass in South America is affecting the local weather and air quality. This might help close crucial gaps in climate models about how the process changes the Earth’s radiation balance. The South American Biomass Burning Analysis (SAMBBA) mission uses a jet carrying a suite of sensor instruments to take measurements up to 12 km above the jungle’s canopy. Previous campaigns used smaller planes and flew lower, and were unable to observe some crucial processes. The Amazon is dominated by high-altitude convection clouds, and scientists aren’t sure how they process energy and how fire interferes with them, making weather predictions moot. The scientists are using a LiDAR, which is a laser that measures how much light is being blocked by aerosol particles of smoke at various altitudes. This local dimming of the atmosphere can hamper photosynthesis, possibly drastically. Local measurements have shown a decrease of plant productivity of around 30%. There is no estimate for the Amazon in its entirety. Aerosols might also produce a cooling effect at the surface, as well as warming mid-altitudes. Current climate models cannot account for such complex interactions, and therefore can’t predict how increasing carbon dioxide concentrations and burning biomass will affect the radiation balance of the Amazon. Information on these aerosols is also important for global weather forecasts. SAMBBA will also allow scientists to measure the air quality in Amazonian cities. Concentrations of nitrogen oxides and other compounds that react to form polluting ozone at low altitudes are higher during the burning season in the Amazon than in heavily polluted areas of São Paulo. However, ozone-forming compounds have never been measured across the whole Amazon.

http://scitechdaily.com/amazon-fire-analysis-might-close-gaps-in-climate-models/

|Albania Table of Contents Political chaos engulfed Albania after the outbreak of World War I. Surrounded in by insurgents Durrės, Prince Wilhelm departed the country in September 1914, just six months after arriving, and subsequently joined the German army and served on the Eastern Front. The Albanian people split along religious and tribal lines after the prince's departure. Muslims demanded a Muslim prince and looked to Turkey as the protector of the privileges they had enjoyed. Other Albanians became little more than agents of Italy and Serbia. Still others, including many beys and clan chiefs, recognized no superior authority. In late 1914, Greece occupied southern Albania, including Korēė and Gjirokastėr. Italy occupied Vlorė, and Serbia and Montenegro occupied parts of northern Albania until a Central Powers offensive scattered the Serbian army, which was evacuated by the French to Thessaloniki. Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian forces then occupied about two-thirds of the country. Under the secret Treaty of London signed in April 1915, the Triple Entente powers promised Italy that it would gain Vlorė and nearby lands and a protectorate over Albania in exchange for entering the war against Austria-Hungary. Serbia and Montenegro were promised much of northern Albania, and Greece was promised much of the country's southern half. The treaty left a tiny Albanian state that would be represented by Italy in its relations with the other major powers. In September 1918, Entente forces broke through the Central Powers' lines north of Thessaloniki, and within days Austro-Hungarian forces began to withdraw from Albania. When the war ended on November 11, 1918, Italy's army had occupied most of Albania; Serbia held much of the country's northern mountains; Greece occupied a sliver of land within Albania's 1913 borders; and French forces occupied Korēė and Shkodėr as well as other with sizable Albanian populations, regions such as Kosovo, which were later handed over to Serbia. Source: U.S. Library of Congress

http://countrystudies.us/albania/23.htm

Not Just Black and White Not Just Black and White is a science project that teaches kids about color and light. Different colors will appear when you and your kids view spinning black-and-white circles. What You'll Need: - White paper - Black paper - Black marker - Knitting needle - Paper plate Learn About Not Just Black and White:Step 1: Draw and cut out 3 circles of white paper that are each 5-1/2 inches in diameter. Put a small hole in the center of each circle. Step 2: Draw and cut out a circle of black paper that is 5-1/2 inches in diameter. Cut the black circle in half. Cut 1 of the halves in half. Step 3: Use these materials to make several different disks. Glue a black half-circle onto a white circle so that the disk is 1/2 black and 1/2 white. Glue a black quarter-circle onto a white circle so that the disk is 1/4 black and 3/4 white. Step 4: Using a black marker, divide 1 white disk into 8 pie-wedge shapes. Color some of the pie wedges black, leaving others white. Step 5: Wrap some tape around the middle of a knitting needle. Put the knitting needle through the middle of a 6-inch paper plate, and push the plate down to rest on the tape. Step 6: Spin the plate. Be sure it spins smoothly and doesn't wobble. Use this as your spinner. Poke the knitting needle through the hole in the center of 1 disk, and let the disk rest on the paper plate. Step 7: Spin the plate, and look at the disk as it spins. What colors do you see? Do you see different colors when the disk is spinning quickly or slowly? Spin the other disks to see what colors they produce. Colors at a Distance is a science project that teaches kids about visual perception. Learn about Colors at a Distance on the next page of science projects for kids: spectrum of colors.

http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/family/science-projects-for-kids-spectrum-of-colors1.htm

An elaborate system of leads spreads across our hearts. These leads – the heart's electrical system – control our pulse and coordinate contraction of the heart chambers. While the structure of the human heart has been known for a long time, the evolutionary origin of our conduction system has nevertheless remained a mystery. Researchers have finally succeeded in showing that the spongy tissue in reptile hearts is the forerunner of the complex hearts of both birds and mammals. The new knowledge provides a deeper understanding of the complex conductive tissue of the human heart, which is of key importance in many heart conditions. "The heart of a bird or a mammal – for example a human – pumps frequently and rapidly. This is only possible because it has electrically conductive tissue that controls the heart. Until now, however, we haven't been able to find conductive tissue in our common reptilian ancestors, which means we haven't been able to understand how this enormously important system emerged," says Bjarke Jensen, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University. Along with Danish colleagues and colleagues from the University of Amsterdam, he can now reveal that the genetic building blocks for highly developed conductive tissue are actually hidden behind the thin wall in the spongy hearts of reptiles. The new results have just been published in the journal PLoS ONE. "We studied the hearts of cold-blooded animals like lizards, frogs and zebrafish, and we investigated the gene that determines which parts of the heart are responsible for conducting the activating current. By comparing adult hearts from reptiles with embryonic hearts from birds and mammals, we discovered a common molecular structure that's hidden by the anatomical differences," explains Dr Jensen. Since the early 1900s, scientists have been wondering how birds and mammals could have developed almost identical conduction systems independently of each other when their common ancestor was a cold-blooded reptile with a sponge-like inner heart that has virtually no conduction bundles. The studies show that it is simply the spongy inner tissue in the foetal heart that gets stretched out to become a fine network of conductive tissue in adult birds and mammals. And this knowledge can be put to use in the future. "Our knowledge about the reptilian heart and the evolutionary background to our conductive tissue can provide us with a better understanding of how the heart works in the early months of foetal life in humans, when many women miscarry, and where heart disorders are thought to be the leading cause of spontaneous abortion," says Professor Tobias Wang. Explore further: Potato may help feed Ethiopia in era of climate change More information: www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0044231

http://phys.org/news/2012-09-reptile-hearts.html

The Missouri Indians first came to the attention of Europeans through the account left from the Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette expedition in 1673. On the Marquette map, they are referred to as the "Oumessourit." This is the Illinois name for them, and can be translated as the "people of the dugout canoes." It is not what the Missouri called themselves, but the name would remain. The Missouri were not newcomers to the area. While the Osage and Illinois had been pushed westward from the east after Europeans started settling the East Coast, the Missouri had been here for centuries. The earliest Oneota (ancestral Missouri) site in the area dates from A.D. 1250, and the Missouri Indian village (the Utz site) dates from as early as A.D. 1450. The Missouri were typical prairie dwellers. They lived in large rush mat-covered houses with from 15-25 people in each. These longhouses were fairly widely spaced across the village, which contained approximately 5,000 people at first European contact. The people grew corn, beans and squash in small agricultural plots, probably in the bottomlands. The crops were planted in the spring, and the people stayed in the village through the early stages of the crops. In June, they left on the summer hunt, principally seeking bison. In August, they returned to harvest the crops. While most remained for the rest of the year, the men often left on other hunting trips through the winter. The Old Fort, an irregular, double-ditched earthwork located in the park, was built by the ancestral Missouri Indians (Oneota). Archaeological investigations have not yet revealed the nature and purpose of this interesting man-made feature of the landscape. Because the Missouri were the first group encountered on the Missouri River, they were visited early by the French. Probably the first direct contact with Europeans came in 1680 or 1681 when two traders were captured by the Missouri and taken to their village. The first recorded encounter was in 1682 when French explorer Sieur de La Salle, Robert Cavelier, was on his way south to the mouth of the Mississippi River. His party came upon a group of Tamaroa (Illinois Indians) and some Missouri on their way to conduct a raid on the Osage Indians. About 1715, the Little Osage Indians moved from western Missouri and established a village near the Missouri to have greater access to fur traders. The Missouri often stopped traders from going upriver to obtain guns, lead and other items from them. Following the Big Osage and Little Osage, the Missouri contributed significantly to the fur trade in St. Louis. There are a number of accounts from the early part of the 18th century, with many centering around the construction of Fort Orleans by Etienne Veniard de Bourgmond across the river from the Missouri Indian village in 1721. De Bourgmond's account of his visit to the Kansa Indians the following year illustrates that the Missouri Indians had already been heavily affected by European diseases. When de Bourgmond came down with a fever, most of the people with him fled the expedition. Fort Orleans was abandoned in 1728, and it appears that shortly thereafter, the remaining Missouri moved to the Late Missouri Indian village near the Little Osage Indians. Disease and warfare with other tribes took their toll on the population. By 1758, there were only about 750 Missouri remaining. Warfare with the Sac and Fox and Ioway in the late 18th century forced the Little Osage and Missouri to abandon the area. Most of the surviving Missouri joined with the Otoes in Nebraska. In 1804, the Meriwether Lewis and William Clark Expedition passed the area and noted the location of the Late Missouri Indian village and the village of the Little Osage. Farther upriver, the first Indians they met were the remainder of the Missouri living with the Otoes. They estimated that there were 300 Missouri there at that time. By 1829, there were only 80 Missouri alive; 40 in 1882; and the last full-blooded Missouri Indian died about 1908. However, some members of the Otoe-Missouria Nation of Oklahoma continue to count their linage as Missouri.

http://mostateparks.com/page/55157/homeland-missouri-indians

3.8 Related Rates Two variables, perhaps x and y, are both functions of a third variable, time, t, and x and y are related by an equation. Example A fire has started in a dry, open field and spreads in the form of a circle. The radius of the circle increases at a rate of 6 ft/min. Find the rate at which the fire area is increasing when the radius is 150 ft. Strategy: Draw and label picture. What are we finding? Name variables and equations involved. (Substitute) and differentiate, then "plug-in" values. Implicitly differentiate with respect to t. Note: The area and radius are both functions of t. Given: ft/min and r = 150 Example: A ladder 26 ft long leans against a vertical wall. The foot of the ladder is drawn away from the wall at a rate of 4 ft/s. How fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall, when the foot of the ladder is 10 ft from the wall? Strategy: Draw and label pictures. What are we finding? Name variables and equations involved. (Substitute) and differentiate, then "plug-in" values. Differentiate implicitly with respect to the variable t. Note: x and y are both functions of t. Given: Must find y using Example: Water runs into a conical tank shown at a constant rate of 2 ft3 per minute. The dimensions of the tank are altitude of 12ft and base radius of 6 ft. How fast is the water level rising when the water is 6 feet deep? Draw a picture. Need both the volume of a cone and similar triangle proportions. Find: Volume of cone = Similar Triangle: Example: A spherical balloon is inflated with gas at the rate of 100 ft3/min. Assuming the gas pressure remains constant, how fast is the radius of the balloon increasing when the radius is 3 ft? Find: Volume of Sphere = Given: r = 3 Know: Example: A man 6 ft tall walks at the rate of 5 ft/sec. toward a street light that is 16 ft. above the ground. At what rate is the tip of his shadow moving? Find: Similar Triangles Assignment 3.8 pg 186; 1-11 odd, 12 [ans:-1/(20π)], 13,15, 16 [ans: 0.6 m/s]19, 20 [ans: ] 21, 27, 29, 30 [ans: -1/8 rad/s], 31

http://homepages.ius.edu/MEHRINGE/M215/Fall%2007%20Notesr/Section3.8.htm

Russian, early 20th century The Tsar, the Priest, and the Kulak. 1918 Lithograph printed in two colors on paper Purchased with the Elizabeth Halsey Dock, class of 1933, Fund Photograph by Stephen Petegorsky The earliest antireligious posters needed to be instantly legible to a wide audience. Often, they paired an image of the Tsar with a religious figure and stereotypical “rich man” (a kulak is a rich person of the peasant class), recognizable by his girth and a black top hat or bowler. By allying religious figures with Tsarist and class oppression, the Communists sought to convince the peasantry that religious leaders were actively working against the well-being of the common man. Among those peasants who could read, the printed word was generally accepted to be “true.” Often the only people who could read in a village were the clergy, and the only books were religious, so peasants developed a sense that the written word was some how “holy.” The Communists exploited this connection by translating posters such as this (which is in Estonian) into many languages to appeal directly to the wide range of ethnicities represented in the lands they sought to control. The religious figure, here a Catholic priest, and the kulak were also customized according to regional stereotypes. This poster was also issued in Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Tatar, Hebrew, Chuvash, Latvian, Lithuanian, Moldovan, and Mari. Estonia had been a part of the Russian empire since 1721, but was declared an independent republic in 1920. The country was placed under Russian influence as part of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, and the territory was reabsorbed by the Soviet Union following World War II. Estonia officially regained independence in 1991.

http://www.smith.edu/artmuseum2/archived_exhibitions/godlesscommunists/tsar_priest_kulak.htm

Children are best encouraged to engage in an activity when they see others participating in it. This is why it is important for educators of young children to model the writing process. Outlined below are a few ways in which this can be 1. Many teachers like to begin each class with writing a short morning message. This message outlines what activities are planned for the day. As the teacher is writing she models the writing process. She might focus on how words make a sentence, stretching sounds to determine how they are spelled or the use of capitals and periods. This modeling is a very important component in a child's learning process as it demonstrates to them that writing is an important means of communication. 2. Within a learning environment should be a safe and encouraging place where the children can develop this skill which would be the "Writing Center". The "Writing Center" would consist of a table, chairs, paper, envelopes, pencils, crayons, felts, tracers, rulers, whiteboard, chalkboard and clipboard. The alphabet, in upper and lower case letters should be posted nearby at the child's level. Plenty of print should be displayed within the classroom for the children to use as models for reading and writing. As a member of the Kinderplans website you will have access to hundreds of picture cards related to specific themes. Each of the cards have the words printed on them. These were designed to use for this 3. Writing develops at different rates. For many children in the younger years they draw pictures to convey their ideas. This begins with scribbling to something that resembles a picture. The educator (teacher) may ask the child to dictate what the picture conveys and print this in words and read it back to the child. This is another means of modeling the writing process. 4. Large classroom books can be made for the children to read. These books were designed around each child's conveyed message. for example, if you are working on a "Colors Theme", each child would dictate a sentence telling what their favorite color is. After, they would would draw a picture displaying the color. The teacher would include the printed text of what each child said below the picture drawn. This would be bound together to make a It is important to understand that writing is a process and each child develops at their own pace. The more support and encouragement provided the greater the success! In the link below you will find some suggested craft/writing activities that can be done together as a class. Preschool-Kindergarten Writing Activities

http://kinderplans.blogspot.com/2011/02/preschool-kindergarten-writing.html

Eye vision enables us to see clearly the objects in our surroundings at different distances and under numerous conditions of lights. How Eye sees? Eye works by changing the curvature of the lens to bring the image to a focus from any light from a single point of a distant object and/or a near object called as eyesight or eye vision. The eyes are the windows to the world; it allows us to see objects both far and near. Light reflects off an object enters the eye. The light enters the eye through the front window of the eye, called the cornea. A clear covering helps to focus the light. Other sides of the cornea are clearer, watery fluid is the aqueous humor. After light passes through the aqueous humor, it passes through the pupil, the central circular opening in the colored part of the eye called the iris. Depending on the amount of light available, the iris can contract or dilate, limiting or increasing the amount of light needed that gets deeper into the eye. The light then goes through the lens, which focuses the light (Just like the lens of a camera). The suspended lens changes shape with the help of ciliary muscle to focus on light reflecting from near or distant objects. Lens focuses the light on the retina at the back of the eye. The retina is a thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye that contains millions of tiny light sensing nerve cells called rods and cones, which are naming for their distinct shapes. Cones are concentrated in the center of the retina; an area called the macula. In bright light conditions, cones provide clear, sharp central vision and detect colors and fine-details. Rods are located outside the macula and extend all the way to the outer edge of the retina. They provide peripheral or side vision. Rods also allow the eyes to detect motion and help us see in dim light and at night. These cells in the retina convert the light into electrical impulses. The optic nerve sends these impulses to the brain where it produces an image. Visual information as impulses from the retina is transfers from the eye to the brain via the optic nerve. Because both eyes seeing from slightly different position and got different images, the brain has the ability to mix properly these two images in such a way to receive a complete clear actual picture. Sometimes eyeball shape makes it difficult for the cornea, lens, and retina to work properly as a team. When this happens, the person eye sees will be out of focus. In addition, they need to wear eyeglasses to focus images correctly on to the retina and allow them to see clearly.

http://healthy-ojas.com/eye/eyesight.html

Dec. 8, 2010 Thirteen billion years ago our universe was dark. There were neither stars nor galaxies; there was only hydrogen gas left over after the Big Bang. Eventually that mysterious time came to an end as the first stars ignited and their radiation transformed the nearby gas atoms into ions. This phase of the universe's history is called the Epoch of Reionization (EoR), and it is intimately linked to many fundamental questions in cosmology. But looking back so far in time presents numerous observational challenges. Arizona State University's Judd Bowman and Alan Rogers of Massachusetts Institute of Technology have developed a small-scale radio astronomy experiment designed to detect a never-before-seen signal from the early universe during this period of time, a development that has the potential to revolutionize the understanding of how the first galaxies formed and evolved. "Our goal is to detect a signal from the time of the Epoch of Reionization. We want to pin down when the first galaxies formed and then understand what types of stars existed in them and how they affected their environments," says Bowman, an assistant professor at the School of Earth and Space Exploration in ASU's College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. Bowman and Rogers deployed a custom-built radio spectrometer called EDGES to the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory in Western Australia to measure the radio spectrum between 100 and 200 MHz. Though simple in design -- consisting of just an antenna, an amplifier, some calibration circuits, and a computer, all connected to a solar-powered energy source -- its task is highly complex. Instead of looking for early galaxies themselves, the experiment looks for the hydrogen gas that existed between the galaxies. Though an extremely difficult observation to make, it isn't impossible, as Bowman and Rogers have demonstrated in their paper published in Nature on Dec. 9. "This gas would have emitted a radio line at a wavelength of 21 cm -- stretched to about 2 meters by the time we see it today, which is about the size of a person," explains Bowman. "As galaxies formed, they would have ionized the primordial hydrogen around them and caused the radio line to disappear. Therefore, by constraining when the line was present or not present, we can learn indirectly about the first galaxies and how they evolved in the early universe." Because the amount of stretching, or redshifting, of the 21 cm line increases for earlier times in the Universe's history, the disappearance of the inter-galactic hydrogen gas should produce a step-like feature in the radio spectrum that Bowman and Rogers measured with their experiment. Radio measurements of the redshifted 21 cm line are anticipated to be an extremely powerful probe of the reionization history, but they are very challenging. The experiment ran for three months, a rather lengthy observation time, but a necessity given the faintness of the signal compared to the other sources of emission from the sky. "We carefully designed and built this simple instrument and took it out to observe the radio spectrum and we saw all kinds of astronomical emission but it was 10,000 times stronger than the theoretical expectation for the signal we are looking for," explains Bowman. "That didn't surprise us because we knew that going into it, but it means it's very hard to see the signal we want to see." The low frequency radio sky is dominated by intense emission from our own galaxy that is many times brighter than the cosmological signal. Add to that the interference from television, FM radio, low earth orbit satellites, and other telecommunications radio transmitters (present even in remote areas like Australia's Outback) and it is a real challenge. Filtering out or subtracting these troublesome foreground signals is a principal focus of instrument design and data analysis techniques. Fortunately, many of the strongest foregrounds have spectral properties that make them possible to separate from the expected EoR signals. After careful analysis of their observations, Bowman and Rogers were able to show that the gas between galaxies could not have been ionized extremely rapidly. This marks the first time that radio observations have directly probed the properties of primordial gas during the EoR and paves the way for future studies. "We're breaking down barriers to open an entirely new window into the early universe," Bowman says. The next generation of large radio telescopes is under construction right now to attempt much more sophisticated measurements of the 21 cm line from the EoR. Bowman is the project scientist for one of the telescopes called the Murchison Widefield Array. According to him, the most likely physical picture for the EoR looked like a lot of bubbles that started percolating out from galaxies and then grew together -- but that idea needs to be tested. If lots of galaxies all put out a little bit of radiation, then there would be many little bubbles everywhere and those would grow and eventually merge like a really fizzy and frothy foam. On the other hand, if there were just a few big galaxies that each emitted a lot of radiation then there would have been only a few big bubbles that grew together. "Our goal, eventually, is to make radio maps of the sky showing how and when reionization occurred. Since we can't make those maps yet, we are starting with these simple experiments to begin to constrain the basic properties of the gas and how long it took for galaxies to change it," explains Bowman. "This will improve our understanding of the large-scale evolution of the universe." Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - Judd D. Bowman, Alan E. E. Rogers. A lower limit of Δz > 0.06 for the duration of the reionization epoch. Nature, 2010; 468 (7325): 796 DOI: 10.1038/nature09601 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/12/101208132210.htm

Planets are in equilibrium with their surroundings: they are neither getting hotter nor colder. All planets absorb incident radiation from the Sun (this heats them up); to maintain equilibrium, they must radiate away the same amount of energy. The temperature of a planet can be approximated by assuming that it is a black body. You determine the temperature by equating the planetary luminosity (proportional to its temperature raised to the fourth power, T4) to the solar irradiance (L/D2, where L is the solar luminosity and D is the distance to the Sun). The distance at which a planet is at temperature T is proportional to 1/T2. Merely plug in the values of the upper and lower temperature to get the radii of the inner and outer radii of the habitable zone. To do this correctly, you need to take into account a number of effects: The likelihood of finding a planet in the habitable zone depends on the area in the habitable zone. This is proportional to Do2 - Di2, where Do and Di are the outer and inner boundaries of the zone, respectively. Since D2 is proportional to the stellar luminosity, the area of the habitable zone, and the likelihood of finding planets in it, is largest for the massive O, B, and A stars on the upper main sequence. In the figure at left, the habitable zone (yellow) is plotted as a function of spectral type for main sequence stars. The planets of our solar system are indicated. Planets inside the "tidal lock radius" are tidally locked to the star, i.e., they rotate once per year, or a fractional number of times per year. Mercury rotates three times every two Mercurian years. (The Moon is tidally-locked to the Earth, and rotates once per month). (These illustration are downloaded from http://www.astro.psu.edu/users/williams)

http://www.astro.sunysb.edu/fwalter/AST101/habzone.html

Plants In Arches National Park Photograph by brewbooksFlikr Desert plants, since they are rooted in place, must cope with extremes in temperature, water availability and solar radiation physiologically rather than behaviorally. In fact, surface temperatures in direct sunlight are commonly 25 to 50 degrees F warmer than the air temperature six feet above. Most desert plant adaptations seem to be geared towards minimizing water loss: a difficult task since plants must "breathe" (collecting Carbon Dioxide from the air) in order to photosynthesize, losing body water to the atmosphere in the process. Drought escapers are plants that make use of favorable growing conditions when they exist. These plants are usually annuals and complete their life cycles in a matter of days or weeks when water is plentiful enough for them to do so. Seeds may lie dormant for years if conditions are not favorable. Most grasses are "escapers," as are the spring wildflowers that sometimes bloom during April and May. Drought resistors are typically perennials. Many perennials have small, spiny leaves which reduce the impact of solar radiation; others may drop their leaves when water is unavailable. Spines and hairs on leaves act as a buffer against warm air currents, limiting the amount of water lost to evaporation. Plants also use "solar tracking" to regulate their exposure to the sun. Cacti store water within their bodies and have extensive, shallow root systems that are able to soak up rainwater quickly. Yucca have extensive tap roots that are able to use water beyond the reach of other plants. Moss, a plant not commonly associated with deserts, thrives because it can tolerate complete dehydration: when rains finally return, the plant greens up almost immediately. Another extreme adaptation can be found in the utah juniper tree, one of the most common plants in the southwest. During a drought, junipers can self-prune, shutting off water flow to one or more their branches in order to conserve enough water for the rest of the tree to survive. Drought evaders take advantage of wetter "micro climates" found in the desert. Monkey flower, columbine, easter flower, and ferns are found in well-shaded alcoves near seeps or dripping springs. Cottonwood, willow and cattail all require lots of water, and only grow in riparian areas where their roots can reach the water table easily. Did you like this page? Did you find it helpful? Please consider sharing.

http://www.travelwest.net/canyonlands-plants

Thursday, November 18, 2010 By Aaron Dicks In the photovoltaic process solar cells are used to covert light into electricity. Solar cells are made up of semiconductor materials such as: silicon, gallium, cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide. One of the most common materials used in solar cells is silicon. In the case of crystalline silicon solar cells, substantially pure silicon with high crystal quality is needed to make strong usable solar cells. In the outer shell of a silicon atom it comprises of 4 bonding electrons. In order to form a stable electron configuration, in the crystal lattice two electrons of neighbouring atoms from an electron pair bond. By forming a stable bond with 4 neighbouring electrons silicon achieves its noble gas configuration with 8 out electrons. This electron bond can be broken by light or heat, which enables the electron to move freely and as a result it leaves a hole in the crystal lattice. This is known as intrinsic conductivity. Intrinsic conductivity cannot be used to produce electricity. The silicon can only produce electricity when impurities (known as doping atoms) are introduced into the crystal lattice. These atoms have one electron more (phosphorous) or one electron less (boron) than silicon in their outer shell. The phosphorous doping method is known as negative doping (n-doping) and the boron doping method is known as positive doping (p-doping). In the case of n-doping the electron can move about freely in the crystal and as a result can transport electrical charge. On the other hand p-doping has a missing bonding electron for every bonding born atom in the crystal lattice. This enables electrons from silicon atoms to fill the hole caused by the missing bonding electron, creating a new hole elsewhere. The conduction method based on these doping atoms is known impurity conduction. If both the p and n-doped semiconductor layers are brought together a p-n junction is made. This junction allows surplus electrons from the n-semiconductor to diffuse into the p-semiconductor layer, thus creating an area known as the space charge region. Positively charged doping atoms remain in the n-region of the transition and negatively charged doping atoms remain in the p-region of the transition. An electrical field is then created that is opposed to the movement of the charge carriers, with the result that diffusion does not continue indefinitely. This p-n semiconductor is what is known as a solar cell. Once the solar cell is exposed to light photons are absorbed by the electrons. This contribution of energy breaks electron bonds. The released electrons are pulled through the electrical field into the n-region. The holes that are formed migrate in the opposite direction, into the p-region. This process is what is known as the photovoltaic effect - turning light into electricity. Copyright (c) 2010 Aaron Dicks EvoEnergy design and install Solar PV Solar systems can benefit investments of any size through the Government Clean Energy Cashback scheme, also called the Feed-In Tariffs.

http://www.solarpowerbuzzmedia.com/2010/11/crystalline-silicon-solar-cells.html

Fishing is a topic that provides many opportunities for comparing present-day practices with the past. For example, how would a young person today become a fisherman or lobsterman? Perhaps there are local fishermen in the area who could provide information to the class. What skills, knowledge, and abilities would help someone become a good fisherman? How has technology changed the skill requirements? What do fishermen do to conserve marine resources? In addition to writing opportunities of all types, learning about fisheries provides topics for easy research for younger students. Even a trip to a market with a fresh fish counter can be a research opportunity: what kinds of fish and shellfish are available? Where did they come from? Compare to canned or frozen fish and shellfish products. Calculate price comparisons: which costs more, canned or fresh salmon? Visit a lobster pound or seafood restaurant. Make observations about the lobsters in the tanks. Other math opportunities include: ordering fish by length and weight; working with numbers of lobster traps and lobstermen; collecting data on fish found in the grocery store; measuring with gauges used by lobstermen; classifying fish by where they live, what they eat; fresh vs. salt water, etc. These concepts lead to science activities as well: students can draw pictures of the life cycle of the lobster or other fish, describe characteristics of marine animals, and learn about the food chain. Locally, there may be opportunities to visit the shoreline and look for shells and evidence of marine animals and plants. Learn more about efforts to conserve fish and other marine resources in Maine. The history of trying to keep fish fresh and lobster alive for markets led to use of specific kinds of boats (smacks) and later to the use of ice and then refrigeration. What other methods have been used to preserve fish? What were the hazards of canning? How do people can products today in their homes? What precautions have to be observed? Compare similar shellfish: clams, oysters, and mussels. What similarities and differences are there? Are students willing to taste samples? Industrial development and overfishing have affected fish and shellfish populations. Industrial effluent from lumber mills and paper mills, along with untreated sewage, has negatively impacted fish and shellfish populations along Maine’s coast. The construction of dams across rivers has kept salmon and other anadromous fish from spawning. What has been done to clean up Maine’s waters and improve fish habitats? Lobstermen had certain assumptions about the habits and life cycle of the lobster, based on their observations. What do we know about lobster migration? About egg-bearing females? How does recent scientific investigation differ from traditional folk belief? Are there any traditional Native American legends or stories about fish or shellfish? Students, themselves, may go fishing, or know friends or relatives who fish. They might share, orally or in writing, stories about first-hand experiences. These stories may lend themselves to map-making, research into kinds of sport fish, etc. Cooking activities are always fun. Find some menus from seafood restaurants. Read recipes.

http://penobscotmarinemuseum.org/pbho-1/fisheries/k-2-activities

and Whole Language Learning Balanced Approach to Beginning Reading Association for the Education of Young Children Children cannot learn to read without an understanding of phonics. All children must know their ABCs and the sounds that letters make in order to communicate verbally. The question in early childhood programs is not whether to teach "phonics" or "whole language learning," but how to teach phonics in context--rather than in isolation--so that children make connections between letters, sounds, and meaning. Phonics should not be taught as a separate "subject" with emphasis on drills and rote memorization. The key is a balanced approach and attention to each child's individual needs. Many children's understanding of phonics will arise from their interest, knowledge, and ideas. Others will benefit from more formal instruction. There are many opportunities to teach the sound a letter makes when children have reason to know. For example, the first letter a child learns typically is the first letter of her name. worry that encouraging children to learn through experience and invent their own spellings will not provide them with adequate language skills. But literacy is not so much a skill as a complex activity that involves reading, writing and oral language. Ideally, children should develop literacy through real life settings as they read together with parents or other caring adults. Children begin to make connections between printed words and their representations in Adults should keep in mind that children may learn to read at different paces during kindergarten and first grade. This is true for all children, including those with special needs and those from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds. If parents andteachers work together and demonstrate mutual respect, children's learning will be reinforced at home and in the classroom. Parents Can Help - Talk, read, and sing to infants--they learn from everything they see and hear even in the first stages of life. - Take your baby to the park, zoo, and the store with you. Bring her attention to objects, signs, and people. - Always make books a part of your baby's toy selection, even if he enjoys handling books more than being read to. As your child grows, point out pictures of objects and offer their names. Eventually, your child will be able to name the pictures, too. - Encourage associations between symbols and their meaning--as they get closer to toddlerhood, children may begin to recognize familiar signs for products and logos for cereal or fast food - Help toddlers make the transition from baby talk to adult language by repeating their words and expressions correctly without - Let toddlers "read" their favorite picture books by themselves while you remain close by to comment. Or, pause before a familiar word as you read to your toddler, and let her fill in the missing word. This works especially well with rhymes or repeated refrains. - Provide magnetic and block letters to introduce a toddler to the spelling of his name. - Before you take your toddler on a new type of outing, read about the events you are about to witness. Talk with your child about the experience, and follow up with further reading to reinforce learning. - Add new books to your childs collection, but keep reading old favorites. Your preschooler may know them by heart now--this represents an important step in learning about reading. - Continue to take children shopping with you, and let them help identify products with coupons. Let preschool children join in as you follow a recipe. - Take books on long trips with you to encourage reading - Continue to read to your child, even if she has learned to read already. Take turns reading pages of your favorite books. - Encourage story writing by listening to the stories - Play word games like Scrabble or Boggle with children and introduce them to crossword puzzles. Chapman, M.L. 1996. The development of phonemic awareness in young children: Some insights from a case study of a first-grade writers. Young Children 51 (2). Washington, DC: NAEYC. Schickedanz, J.A. 1986. More than the ABCs: The early stages of reading and writing. Washington, DC: NAEYC #204/$6. 1998. Raising a Reader, Raising a Writer: How Parents Can Help. Washington, DC: NAEYC #530. For a free copy of this brochure, send SASE to NAEYC, Box 530, 1509 16th St., NW, Washington, DC Publication Release: July 26, 2007

http://www.readinguniverse.com/articles.php?id=23

Welcome to the study guide for King Lear. In it you will find information about the play and the historical context in which it was written, along with that in which this production is set. In order to prepare your class to see the performance, David Dean has supplied background information on Shakespeare and the time in which King Lear was written. Suzanne Keeptwo has provided in-depth research on relations between the First Nations of Canada and the British Colonial powers of the 17th century as well as character interpretations with a First Nations’ point of view. Janet Irwin has provided pre- show and post- show discussion questions and exercises that are intended to engage students and prompt them to think creatively about both the form and content of the play. King Lear from a First Nations’ Point of View In Peter Hinton’s revisioning of Shakespeare’s King Lear, we see Lear, an aging First Nations chief, in the early days of the long history of treaty-making between his people and the British colonial powers. As the play opens, he has just signed a treaty with the Crown, and is regretting the decision. The resulting loss of ancestral lands, and the erosion of Lear’s sense of self, fuels his decision to cast off the responsibilities of leadership (while retaining the privileges) and turn to his inheriting daughters for comfort and support. A sense of tension and impending dissent colour the startling opening scene where Lear demands avowals of love from his daughters in exchange for portions of the land. When Cordelia fails to say what he wants to hear, he disowns her and casts her out of the family. The decision we don’t see – the treaty signing - and the ramifications of the colonial presence and power on traditional lands, plus his sense that he has betrayed his people, feed Lear’s irrational behaviour, and descent into madness. Study guide written by Suzanne Keeptwo with additional content by David Dean and Janet Irwin.

http://nac-cna.ca/en/englishtheatre/studyguide/king-lear

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases: Lesson plans and teaching resources Commas: Introductory Prepositional Phrases Interactive practice with punctuation of long introductory phrases. Appropriate for elementary students and older. Finding Prepositional Phrases Students find the prepositional phrases in the sentences given. Kinds (Function) of Prepositional Phrase Recognition Practice An explanation, 10 practice sentences, and answers. Filling in the Blanks: Using Modifiers to Provide Detail Students develop voice and style by adding details to their writing. Phrase/Clause Recognition Practice An explanation of the difference, examples, and 15 practice items. Answers available. Playing with Prepositions through Poetry Students play with words as they explore how prepositions work in Ruth Heller's picture book Behind the Mask. They first explore the use of language in the text and identify how prepositions are used. They then read and identify prepositions used in a poem. Finally, students compose their own original prepositional poems, which they publish in a multimodal format modeled on Heller's text. This slide presentation is a good review activity for independent work by individual students or small groups. The Preposition Song Students memorize a list of prepositions sung to "Yankee Doodle." Prepositional Phrase Identification Interactive practice identifying prepositional phrases, appropriate for elementary students and older. Follow links on the left for additional exercises. Prepositional Phrase Recognition Practice This page offers a definition, examples, a list of prepositions, and 10 sentences for students to practice with. Students can check their responses by clicking on "answers." A collection of teacher-tested activities for teaching prepositions to elementary students. Third graders read Find the Puppy by Felicity Brooks and identify the prepositions. After practicing prepositions by completing worksheets (not included), students write their own preposition books. Students complete a variety of activities including identifying prepositions, expanding sentences using prepositional phrases, and distinguishing prepositions and adverbs. In cooperative groups the students will analyze the last three lines of the Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln as well as write prepositional phrase poetry. Designed for grades 6-8. Rosie's Walk by Pat Hutchins Four activities to develop literacy skills, including one that helps students learn prepositions. Print this card and send it home with students to work on with parents.

http://www.webenglishteacher.com/prepositions.html

Hosted by The Math Forum The diagram shows a circle of radius 1, with the boundary of the shaded (gray) portion consisting of three circular arcs of radius 1 whose centers are equally spaced on the ambient circle. Dissect the unshaded (yellow) portion of the circle's interior into pieces that can be reassembled to form a rectangle. To get the diagram: Start with a unit circle with center O and inscribe an equilateral triangle ABC. Then draw arcs through O centered at A, B, and C, respectively, and consider only the part of the arcs lying inside the circle. The propeller-like region they form is the shaded region referred to. See Jeff Erickson's solution © Copyright 1996 Stan Wagon. Reproduced with permission. Home || The Math Library || Quick Reference || Search || Help

http://mathforum.org/wagon/fall95/p794.html

- Explain how the following elements and terms affect the quality of a picture: - Light-natural light/ambient, flash - Exposure-aperture (f-stops), shutter speed, depth of field - Composition-rule of thirds, leading lines, framing, depth - Angle of view - Stopping action - Explain the basic parts and operation of a film camera or digital camera. Explain how an exposure is made when you take a picture. - Discuss with your counselor the differences between a film camera and a digital camera. List at least five advantages and five disadvantages of using a digital camera versus using a film camera. - Do ONE of the following: - Produce a picture story using the photojournalistic technique of documenting an event. Share your plan with your counselor and get your counselor's input and approval before you proceed. Then, using either a film camera or a digital camera, produce your approved picture story. Process your images and select eight to 12 images that best tell your story. Arrange your images in order, then mount the prints on a poster board. If you are using digital images, you may create a slide show on your computer or produce printouts for your poster board. Share your picture story with your counselor. - Choose a topic that interests you to photograph for an exhibit or display. Get your counselor's approval, then photograph (digital or film) your topic. Process your images. Choose 20 of your favorite images and mount them on poster board. Share your display with your counselor. If you are using digital images, you may create a slide show on your computer or produce printouts for your poster board. - Discuss with your counselor the career opportunities in photography. Pick one that interests you and explain how to prepare for such a career. Discuss with your counselor the education and training such a career would require. BSA Advancement ID#: Requirements last updated in: 2006 Pamphlet Publication Number: 33340A or 35930 Pamphlet Stock (SKU) Number: 35930 Pamphlet Revision Date: 2005 Page updated on: May 02, 2013

http://usscouts.org/usscouts/mb/old/mb083-06.asp

What is Asperger Syndrome? Asperger Syndrome or (Asperger's Disorder) is a neurobiological disorder that lies on the Autistic Spectrum and affects more boys than it does girls. The O.A.S.I.S. organization describes Asperger's as the following: “Individuals with AS can exhibit a variety of characteristics and the disorder can range from mild to severe. Persons with AS show marked deficiencies in social skills, have difficulties with transitions or changes and prefer sameness. They often have obsessive routines and may be preoccupied with a particular subject of interest. They have a great deal of difficulty reading nonverbal cues (body language) and very often the individual with AS has difficulty determining proper body space. Often overly sensitive to sounds, tastes, smells, and sights, the person with AS may prefer soft clothing, certain foods, and be bothered by sounds or lights no one else seems to hear or see. It's important to remember that the person with AS perceives the world very differently. Therefore, many behaviors that seem odd or unusual are due to those neurological differences and not the result of intentional rudeness.” All accommodations are made for students on an individual basis. - Admission to Cook Dining Hall and Kletz Snack Bar - Single room accommodations - Academic support - Writing Lab - Counseling Center - Support Group - Life Coaching

http://hope.edu/student/development/disabled/asperger_syndrome.htm

A part of the vast Central Lowlands of North America, the Osage Plains incorporate western Missouri, southeastern Kansas, central Oklahoma, and north-central Texas. The area is sometimes called the Lower Plains, North Central Plains, and the Rolling Plains. In Oklahoma the Osage Plains is divided into subregions, broad bands that stretch north-south from Kansas to Texas. The west-central subregion, lying generally west of Interstate 35, is the Red Bed Plains. West of this, in western Oklahoma, is the subregion called the Gypsum Hills (often combined with the Red Bed Plains into a larger area called the Western Red Prairies). Lying generally east of Interstate 35 is the Flint Hills/Sandstone Hills subregion. To the east of that, the Eastern Lowlands region is often included in the Osage Plains. The topography of the Osage Plains began forming during the Cretaceous Period when an epeiric (shallow continental) sea covered the region, depositing carbonate rocks. Pulses of siliciclastic rocks were laid down due to tectonic activity to the south. More sediments washed into the region from the Rocky Mountains during the Tertiary. Soils are Pennsylvanian-age mollisols, alfisols, usfosols, and inceptisols. Tectonic activity played little role since the Cretaceous, and the region remained one of relatively flat plains to gently rolling hills. The average relief is between three hundred and five hundred feet. Oklahoma's three main river systems, the Salt Fork of the Arkansas, the Canadian, and the Red, traverse the broad region, flowing generally from west to east as the elevation of the plains gently declines in that direction. The Osage Plains lie within the Prairie Parkland (Temperate) ecological province. Winters are cold, and summers are hot. The mean annual temperature is 60° F. This provides an average 235-day growing season. Natural vegetation varies across the Osage Plains. The overall aspect is one of tallgrass prairie that grades into savannah, woodlands, and mixed grasses. A broad band of the Cross Timbers extends as far west as Seiling, as far east as the Ozark Plateau, and from Kansas to Texas. Native grasses grow over the region's rolling hills and plains. Tallgrasses were the area's predominant vegetation until the late nineteenth century, when white settlers began clearing land for agriculture and wood. Among the tallgrasses that survived the settlement era include big bluestem (Andropogen gerardii), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum). These grasses can still be observed at the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in Osage County, Oklahoma. Early territorial farmers introduced the Osage orange tree (also known as bois d'arc), named for the Osage people, into the Osage Plains as a living fence. The living fence was accomplished by planting many young trees in a line and pruning for thick, bushy growth. After barbed wire was introduced, the Osage orange primarily served as fence posts. Pre-dating the first European settlers in the Osage Plains were American Indians. Tribes such as the Kaw, Omaha, Quapaw, Ponca, Kiowa, Comanche, and Osage lived in the territory. Many Osage migrated from Missouri around 1802, when the tribe split into factions. A large group followed Cashesgra, or "Big Track," relocating along the Three Forks area, where the Arkansas, Verdigris, and Grand Rivers merged, in present Oklahoma. On July 15, 1870, the U.S. government moved the tribe to present Osage County. In the twentieth century the Osage Nation acquired wealth from oil and gas extraction. The Osage Plains lay in both Indian Territory (eastern Oklahoma) and Oklahoma Territory (western Oklahoma). After land openings and tribal land allotment took place, by the beginning of the twenty-first century towns and cities dotted the Osage Plains. Farming, ranching, and petroleum production have been the dominant economic activities. However, in some domains there are vegetation and wildlife reserves. Among the wildlife protected in these reserves are birds, including the prairie chicken, and bison. The Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in Osage County protects the remaining regional tallgrasses. BIBLIOGRAPHY: James M. Goodman, "Physical Environments of Oklahoma," in Geography of Oklahoma, ed. John W. Morris (Oklahoma City, Okla.: Oklahoma Historical Society, 1977). Kenneth S. Johnson, "Mountains, Streams, and Lakes of Oklahoma," Oklahoma Geological Survey Informational Series No. 1 (Norman: Oklahoma Geological Survey, 1998). Kenneth S. Johnson, et al., Geology and Earth Resources of Oklahoma: An Atlas of Maps and Cross Sections (Norman: Oklahoma Geological Survey, 1972). John W. Morris, Oklahoma Geography (Oklahoma City-Chattanooga: Harlow Publishing Corporation, 1954). John W. Morris, Charles R. Goins, and Edwin C. McReynolds, Historical Atlas of Oklahoma (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986). Melanie L. McPhail and Richard A. Marston © Oklahoma Historical Society

http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/O/OS007.html

The definition of cyber-bullying is "when the Internet, cell phones or other devices are used to send or post text or images intended to hurt or embarrass another person." StopCyberbullying.org, an expert organisation dedicated to Internet safety, security and privacy, defines cyber-bullying as: "a situation when a child, tween or teen is repeatedly 'tormented, threatened, harassed, humiliated, embarrassed or otherwise targeted' by another child or teenager using text messaging, email, instant messaging or any other type of digital technology." Other researchers use similar language to describe the phenomenon. Cyber-bullying can be as simple as continuing to send e-mail to someone who has said they want no further contact with the sender, but it may also include threats, sexual remarks, pejorative labels (i.e., hate speech), ganging up on victims by making them the subject of ridicule in forums, and posting false statements as fact aimed at humiliation. Cyber-bullies may disclose victims' personal data (e.g. real name, address, or workplace/schools) at websites or forums or may pose as the identity of a victim for the purpose of publishing material in their name that defames or ridicules them. Some cyber-bullies may also send threatening and harassing emails and instant messages to the victims, while other post rumors or gossip and instigate others to dislike and gang up on the target.

http://clc2.uniservity.com/GroupHomepage.asp?GroupID=20222617

Archaeologists led by the University of Cincinnati have revealed new details about sustainable water and land management among the ancient Maya, including the discovery of the largest ancient dam in Central America. Recent excavations, sediment coring and mapping at the pre-Columbian city of Tikal have identified new landscaping and engineering feats, including the largest ancient dam built by the Maya of Central America. That dam – constructed from cut stone, rubble and earth – stretched more than 260 feet in length, stood about 33 feet high and held about 20 million gallons of water in a man-made reservoir. These findings on ancient Maya water and land-use systems at Tikal in northern Guatemala are published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . The study sheds new light on how the Maya conserved and used their natural resources to support a populous, highly complex society for over 1,500 years despite environmental challenges, including periodic drought. Starting in 2009, the archaeologists were the first North American group permitted to work at the Tikal site core in more than 40 years. “The overall goal of the research is to better understand how the ancient Maya supported a population at Tikal of perhaps 60,000 to 80,000 inhabitants and an estimated population of five million in the overall Maya lowlands by AD 700,” said lead author Vernon Scarborough, a professor of anthropology at the University of Cincinnati. “That is a much higher number than is supported by the current environment. So, they managed to sustain a populous, highly complex society for well over 1,500 years in a tropical ecology. Their resource needs were great, but they used only stone-age tools and technology to develop a sophisticated, long-lasting management system in order to thrive.” Water collection and storage were critical in the environment where rainfall is seasonal and extended droughts not uncommon. And so, the Maya carefully integrated the built environment – expansive plazas, roadways, buildings and canals – into a water-collection and management system. At Tikal, they collected literally all the water that fell onto these paved and/or plastered surfaces and sluiced it into man-made reservoirs. In fact, by the Classic Period (AD 250-800), the dam, called the Palace Dam, identified by the team was constructed to contain the waters that were now directed from the many sealed plaster surfaces in the central precinct. It was this dam on which the team focused its latest work, completed in 2010. This gravity dam presents the largest hydraulic architectural feature known in the Maya area. In terms of greater Mesoamerica, it is second in size only to the huge Purron Dam built in Mexico’s Tehuacan Valley sometime between AD 250-400. “We also termed the Palace Dam at Tikal the Causeway Dam, as the top of the structure served as a roadway linking one part of the city to another. For a long time, it was considered primarily a causeway, one that tourists coming to the site still use today. However, our research now shows that it did double duty and was used as an important reservoir dam as well as a causeway,” Prof Scarborough said. The team also discovered that to help purify water as it sluiced into the reservoir tanks via catchment runoff and canals, the Maya employed deliberately positioned “sand boxes” that served to filter the water as it entered into the reservoirs. “These filtration beds consisted of quartz sand, which is not naturally found in the greater Tikal area. The Maya of Tikal traveled at least 20 miles (about 30 km) to obtain the quartz sand to create their water filters. It was a fairly laborious transportation effort. That speaks to the value they placed on water and water management,” said co-author Nicholas Dunning, a professor of geography at the University of Cincinnati. Bibliographic information: Scarborough VL et al. 2012. Water and sustainable land use at the ancient tropical city of Tikal, Guatemala. PNAS, published online before print July 16, 2012; doi: 10.1073/pnas.1202881109

http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/article00470.html

Solution to Additional Practice Unit 1: Analyzing Lines on a Graph In the graph below, the straight line S is given by the equation y = c + dx. If the line shifts from this initial position S0 to a new position of what must have changed in the equation? - In this graph, the line has changed in steepness, which means the slope must have changed. - In the equation y = c + dx, "d" is the slope of the line. Since the slope must have changed, the constant "d" must have changed. Since S1 is steeper than S0 , "d" must have increased. and "c" is the y-intercept. - In the equation y = c + dx, "c" is the y-intercept. In the graph, the lines have not been extended to where they intercept the y-axis, so it is hard to tell if "c" changed or not. Unless you extend the lines to the y-axis and can be certain the two lines both intercept the y-axis in the same place, it is hard to tell if "c" changed or not, but we can be certain that "d" did change. - If you do extend both lines through the y-axis, you will find they have the same y-intercept, which means "c" does not change. If you feel comfortable with this material, move on to the If you still do not understand this practice, you may need more review than is offered by this book. You may wish to review Book I of this series before moving on.

http://cstl.syr.edu/fipse/graphb/unit6/SolnT2Full.html

In 152 Ways to Keep Students in School: Effective, Easy-to-Implement Tips for Teachers, author Franklin P. Schargel provides practical tips for teachers that can be read quickly and easily implemented in order to improve student learning. Involved Students Learn Faster! Children should be active participants in their education and enjoy being involved in the learning process. Moreover, students who do so actually learn faster. Examples of how to involve students in the learning process include: • Have students write the end to stories in English classes. • Give students a choice of books to read in English and social studies. • Ask students “What if...?” questions. For example, in history class, “What if Germany had won WWII?” Construct similar questions for music, art, math, and English: “What if Beethoven had never lost his hearing?” “What if Monet had not pioneered impressionism?” “What if Pythagoras had never discovered and proved the Pythagorean Theorem?” “What if J.D. Salinger had never written Catcher in the Rye?” • Bring an object into school and have the students identify it. • Bring an object into school and have the students make a story up about the object. Although these tips can be and have been used at all grade levels with all types of students, these strategies prove to be especially successful with nontraditional students. Purposefully written so that each tip can be read quickly and easily implemented, these learning techniques provide concise snapshots of what educators can do to keep students from dropping out.

http://www.eyeoneducation.com/Blog/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/1504/Involved-Students-Learn-Faster

Halifax was founded by the English in 1748 to counteract the French military presence at Louisbourg. To build Halifax the English cut down forests and infringed on Micmac lands. This brought them into greater conflict with the native people who were friends and allies of the Acadians. Micmac raids that resulted from the founding of Halifax became another factor in English distrust of the Acadians which culminated with their expulsion. As well as establishing a military fort there, the English encouraged more Protestant immigrants to come to add weight against the larger numbers of Catholic Acadians and their converted Micmac allies. (Chief Membertou of the Micmac tribe was one of the first native chiefs to be converted to Catholicism back in 1610.) As part of this Protestant immigration a number of German Protestants arrived later in the 1700s and established a settlement around Lunenburg, just down the coast from Halifax.

http://www.canadahistoryproject.ca/1755/1755-05-founding-halifax.html

- Learn how to identify the main verb in a sentence. Verbs express what someone or something does. Look for the verb that express the 'action' of the sentence. - Decide on when the action takes place. Does it take place in the present, the past or the future? - Once you have discovered the general time, find out the specific time. Is the action happening at the moment? Does the action happen every day? Has the action happened up to a point in the past, present or future? - If the action happens regularly or is a habit, use the present simple verb form: For example: He doesn't work on Saturdays. They play football after school. etc. - If the action happens once in the past at a specific point in time, use the past simple. For example: They went to school when they were young. Did Mary visit you last week? - If the action happens up to a point in time use a perfect form: present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect. For example: She has worked her for many years. They had finished lunch by the time he arrived. Mary will have finished the report by five pm. - If the action is happening at a specific moment in time use a continuous form: present continuous, past continuous or future continuous. For example: She is working at the moment. They will be playing tennis at 5 pm. Tom was eating when she arrived. - Now that you know WHEN the action happens, and in what time frame, learn your helping verbs. Present simple or past - do, perfect forms - have, continuous forms - be. - Learn to conjugate the helping verbs: I, you, we, they do / she, he it does | I am / you, we, they are | I, you, we have / he, she it has - Learn which form the main verb takes for each form. Simple forms = verb without 'to' (i.e. play, walk, eat, work, etc.). Continuous forms = verb + ing (playing, walking, eating, working, etc.) Perfect forms = past participle (verb in the third form, i.e. bought, understood, played, etc.) - Conjugate the verb. Here is the thinking process: 1) What's the general time? - past 2) What's the specific time? - at a specific moment 3) Aha! continuous in the past OR past continuous 4) conjugate the helping verb - She was 5) Use the continuous form of the main verb: doing 6) Conjugate the verb: She was doing - Remember these simple steps: Time? Action Happening? Simple, Continuous or Perfect? Auxiliary verb? Main Verb? Conjugate - Example 1: Time? > Present Action Happening? > Up to the present Simple, Continuous or Perfect? > Perfect Auxiliary verb? > have Main Verb? > live Verb Form? > lived Conjugate > We have lived here for ten years. - Example 2: Time? > Future Action Happening? > happening at a specific moment Simple, Continuous or Perfect? > continuous Auxiliary verb? > be Main Verb? watch Verb Form? > watchingConjugate > She will be watching TV at nine. - Example 3: Time? Past Action Happening? > one day in past Simple, Continuous or Perfect? > simple Auxiliary verb? > did Main Verb? > play Verb Form? > playConjugate > Did you play the piano yesterday? - Be patient with yourself when learning how to conjugate verbs. - Remember that the present simple and past simple do NOT take auxiliary verbs in positive forms. - Changes occur in the auxiliary verb, not in the main verb EXCEPT for the present simple. What You Need - A clear head to concentrate - A dictionary - A pencil - Some paper

http://esl.about.com/od/tense-review/ht/How-To-Conjugate-Verbs.htm

A condition that exists during the winter time in the Antarctic, in which the air moves in a ringing, circular motion, allowing little air to come in or out. This is one of the factors resulting in the low stratospheric temperature during the polar night, which are a prerequisite for the ozone hole. When the vortex dissipates during ozone-deprived air can spread over other parts of the globe, leading to excess UV radiation. A semi-isolated area of cyclonic circulation formed each winter in the polar stratosphere. The southern polar vortex is stronger than the northern one. The vortex increases ozone depletion by trapping very cold air containing aerosols on which ozone- depleting reactions can take place. A low depression system caused by strong westerly winds that remains stationary over the south pole. wind region around the North or South pole. The southern vortex is a well formed circular to oblong mass of extremely cold, stagnant air, held in place by the ocean surrounding the Antarctic land mass and a strong westerly circulation pattern produced by the coriolis effect. The northern vortex is not as distinct because the Arctic is a frozen ocean surrounded by rugged land masses, which cause the circulating winds to encounter a variety of temperatures. A distinct column of cold air contained over the poles (esp. South) by meterological effects. Develops during the polar winter when the polar regions are in polar night (sunlight does not reach the poles). Wind speeds around the vortex may reach 100 metres per second. The vortex establishes itself in the middle to lower stratosphere. It's important because it isolates the very cold air within it. Field measurements in and theoretical studies of the Antarctic stratosphere have demonstrated that processes that occur in the wintertime engender chemical transformations that lead to the formation of the springtime ozone hole over the Antarctic continent. A circumpolar wind circulation which isolates the Antarctic continent during the cold Southern Hemisphere winter, heightening ozone depletion. In the stratosphere, a strong belt of winds that encircles the South Pole at mean latitudes of approximately 60°S to 70°S. A weaker and considerably more variable belt of stratospheric winds also encircles the North Pole at high latitudes during the colder months of the year. High pressure system located in the upper atmosphere at the polar regions. In this system, air in the upper troposphere moves into the vortex center and then descends to the Earth's surface to create the polar highs. large-scale cyclonic circulation in the middle and upper troposphere centered generally in the polar regions; it is often called circumpolar vortex. The polar vortex is a persistent, large-scale cyclone located near the Earth's poles, in the middle and upper troposphere and the stratosphere. It surrounds the polar highs and is part of the polar front The vortex is most powerful in the hemisphere's winter, when the temperature gradient is steepest, and diminishes or can disappear in the summer. The Antarctic polar vortex is more pronounced and persistent than the Arctic one; this is because the distribution of land masses at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere gives rise to Rossby waves which contribute to the breakdown of the vortex, whereas in the southern hemisphere the vortex remains more undisturbed.

http://www.metaglossary.com/meanings/955499/

ENGLISH AND LANGUAGE ARTS Sixth Graders review parts of speech and verb tenses and write detailed reports and compositions. Grammar emphasis is on clauses, phrases and the formulation of good sentences and paragraphs. Oral presentations of reports and research are given with an artistic component. Students practice lengthy recitation of epic poems such as “Horatio at the Bridge” or “Hiawatha.” Class plays usually come from Roman or Medieval history. Biographies are assigned for reports, and readers include: The Bronze Bow, King Arthur legends, and Otto of the Silver Hand. The seventh grade grammar lessons emphasize different styles of writing, use of an outline, paragraph format, self-editing, organization of compositions, note taking and the development of compound and complex sentences. Creative writing is practiced in the Wish, Wonder and Surprise block. For the first time in an English block, the students are graded on quizzes, tests, essays, artwork, class participation, and timeliness. Poetry continues to be spoken daily, and oral reports are given to the class. The class play is usually placed in the Renaissance or late medieval times. Independent reading with regular book reports gives the students an opportunity to explore different literature. Often choices include The Giver, Education of Little Tree, Midwives Apprentice, Wrinkle in Time and Robin Hood. Eighth Graders learn to edit their writing, summarize written work, and solidify their grammar skills (passive and active verbs, direct and indirect objects, clauses and phrases, pronouns). The spoken work continues with more oral reports including biographies, modern history and geography. Poetry continues to be a lively part of the main lesson. The class play is often Shakespeare or a modern play with rich use of language. Each individual now begins to understand a point of view and the dramatic themes used in acting. Eighth grade continues with some assigned reading, book reports and short stories such as Dragon Wings, The Master Puppeteer, and Johnny Tremain. MATHEMATICSThe sixth grade Math curriculum is based on an intense review of previously taught material. This review is done in such a way that there is always something new. A continual theme through the year is the sense of number and the interrelationship between division, fractions, decimals, and percents, with fractions playing the central role. Another theme in sixth grade math is developing good work habits. Weekly homework assignments, organization skills, and keeping a good notebook are emphasized. Percents, business math, and algebraic formulas are introduced in sixth grade as well as drawing geometric figures exactly with Euclidean tools: the compass and the straight edge. The seventh graders’ introduction to algebra (done in one three-week Main Lesson block) is an important milestone in development of the students’ abstract thinking. This serves as a crucial foundation for studying mathematics in high school. Another central theme for the seventh grade year is ratios, through which p and irrational numbers are introduced. The study of geometry continues with the Euclidean constructions that were introduced in sixth grade, and then moves on to theorems and proofs, culminating in the Pythagorean theorem. The year often ends with the students learning how to calculate the square roots of numbers by hand. Instead of devoting a large portion of the eighth grade year to algebra in order to get the students “ahead,” the bulk of the material found in a traditional Algebra I course is kept for ninth grade, the year that we feel most students are ripe for algebra. Much of our eighth grade year is dedicated to non-traditional topics, such as number bases, in order to develop abstract thinking, and stereometry (the study of three-dimensional solids) and loci (the study of two-dimensional curves such as the conic sections), in order to develop the capacity of “exact” imagination. The traditional topics covered in eighth grade include volumes, proportions, dimensional analysis, percents and exponential growth. Middle School Science In the next three grades, the study of science turns to the lawfulness that comes from cause-and-effect relationships in the physical world. The focus now shifts to a threefold approach to the phenomena: observation, evaluation, and conceptualization. There is an emphasis on the hands-on and visual approaches in the middle school, by doing experiments that speak to the kinesthetic learners and drawings on the board that serve the visual. In sixth grade, the threefold approach is now applied to electricity, magnetism, optics, acoustics, and heat in physics. Geography expands again, spiraling out to include either Europe (paralleling the study of Rome in history) or South America (as an extension of the North American studies in fifth grade). The polarity between the heights and the depths is explored in the complementary studies of Astronomy and Mineralogy. In seventh grade, a mathematical approach is applied for the first time to physics content in mechanics, acoustics, electricity, heat and optics. In mechanics, for example, fulcrums are studied by first approaching the phenomena with seesaws and weights, and by identifying levers all around them in their homes and lives, then developing a rule or law. The students then use the rule to predict leverage and mechanical advantage for new arrangements. In chemistry, combustion, the lime cycle, and acids and bases form the content. The transformation of a substance through burning is an important highlight in this course. Nutrition, as well as Physiology, is taught in Main Lesson. In Geography, Africa is studied, continuing the expansion outward from the local to the farther extents of the world. In eighth grade, Geography either focuses on a study of Asia, or of world religions. In physics, students learn how certain concepts are applied to technology or natural systems. The content areas (heat, light, electricity, acoustics, and mechanics) manifest as convection systems, refraction and lenses, the electric motor, musical instruments, and fluid mechanics and hydraulics. Fats, carbohydrates and proteins are studied in chemistry both in terms of what is happening in their own metabolisms and what can be achieved externally, such as by making personal care products (lip balm, soap, lotion, etc.). In biology, the human anatomy is studied, for example the musculoskeletal and nervous systems, to complement and complete the work done in seventh grade. Eight Graders also study Meteorology. SOCIAL STUDIES AND HISTORY Sixth grade history often begins with the life and conquests of Alexander the Great. In two three-week blocks, important highlights of life in the Roman Empire are studied, including the rise of the Empire, the emperors, the Republic, conquests, government, building and construction, barbarian incursions and the fall of the empire. Also included, are the life of Jesus of Nazareth and the influence of Christianity on the Empire. The Sixth Grader is left with a strong impression of all we have inherited from ancient Rome. Later in the year, a three-week block delves into the life of medieval Europe. This includes, but is not limited to feudalism, peasant life, knighthood and the life of the monasteries. The life of Mohammed and the rise of Islam as a counterforce to Christianity are studied. This naturally brings in the Crusades. Parallels to modern life become evident in this block. The geography of Latin America is the focus this year. Each country is handled much like the states in our study of the U.S., but in one three-week block. Each student will write a report on one of the countries in this region. Some of the books that may be read during this year to further support these studies may include, The Sword and the Circle, by Rosemary Sutcliff, The Bronze Bow, by Elizabeth George Spear, Otto of the Silver Hand, by Howard Pyle, and Secret of the Andes, by Ann Nolan Clark. In seventh grade the students study European history from the late Middle Ages through the Renaissance. There are usually three, three or four week Main Lesson blocks. Key biographies of either people who were forerunners of the times or individuals who particularly exemplified a character type from that time are studied in depth. In the Late Middle Ages, Marco Polo, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and Joan of Arc are typical biographies. As the curriculum moves towards the Reformation, the role of the Roman Catholic Church is explored with emphasis on the developments that took place within the church that contributed to the turbulence of the times. Martin Luther is typical of a key biography for this time period. Not only are the changes that took place in the religious/political life studied, but also the explorers in science, art, and world travel. Copernicus, Galileo, Columbus, Magellan, de Vinci, and Michelangelo are some of the fascinating biographies that tell the story of the times. The students deeply immerse themselves in the art of the times through their own reproductions of the work of “the renaissance masters.” The geography of Africa and Europe are covered in seventh grade. Typically, students write a report related to some aspect of a particular country. Some of the books related to history that are read in seventh grade include: Robin Hood, Adam of the Road, and Young Joan. The eighth grade History curriculum spans the time from Elizabethan England through the modern times, with particular emphasis on the founding of America. First, the social, political, and economic climates in Europe set a stage for the mass migration to the American continent. The Revolutionary War, the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitution of the U.S. are studied in depth through biographies, art, literature, and pertinent readings. The settling of America, including the interaction of the settlers with the Native American people, is explored. Biographies of great Americans, such as, Abraham Lincoln lead the students into the Civil War and the Industrial Revolution. Rockefeller and Carnegie are two major biographies juxtaposed to the life of the common factory worker or miner. Through student presentations on the inventions of the 1900’s, the class is introduced to the genius of the modern world. The students are led through history to the two World Wars as well as the Civil Rights Movement and the biography of Martin Luther King Jr. Geography focuses on the Asian continent. Students continue to write reports on a country or on some aspect of world geography related to commerce. A wide variety of readers can be used in eighth grade depending on the focus of the teacher. Some examples related to history and geography may include: Johnny Tremain, Dragonwings, The Master Puppeteer, and My Brother Sam is Dead. Studying music gives children an inspiring aesthetic experience while it develops focus, discipline, and social skills. Both singing and playing in ensembles strengthens students’ ability to work as individuals within a group. Middle school students become aware of their individual responsibility to the group as they work together to create a meaningful musical experience. They have many opportunities to perform in concerts, assemblies, and festivals throughout the school year. Sixth grade students continue to develop their musical skills in choir, band and orchestra. They begin to explore how music developed throughout history by studying and performing music of different styles and eras. Students continue to participate in choir, band and orchestra classes, bringing musical concepts and skill acquisition together in rehearsing and performing. Seventh graders are introduced to music related to the historical and geographical eras they study—such as the Renaissance and Africa. In their ongoing musical education, eighth grade students benefit from the opportunity to experience more intense and varied emotions through the music they create together. Study and performance of good music of various styles enhances their aesthetic development and helps them begin to develop musical judgment and an understanding of the profound effects music can have on human beings. WORLD LANGUAGESMWS offers German and Spanish in Grades 1-12. Grades 1-7 have three lessons each week in blocks. At the end of a block, students switch to the alternate language. In Grade 8 students choose between Spanish and German and continue with this selection in the High School. Beginning in Grade 9 each student has four World Language classes per week. The World Language teachers strive to integrate Morning Lesson topics into the World Language lessons in support of our interdisciplinary approach to teaching. By Grade 6, writing and reading has become a focal point. Beginning elements of grammar are taught. The language teacher uses dialogues, storytelling, verses, songs, tongue twisters, and small plays during instruction. Throughout these years, the students’ vocabulary comprehension increases,and they are able to say simple descriptive sentences, perform dialogues, and retell simple stories. In Grade 6 German, students use Zusammen Lesen by Roswitha Garff. In Spanish, they use an easy reader called Piratas del Caribe. In Grades 7 and 8 teachers emphasize the languages’ phonetic structure so that students can read and write correctly. Teachers also place emphasis on listening comprehension and oral competence. EURYTHMYThe sixth grader has changed physically from the well-proportioned fifth grader into the developing adolescent, often with limbs akimbo. The eurythmy curriculum for this grade is designed to meet the physical and emotional changes that accompany this challenging developmental time. One way to work with these changes is to introduce the orderly forms of geometry, with their accompanying laws such as: the five-pointed star, hexagon, square, and figure eight.. The students use a capacity they are just beginning to develop, cause and effect thinking. Students learn to listen to and identify the major intervals. They then learned to form the eurythmy gestures for these intervals, forming the gestures for the tonic to the octave, where they must reach upwards, out of the narrow confines of themselves. Some of the eurythmy elements include the vowel and consonant forms, and mirroring. Copper rod exercises continue, including: the seven-fold, waterfall, spiral, spinning, and tossing. Copper rod exercises help improve the students’ posture, as well as enhance their spatial orientation. The seventh grade eurythmy curriculum is full of the dark and light aspects in movement that reflect the turbulent emotional climate of the developing adolescent. Humor and drama are key elements in expressing this range. Head and foot gestures are learned as a kind of punctuation to enhance the understanding of poetry and music. The work with the copper rods becomes more challenging. Forms learned in years past become more complicated in their execution, e.g., the figure-eight form and the seven-pointed star. The 8th grade year reviews forms learned in previous years, but now taken up in new ways, with the students beginning to apply their own understanding in the creation of the forms. They learn the deeper meaning of the gestures for the sounds of the alphabet and create their own poetry to move to. They often perform a story set to eurythmy for the younger students. HANDWORK AND PRACTICAL ARTSFollowing the lower school years, in Middle School students expand on their skills with increasingly sophisticated and complex projects. Sixth grade brings the opportunity to design and hand-sew an animal. Seventh grade progresses to hand-sewn dolls and doll clothing. In the eighth grade, while students are studying the Industrial Age, the Handwork curriculum involves sewing clothes on a treadle sewing machine. Middle school students are combined weekly for a double period of Practical Arts. During these classes, mixed-age groups of students rotate through a variety of project-based classes. This provides an opportunity for our middle school students to learn and work together, and encourages greater familiarity among the grades. Through performing, fine and practical arts students deepen and transform experience. Every creation bears the stamp of individuality and expresses the student’s response to the world. The student uses imagination, cognition, and skill to bring each artistic or practical task to fruition. Experiencing this process repeatedly builds confidence for setting and implementing goals later in adult life. Middle School Practical Arts activities include: watercolor painting in both veil and wet-on-wet technique, needle and wet felting, baking/cooking, batik, pastel drawing, charcoal drawing, figure drawing, mosaics, stained glass, folk dancing, basketry, bead work, metal work, printmaking, pottery, gymnastics, geometric string art, clay work, mountain biking, figure drawing and print making, and Outdoor education skills (gardening, earth-based skills and Winter skills).

http://shiningmountainwaldorf.org/our-program/middle-school/main-lesson-and-subject-classes/

Play is vital for providing opportunities to develop language, thinking, motor skills and social skills. Children participate in different types of play and their skills change and develop over time. Providing children with opportunities to develop these skills helps lay the foundation for strong skills in communicating, socialising and learning. Some of the types of play that children experience include: Sensory and locomotor play: This develops motor skills as well as strength and coordination and also provides excercise. It includes tasks such as puzzles, threading and craft actvities as well as running, skipping, climbing and exploring playground equipment. Object or construction play: This inlcudes construction activities such as blocks and also objects such as doll and car play which develops into pretend play. Language play: Children vocalise and chat to themselves. Pretend play: Otherwise called symbolic play or fantasy play. Children pretend that an object or action is something else, such as a doll being a baby, or climbing a tree is exploring a jungle. Socio-dramatic play: Pretend play with others. This play is particularly important for developing social skills, higher level language and thinking skills. It might include playing "families" or "schools" or acting out roles such as pirates or princesses. The development of play skills: Babies up to 10 months of age use play to explore the world around them. This includes touching, holding, shaking, throwing, banging, moving and mouthing objects. They tend to explore one thing at a time and though they enjoy common items they don't use them in the typical way, for example they may use keys for shaking and enjoy the noise they make but not try to open things with them. Toddlers of 10 to 18 months begin to show an understanding of how objects are used and copy the actions they see others do. They may use a brush to try to brush their hair or try to put a key into a door. They may combine two objects together such as pushing blocks over with a car. Older toddlers of 18 months to 2 years begin to show simple pretending. They may pretend to drink form a toy cup even though it is empty or pretend to eat from a spoon. They begin with actions directed at themselves, such as eating from a spoon and later begin to direct actions to others such as feeding mum with a spoon or putting teddy to bed. Two year olds begin to do true pretending where they imagine that things are "real" such as eating pretend food. They also begin to pretend that an object is something else such as pushing a block along, making car noises and pretending that the block is a car. They can "imagine" objects that are not there such as putting a pretend hat on a doll. They can also pretend that they are something else, such as "being" a character such as a pirate or an animal such as a tiger. Three to four year olds begin to combine actions and objects to act out scenes. They use a mixture of people, real objects and imaginary objects to act out sequences of actions and whole scenes such as a tea party, caring for babies or going to the petrol station. Play scenes may be based on things that the child has experienced or on things they have seen but not experienced such as stories and movies. To help develop your child's play skills: - Offer a range of age appropriate toys and activities - Allow time for your child to play every day - Watch and follow your child's lead in the play - Encourage younger children to imitate actions with objects - Expland your child's actions by copying them then adding an extra action to the sequence - Gradually add new objects to your child's play to expand opportunities such as adding plastic animals to blocks. - Introduce new themes to expand your child's interests, for example if they like cars, try some boats or trucks. - Talk about your child's play by acting as a narrator. "Look teddy is eating his tea, he likes that food, now he is getting full". - Introduce a challenge or problem to the play to encourage thinking skills. "Oh no teddy is thirsty now, what can he do?" - Provide opportunities to play with children of a similar age to develop cooperative play. If you are concerned about your child's development, social or language skills check the Talking Matters website for more information. Watch out for future blogs on developing play for different ages. Why not follow so you don't miss out. This blog is based on information from a workshop by Alison Winkworth "Creative pretend play in language intervention" (2012) presented by Speech Pathology Australia and includes information from Paiget (1951), McClune (1995) and Nicolich (1977). Talking Matters Team

http://blog.talkingmatters.com.au/developing-play/

Here's a very simple GNU Make function: it takes three arguments and makes a 'date' out of them by inserting / between the first and second and second and third arguments: make_date = $1/$2/$3 The first thing to notice is that make_date is defined just like any other GNU Make macro (you must use = and not := for reasons we'll see below). To use make_date we $(call) it like this: today = $(call make_date,19,12,2007) That will result in today containing 19/12/2007. The macro uses special macros $1, $2, and $3. These macros contain the argument specified in the $(call). $1 is the first argument, $2 the second and so on. There's no maximum number of arguments, but if you go above 10 then you need parens: you can't write $10 instead of $(10). There's also no minimum number. Arguments that are missing are just undefined and will typically be treated as an empty string. The special argument $0 contains the name of the function. In the example above $0 is make_date. Since functions are just macros with some special automatic macros filled in (if you use the $(origin) function on any of the argument macros ($1 etc.) you'll find that they are classed as automatic just like $@), you can use GNU Make built in functions to build up complex functions. Here's a function that turns every / into a \ in a path" unix_to_dos = $(subst /,\,$1) using the $(subst). Don't be worried about the use of / and \ there. GNU Make does very little escaping and a literal \ is most of the time just a \. Some argument handling gotchas When GNU Make is processing a $(call) it starts by splitting the argument list on commas to set $1 etc. The arguments are expanded so that $1 etc. are completely expanded before they are ever referenced (it's as if GNU Make used := to set them). This means that if an argument has a side-effect (such as calling $(shell)) then that side-effect will always occur as soon as the $(call) is executed, even if the argument was never actually used by the function. One common problem is that if an argument contains a comma the splitting of arguments can go wrong. For example, here's a simple function that swaps its two arguments: swap = $2 $1 If you do $(call swap,first,argument,second) GNU Make doesn't have any way to know that the first argument was meant to be first,argument and swap ends up returning argument first instead of second first,argument. There are two ways around this. You could simply hide the first argument inside a macro. Since GNU Make doesn't expand the arguments until after splitting a comma inside a macro will not cause any confusion: FIRST := first,argument SWAPPED := $(call swap,$(FIRST),second) The other way to do this is to create a simple macro that just contains a comma and use that instead: c := , SWAPPED := $(call swap,first$cargument,second) Or even call that macro , and use it (with parens): , := , SWAPPED := $(call swap,first$(,)argument,second) Calling built-in functions It's possible to use the $(call) syntax with built in GNU Make functions. For example, you could call $(warning) like this: This is useful because it means that you can pass any function name as an argument to a user-defined function and $(call) it without needing to know if it's built-in or not. This gives you the ability to created functions that act on functions. The classic functional programming map function (which applies a function to every member of a list returning the resulting list) can be created

http://www.agileconnection.com/article/gnu-make-user-defined-functions

Electrical elementAn electric circuit, or electrical network, consists of electrical elements or components connected by conductors. Elements include devices (such as an inductor, resistor, capacitor, conductor, line, or cathode ray tube) with terminals at which it may be connected directly with other devices. It can also mean a antenna radiator (either parasitic or active). In circuitry, it can be used to specify a portion of a integrated circuit that contributes directly to the IC's operation. The elements alter the way that electric current flows through the conductors. The concept of electrical elements is used in the analysis of electrical networks. Each element represents one of the fundamental aspects of the electrical network. The elements are: - Current source, measured in amperes - produces a current in a wire. - Voltage source, measured in volts - produces a potential difference across two points. - Resistance, measured in ohms - produces a voltage proportional to the current flowing through it. - Capacitance, measured in farads - produces a current proportional to the rate of change of voltage across it. - Inductance, measured in henries - produces a voltage proportional to the rate of change of current through it. Elements and Components A battery provides electromotive force (emf), or voltage, in a circuit. It contains layers of chemicals that cause electrons to move in a certain direction, from its negative pole to its positive pole. It is marked with a rating of how much voltage there is across the two poles, and a (-) for the negative pole and a (+) for the positive pole. Batteries may also be marked with an ampere hour (Ah) rating, indicating total charge capacity. An ideal battery can thus be represented as a voltage source. In practice, a battery also has an internal resistance that is represented as a resistance in series with the voltage source. If a wire is used to connect the two poles of a battery, electrons flow through the wire from the negative end to the positive end. (The wire will also get hot because it isn't a perfect conductor, and the battery will quickly exhaust all its power.) Thus a wire can be represented as a low-value resistor. Current sources are often absent from basic electric circuits, and are more likely to be found in electronic circuits containing semiconductors. A resistor is a component whose function is to regulate the current in the circuit. One common kind is a little cylinder of graphite with metal wires coming out of either end. These are painted with colored stripes that indicate the resistance, in ohms, and the tolerance, in percent. This system is called the resistor color code. Another kind of resistor is a filament, which is a coil of metal wire that can withstand high temperature but has a finite resistance. When a current is passed through a filament, it heats up because of this resistance. Filaments are commonly used in light bulbs and heaters. They are marked with the voltage that should be applied to them, and the power, in watts, that they will then give off as light and heat. Due to the effect of heating, a filament's resistance is higher when it is hot than when it is cold. An electric charge can be stored and then quickly released by a component called a capacitor. A common type of capacitor consists of two pieces of metal foil (or plates) with an insulator (the dielectric) such as waxed paper between them. If an electric charge is placed on the plates of a capacitor, it will stay there because it can't cross the insulator to the other plate. If a wire is then connected between the two plates, the charge will flow through the wire to balance the charges on the opposite plates--the capacitor is then said to be discharged. Some capacitors look like a cylinder or blob with two wires coming out one end, and are marked to indicate their capacitance (the charge that they store per volt) in microfarads (μF), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF). Inductance in a circuit is provided by components called inductors, which are almost always built from coils of wire. Large values of inductance are obtained by forming the coil around a magnetic core, such as a lump of iron or ferrite. Inductance is also present in the windings of electric motors and generatorss, and to a lesser extent in any piece of wire. A longer list of electronic components can be found in the electronics article.

http://www.encyclopedia4u.com/e/electrical-element.html

Of the over 620 species and subspecies of carnivorous plants currently recognised in the world, New Zealand has but relatively few. Although many of our native carnivores are small in stature they are both beautiful and deadly; masters of their boggy realm. Carnivorous plants occur on every continent throughout the world except Antarctica. They live in almost every conceivable environment except deserts and saline environments. They are plants of fresh-water habitats that are wet for at least part of the year and where the soils are low in nutrients and often acidic. Their carnivorous nature offsets the lack of nutrients available in the poor soils of their habitats and allows them to grow where other plants cannot. Their carnivorous processes also require a high light level in order to function properly so they are commonly found in open places such as bogs, lakes and various other types of barren land. New Zealand's Carnivorous Plants - Of the 16 genera of carnivorous plants found worldwide, New Zealand only has representatives from two and they are also the two most common genera. From these two genera there are 12 species in total thought to be native. They are Drosera, or the sundews, with 7 species and Utricularia, or the bladderworts, with 5 species. This paucity of carnivorous plants is probably due to New Zealand's long period of geological isolation. New Zealand's carnivorous plants live in a wide range of habitats including coastal bogs, clay banks, roadside drains, seepages, peatlands, lakes, and alpine cushion bogs high in the mountains from the tip of the North Island southwards to our subantarctic islands and eastwards to the Chatham Islands.

http://www.nzcps.co.nz/NZCPSNativeCPs.html

Whether your students' families came to America ten days ago, ten months ago, ten years ago, or much longer than that, they, like most Americans, are either immigrants or descendants of immigrants. Have your students do an oral-history project that explores each one's immigrant background. Develop questions such as: Who in your family immigrated to America? What countries were the original homelands? When did they come to the U.S.A.? Why did they come? How did they get here? Was the journey anything like the one in How Many Days to America? What language did they originally speak? Is that language still spoken in the home? What songs, customs, or traditional clothing can they tell about? Your students should interview and tape-record, if possible, their parents and grandparents, as well as write and talk about their own personal experiences. Keep a world map in the room, and as the reports come, flag countries of origin. On the day the histories are presented to the class, invite parents and conclude the presentations with an International Food Day. Understands that culture and experience influence our perceptions of places and regions Understands the patterns of human settlement and their causes Obtains information about a topic using a variety of oral sources, such as conversations and interviews Makes basic oral presentations to class Organizes ideas for oral presentations

http://www.hmhbooks.com/readers_guides/bunting/america.shtml

Children, Moms and Dads – or maybe Grans and Granddads – Enjoy! Would be authors – would you like to see your stories published here? Writing Short Stories for Children. - Choose a narrative point of view . You can write your children’s short story like one of the characters (first person), as an individual narrator presents the thoughts and observations of a character (in the third person ), or as an individual narrator who presents the thoughts and observations of several characters. A story from the point of view of the first person refers to the protagonist as “I” instead of “he” or “she.” - Create a protagonist or main character . This must be the most developed character and usually the friendliest in this short story for children . - Create a problem or conflict, for the protagonist . The conflict of the tale usually has one of the five basic forms: person versus person, person versus self, person against nature, person against society, or of the person in front of God or fate. If you choose conflict from person to person, develop an antagonist to serve as the person to whom the protagonist must face. - Set believable characters and scenes in the story , with vivid descriptions and dialogue, to create a children’s story that will fascinate readers. - Build the narrative tension of the story making the protagonist have several failed attempts to try to solve or overcome the problem or conflict in the story. (You may want to skip this step for shorter stories.) - Describe a crisis to serve as the last opportunity for the protagonist as he/she solves the problem or conflict of the story. - Resolving the tension narrative making the protagonist triumph through his/her own intelligence, creativity, courage or other positive attributes. This is usually called, the climax of the short story. - Extend this resolution phase , if you wish, to reflect on the action of the story and what it means for the characters in today’s society.

http://www.mclkids.org/

dogs descended from the gray wolf. But dogs are so different from wolves that it seems difficult to imagine how one species led to another. How an organism evolves has to do with the selective pressures it is exposed to in its environment. In this activity, see what happens to two different populations of wolves as different selective pressures are applied. Cut apart the 24 cards from your "Wolf Deck" student handouts. Appoint one member of your group to be the scorekeeper. The scorekeeper will record the total value of each student's hand of six cards before the game begins and after each round. The scorekeeper should also calculate the deck average by summing all 24 cards before the game begins, and after the 5th, 10th, and 20th round. Have the scorekeeper calculate the initial value of the deck and record below. This represents the initial temperament of your wolf population. Deal six cards. Each hand represents the collection of genes that contribute to the temperament for one wolf. A hand with low value represents an aggressive wolf while a hand with higher value represents a tamer animal. Calculate the total of each hand. Follow the instructions below for your Wolf Group A to selective pressures, the wolves with the most aggressive genes do not survive. To simulate this, the players who have the two lowest hand totals will remark their cards with numbers on the cards of the other two players. Twelve cards will be remarked. Wolf Group B to selective pressures, the wolves with the most aggressive and most tame genes do not survive. To simulate this, the players who have the highest and lowest hand totals will remark their cards with numbers on the cards of the other two players. Twelve cards will be remarked. Shuffle all 24 cards together. This represents the mating of the wolves. As in nature, some of the offspring from this mating have random genetic mutations of their temperament genes. To simulate this, draw two random cards, keeping track of where they came from in the deck. Throw a die for each card you have removed and then change the value on the card (write the new number directly on the card) according to the following table: Return the cards back to their original place in the deck. Deal six cards to each player. Repeat steps 5-7. Play a total of 20 hands, recording the entire deck average after hands 5, 10, and 20. When you have finished the game, answer the questions listed on your "Examining the Game" student handout.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/education/activities/3103_dogs_01.html

Strides are continuing to be made in the world of quantum computing. The most advanced quantum computer contains about 12 quibits… meaning it can hold 4096 pieces of data simultaneously. So how does quantum computing work? With normal computers, a bit may be represented by a group of electrons. In a quantum computer, information is stored by a single particle, maybe just a single electron. Because the rules of quantum mechanics dictate that a single particle can be in two places at once, that single particle can store two pieces of information. Information is exchanged by hitting these particles with microwaves. Because they can hold twice as much information, quantum computers can perform calculations much faster. As a result, quantum computing will wind up pushing the current limits of computing power.

http://community.mis.temple.edu/richm3538/2011/11/07/what-is-quantum-computing/

Sometimes you can see that certain parts of clouds show iridescent colours. In most cases this iridescence appears in clouds which form rapidly (e.g. altocumulus lenticularis). Especially the rims of these clouds have purple red, blue and green colours. This phenomenon is closely related to the coronae. Here the colours are also caused by the diffraction of light. The water droplets that cause the iridescence are very small. Small droplets generate very big coronae with wide rings of the same colour. This is the reason why great parts of the cloud have the same colour. The other colours in the iridescent cloud are less due to the changing distance from the sun, but to different sizes of the droplets. Different droplet sizes generate different coronae, what makes the colour differ despite the equal distance from the sun. As the results of continuous observations of atmospheric phenomena show, about 12% of the cloud iridescence observed were visible in cirrocumulus clouds. The greatest part of these clouds consists of ice crystals while freezing water droplets make only a sma1l part of them. Even in cirrocumulus clouds iridescence is often observed more than 30° away from the sun, a fact that almost excludes the diffraction of light as a reason for the formation of the iridescence. So the latest theories assume that the colours are caused by interfering rays of light being reflected from the front or rear side of very thin plateshaped ice crystals or by interfering rays a part of which directly passes the cloud layer while the other rays are reflected once or several times inside the cloud layer.

http://www.meteoros.de/iris/irise.htm

Architecture played a very important role for the church in Medieval England. The more splendid the architecture, the more the church believed it was praising God. The church in Medieval England poured vast sums of money into the creation of grandiose architectural projects that peaked in the cathedrals at Canterbury and York. Medieval churches and cathedrals were superbly built. No peasant wattle and daub homes exist anymore as they were so crudely made. But the vast sums accrued by the church (primarily from the poorer classes) gave it the opportunity to spend on large building projects. Many of the churches and cathedrals that survive from medieval times have also had additions to them. Therefore, we can identify different building styles in the same complete building. For example, York Minster contains sections that can be traced to 1080 to 1100, 1170, major expansion work between 1220 to 1253, further expansion from 1291 to 1360 and the completion of the Central Tower which took from 1407 to 1465. Over the near 400 years of development, different styles would have developed and give historians an in-depth look at changes in church architectural styles. The cathedrals started in the reign of William the Conqueror were the largest buildings seen in England up to that time. With the exception of Worcester Cathedral, William appointed Norman bishops to these cathedrals. Therefore, these men would have been heavily influenced by the architecture used in Normandy and this style came to dominate the architecture of the cathedrals built under William. Norman architecture is also referred to as Romanesque because it was influenced in turn by the Ancient Romans. Norman architecture tends to be dominated by a round shape style. In Medieval England, the Normans used barely skilled Saxons as labourers and the tools they used were limited – axes, chisels etc. The churches and cathedrals built by the Normans tended to use large stones. This was because cutting stone to certain measurements was a skilled art and it is assumed that the Normans reckoned that the Saxons who worked on the stone would not be able to master such a skill. Norman walls and pillars had faced stone on the outer surfaces but rubble was put into the hollow between the cut stone. Hence, the effect would be wall, rubble and wall. Pillars were effectively hollow until the central core was filled with rubble. This method of building was not particularly strong. To get round this and strengthen them, the Normans made their walls much thicker than later styles of building which relied on specifically cut stone that fitted together with the blocks surrounding it thus creating its own strength. Norman doorways into a church or cathedral tended to be highly decorated with concentric arches that receded into the thickness of the wall. Windows were built in a similar way but they remained small and let in little light. This was because the Normans realised that their walls with large window spaces would not have been able to hold up the weight of the roofs. To assist in the support of the roofs, the Normans used large pillars. These allowed the weight of the roof to be dispersed into the foundations via the pillars – once again saving the walls from taking all of the weight of the roof. Pillars supporting the roof at Battle Abbey The ceilings of Norman churches and cathedrals were vaulted. These vaults allowed the weight of the roof to be evenly distributed throughout the pillars and walls as the main points of the vaults rested on the tops of the pillars. The Normans used three styles of vaulting: barrel, rib and cross. Rib vaulting at Battle Abbey The architecture used by the Normans must have been successful as so many of their churches and cathedrals still exist – even if they have been built onto. The main architectural style that was used after the Normans was the Gothic style.

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/medieval_church_architecture.htm

Logic is the skill of correct thinking and conceptual development. It is the thinking through of similarities, comparisons, and differences in order to induce the correct general conclusions. Studying logic and practicing logical thinking prepares students for the development of wisdom. Unfortunately, logic is all but forgotten in modern schools. During the Logic Stage (Grades 6-8), students study the various types of logic including informal logic, categorical logic and symbolic logic. Logic has a central place in our Logic Stage curriculum in that it is a subject and skill that is applied and used in virtually every other class. For example, students in history, literature or science classes are required to think logically about the content they study and to respectfully expose any fallacies they detect in texts, presentations, or discussions. Their writing in these classes is assessed for logical sharpness, and examinations presuppose and exercise logical skill. These skills in logic are also foundational for more extensive studies in the Rhetoric Stage (Grades 9-12).

http://covenantclassicalschool.org/pages/page.asp?page_id=104572

As our closest neighbor in space, a time-capsule of planetary evolution and the only world outside of Earth that humans have stepped foot on, the Moon is an obvious and ever-present location for future exploration by humans. The research that can be done on the Moon as well as from it will be invaluable to science. But the only times humans have visited the Moon were during quick, dusty jaunts on its surface, lasting only 2-3 days each before departing. Long-term human exposure to the lunar environment has never been studied in depth, and its quite possible that in addition to the many inherent dangers of living and working in space the Moon itself may be toxic to humans. An international team of researchers has attempted to quantify the health dangers of the Moon or at least its dust-filled regolith. In a paper titled Toxicity of Lunar Dust (D. Linnarsson et al.) the health hazards of the Moons fine, powdery dust which plagued Apollo astronauts both in and out of their suits are investigated in detail (or as best as they can be without actually being on the Moon with the ability to collect pristine samples.) Within their research the team, which included physiologists, pharmacologists, radiologists and toxicologists from 5 countries, investigated some of the following potential health hazards of lunar dust: Inhalation. By far the most harmful effects of lunar dust would come from inhalation of the particulates. Even though lunar explorers would be wearing protective gear, suit-bound dust can easily make its way back into living and working areas as Apollo astronauts quickly discovered. Once inside the lungs the super-fine, sharp-edged lunar dust could cause a slew of health issues, affecting the respiratory and cardiovascular system and causing anything from airway inflammation to increased risks of various cancers. Like pollutants encountered on Earth, such as asbestos and volcanic ash, lunar dust particles are small enough to penetrate deep within lung tissues, and may be made even more dangerous by their long-term exposure to proton and UV radiation. In addition, the research suggests a microgravity environment may only serve to ease the transportation of dust particles throughout the lungs. Skin Damage. Lunar regolith has been found to be very sharp-edged, mainly because it hasnt undergone the same kind of erosive processes that soil on Earth has. Lunar soil particles are sometimes even coated in a glassy shell, the result of rock vaporization by meteorite impacts. Even the finer particles of dust which constitute about 20% of returned lunar soil samples are rather sharp, and as such pose a risk of skin irritation in instances of exposure. Of particular note by the research team is abrasive damage to the outer layer of skin at sites of anatomical prominence, i.e., fingers, knuckles, elbows, knees, etc. The dust was so abrasive that it actually wore through three layers of Kevlar-like material on Jack [Schmitt's] boot, said Professor Larry Taylor, Director of the Planetary Geosciences Institute, University of Tennessee (2008). Eye Damage. Needless to say, if particles can pose abrasive damage to human skin, similar danger to the eyes is also a concern. Whether lunar dust makes its way into the eye via airborne movement (again, much more of a concern in microgravity) or through direct contact from fingers or another dust-coated object, the result is the same: danger of abrasion. Having a scratched cornea is no fun, but if youre busy working on the Moon at the time it could turn into a real emergency. While the research behind the paper used data about airborne pollutants known to exist on Earth and simulated lunar dust particles, actual lunar dust is harder to test. The samples returned by the Apollo missions have not been kept in a true lunar-like environment being removed from exposure to radiation and not stored in a vacuum, for instance and as such may not accurately exhibit the properties of actual dust as it would be encountered on the Moon. The researchers conclude that only studies conducted on-site will fill the gaps in our knowledge of lunar dust toxicity. Still, the research is a step in the right direction as it looks to ensure a safe environment for future explorers on the Moon, our familiar yet still alien satellite world. Read the teams paper in full here. The Apollo astronauts reported undesirable effects affecting the skin, eyes and airways that could be related to exposure to the dust that had adhered to their space suits during their extravehicular activities and was subsequently brought into their spacecraft," said Dag Linnarsson, lead author, Toxicity of Lunar Dust. Explore further: NASA's IRIS mission readies for a new challenge

http://phys.org/news/2012-07-moon-toxic.html

In this math worksheet, your child will get practice with place value by writing each number as a sum of 10s and 1s. This coloring math worksheet lets your child practice counting sets of animals' legs, which lays a foundation for understanding multiplication. Help the kids share the food equally! This coloring math worksheet helps your child build a visual foundation for understanding division. Which item is least likely to be picked? This math worksheet introduces your child to probability and interpreting data. A line of symmetry divides each of these images. This coloring math worksheet asks your child to draw the other half of each image to make both sides match. This coloring math worksheet introduces your child to skip counting by 2, 5, and 10 and asks your child to color in the next numbers in each series. Your child will connect the spaceships and rockets to the planets and stars with 1 or 10 more or less in this coloring math worksheet. In this math worksheet, your child gets to practice number sequencing by putting sets of 4 numbers in order in ascending and descending order. Other math skills include understanding smaller and larger numbers and writing numbers up to 100. Ready for fractions? This coloring math worksheet introduces children to fractional parts by asking them to color in 1/3 of familiar shapes. This money math worksheet gives your child practice drawing and adding up coins to find money values.

http://www.greatschools.org/articles/?p=6&grades=201&outcomes=209&language=EN

Science Fair Project Encyclopedia This global, interconnected body of salt water, called the World Ocean, is divided by the continents and archipelagos into the following five bodies, from the largest to the smallest: the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean. Official boundaries are defined by the International Hydrographic Organization; the Southern Ocean, though long recognized in maritime tradition, was officially sanctioned only in 2000, and is unique in being defined only by a line of latitude with no landmass boundaries. Oceanographers, however, may recoginize only four oceans, treating the Arctic Ocean (or the Arctic Sea) as a part of the Atlantic Ocean. The area of the World Ocean is 361 million km≤, its volume is 1370 million km≥, and its average depth is 3790 m. This does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea. The total mass of the hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 1021 kg, ca. 0.023 % of the Earth's total mass. Travel on the surface of the ocean through the use of boats dates back to prehistoric times, but only in modern times has extensive underwater travel become possible. The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. It has a maximum depth of 10,923 m (35,838 ft) . It was fully surveyed in 1951 by the British navy vessel, "Challenger II" which gave its name to the deepest part of the trench, the "Challenger Deep". Much of the bottom of the world's oceans is unexplored and unmapped. A global image of many underwater features larger than 10 km was created in 1995 based on gravitational distortions of the nearby sea surface. One of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called "typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon where the system forms). Ocean currents greatly affect Earth's climate by transferring warm or cold air and precipitation to coastal regions, where they may be carried inland by winds. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles that continent, influencing the area's climate and connecting currents in several oceans. The oceans are home to many forms of life, such as: - cetacea such as whales, dolphins and porpoises, - cephalopods such as the octopus - crustaceans such as lobsters and shrimp - marine worms The oceans are essential to transportation: a huge portion of the world's goods are moved by ship between the world's seaports. Important ship canals include the Saint Lawrence Seaway, Panama Canal, and Suez Canal. Earth is the only planet known with liquid water on its surface, and is certainly the only such in our own solar system. However, liquid water is thought to be present under the surface of several natural satellites, particularly the Galilean moons of Europa, and, with less certainty, its fellows Callisto and Ganymede. Other icy moons may have once had internal oceans that have now frozen, such as Triton. The planets Uranus and Neptune may also possess large oceans of liquid water under their thick atmospheres, though their internal structure is not well understood at this time. There is currently much debate over whether Mars once had an ocean of water in its northern hemisphere, and over what happened to it if it did; recent findings by the Mars Exploration Rover mission indicate that it had some long-term standing water in at least one location, but its extent is not known. Liquid hydrocarbons are thought to be present on the surface of Titan, though it may be more accurate to describe them as "lakes" rather than an "ocean". The distribution of these liquid regions will hopefully be better known after the full analysis of data from the Huygens probe of the Cassini-Huygens space mission, which dropped onto Titan's surface in January 2005. Titan is also thought likely to have a subterranean water ocean under the mix of ice and hydrocarbons that forms its outer crust. - Science taps into ocean secrets - Why is the ocean salty? - Official IHO boundaries of Oceans and Seas - The Hydrogen Expedition The first circumnavigation of the globe in a hydrogen fuel cell powered boat - NOPP - The National Oceanographic Partnership Program The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

http://all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Ocean

The monument maintains an Air Quality Station which tracks visibility, particulates, ozone, nitrates, sulfides, dioxins, and rainwater deposition. This data is analyzed and used to determine overall air quality, and factors or events that may be having detrimental effects on the air. This information can help managers decide what future actions may be necessary to maintain the current level of air quality, or to make improvements. The monument's close proximity to Mexico makes it a prime candidate for monitoring the effect of Mexico's pollution on air quality in the United States. Smelting, manufacturing and power plants on the other side of the border produce pollutants that can be carried into the monument. That, along with plans to build an additional incinerator and power plants within 50 miles of the monument, makes it even more critical that baseline air quality data be collected. Air quality data from 48 Class 1 NPS sites and others can be viewed on the Internet. See the links below. Did You Know? The rock formations at Chiricahua National Monument were carved by ice and water from layers of rhyolite, which was originally ash blown out during the Turkey Creek Volcano eruption 27 million years ago.

http://www.nps.gov/chir/naturescience/airquality.htm

Brain: The Inside Story Brain: The Inside Story explores how neurons communicate; how the brain processes sensory information, emotions, and behaviors; how the organ evolved in vertebrates; and what makes each human brain unique. This comprehensive guide will help you explore the exhibition with your students. Use these free online resources to further explore themes presented in Brain: The Inside Story exhibition. You don't have to speak the same language, or even speak, to understand when someone is happy or sad. Explore how and why our brains have evolved to read facial expressions. Neurons can send more than 100 signals a second at speeds up to 250 miles an hour. Create a life-sized drawing to learn more about your body's speedy message carriers. Reading by touch instead of sight forms new and different neuron connections. Discover firsthand how your brain can learn to read Braille with your fingertips. It's not just the taste buds in your mouth that let you taste sweet, bitter, salty, sour, and other flavors. Take the Jellybean Test to find out how your nose helps you taste. In a game like dodge ball, how is it that your brain is able to tell you to raise your arm and block an incoming ball with your elbow? Find out with this simple experiment. The Museum's Brain: The Inside Story exhibition takes an in-depth look at the remarkable organ that's sometimes described as the world's most complex structure. This comprehensive guide will help you explore the exhibit with your students. It includes:

http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/brain-the-inside-story/brain-promos/for-educators

Least common multiple In arithmetic and number theory, the least common multiple (also called the lowest common multiple or smallest common multiple) of two integers a and b, usually denoted by LCM(a, b), is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a and b. If either a or b is 0, LCM(a, b) is defined to be zero. The LCM of more than two integers is also well-defined: it is the smallest integer that is divisible by each of them. A multiple of a number is the product of that number and an integer. For example, 10 is a multiple of 5 because 5 × 2 = 10, so 10 is divisible by 5 and 2. Because 10 is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both 5 and 2, it is the least common multiple of 5 and 2. By the same principle, 10 is the least common multiple of −5 and 2 as well. What is the LCM of 4 and 6? Multiples of 4 are: - 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56, 60, 64, 68, 72, 76, ... and the multiples of 6 are: - 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66, 72, ... Common multiples of 4 and 6 are simply the numbers that are in both lists: - 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, .... So, from this list of the first few common multiples of the numbers 4 and 6, their least common multiple is 12. When adding, subtracting, or comparing vulgar fractions, it is useful to find the least common multiple of the denominators, often called the lowest common denominator, because each of the fractions can be expressed as a fraction with this denominator. For instance, where the denominator 42 was used because it is the least common multiple of 21 and 6. Computing the least common multiple Reduction by the greatest common divisor Many school age children are taught the term greatest common factor (GCF) instead of the greatest common divisor(GCD); therefore, for those familiar with the concept of GCF, substitute GCF when GCD is used below. The following formula reduces the problem of computing the least common multiple to the problem of computing the greatest common divisor (GCD): This formula is also valid when exactly one of a and b is 0, since gcd(a, 0) = |a|. Because gcd(a, b) is a divisor of both a and b, it's more efficient to compute the LCM by dividing before multiplying: This reduces the size of one input for both the division and the multiplication, and reduces the required storage needed for intermediate results (overflow in the a×b computation). Because gcd(a, b) is a divisor of both a and b, the division is guaranteed to yield an integer, so the intermediate result can be stored in an integer. Done this way, the previous example becomes: Finding least common multiples by prime factorization The unique factorization theorem says that every positive integer greater than 1 can be written in only one way as a product of prime numbers. The prime numbers can be considered as the atomic elements which, when combined together, make up a composite number. Here we have the composite number 90 made up of one atom of the prime number 2, two atoms of the prime number 3 and one atom of the prime number 5. This knowledge can be used to find the LCM of a set of numbers. Example: Find the value of lcm(8,9,21). First, factor out each number and express it as a product of prime number powers. The lcm will be the product of multiplying the highest power of each prime number together. The highest power of the three prime numbers 2, 3, and 7 is 23, 32, and 71, respectively. Thus, This method is not as efficient as reducing to the greatest common divisor, since there is no known general efficient algorithm for integer factorization, but is useful for illustrating concepts. This method can be illustrated using a Venn diagram as follows. Find the prime factorization of each of the two numbers. Put the prime factors into a Venn diagram with one circle for each of the two numbers, and all factors they share in common in the intersection. To find the LCM, just multiply all of the prime numbers in the diagram. Here is an example: - 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3, - 180 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5, and what they share in common is two "2"s and a "3": - Least common multiple = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 720 - Greatest common divisor = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12 This also works for the greatest common divisor (GCD), except that instead of multiplying all of the numbers in the Venn diagram, one multiplies only the prime factors that are in the intersection. Thus the GCD of 48 and 180 is 2 × 2 × 3 = 12. A simple algorithm This method works as easily for finding the LCM of several integers. Let there be a finite sequence of positive integers X = (x1, x2, ..., xn), n > 1. The algorithm proceeds in steps as follows: on each step m it examines and updates the sequence X(m) = (x1(m), x2(m), ..., xn(m)), X(1) = X. The purpose of the examination is to pick up the least (perhaps, one of many) element of the sequence X(m). Assuming xk0(m) is the selected element, the sequence X(m+1) is defined as - xk(m+1) = xk(m), k ≠ k0 - xk0(m+1) = xk0(m) + xk0. In other words, the least element is increased by the corresponding x whereas the rest of the elements pass from X(m) to X(m+1) unchanged. The algorithm stops when all elements in sequence X(m) are equal. Their common value L is exactly LCM(X). (For a proof and an interactive simulation see reference below, Algorithm for Computing the LCM.) A method using a table This method works for any number of factors. One begins by listing all of the numbers vertically in a table (in this example 4, 7, 12, 21, and 42): The process begins by dividing all of the factors by 2. If any of them divides evenly, write 2 at the top of the table and the result of division by 2 of each factor in the space to the right of each factor and below the 2. If a number does not divide evenly, just rewrite the number again. If 2 does not divide evenly into any of the numbers, try 3. Now, check if 2 divides again: Once 2 no longer divides, divide by 3. If 3 no longer divides, try 5 and 7. Keep going until all of the numbers have been reduced to 1. Now, multiply the numbers on the top and you have the LCM. In this case, it is 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 = 84. You will get to the LCM the quickest if you use prime numbers and start from the lowest prime, 2. Fundamental theorem of arithmetic where the exponents n2, n3, ... are non-negative integers; for example, 84 = 22 31 50 71 110 130 ... Given two integers and their least common multiple and greatest common divisor are given by the formulas In fact, any rational number can be written uniquely as the product of primes if negative exponents are allowed. When this is done, the above formulas remain valid. Using the same examples as above: The positive integers may be partially ordered by divisibility: if a divides b (i.e. if b is an integer multiple of a) write a ≤ b (or equivalently, b ≥ a). (Forget the usual magnitude-based definition of ≤ in this section - it isn't used.) Under this ordering, the positive integers become a lattice with meet given by the gcd and join given by the lcm. The proof is straightforward, if a bit tedious; it amounts to checking that lcm and gcd satisfy the axioms for meet and join. Putting the lcm and gcd into this more general context establishes a duality between them: - If a formula involving integer variables, gcd, lcm, ≤ and ≥ is true, then the formula obtained by switching gcd with lcm and switching ≥ with ≤ is also true. (Remember ≤ is defined as divides). The following pairs of dual formulas are special cases of general lattice-theoretic identities. This identity is self-dual: Let D be the product of ω(D) distinct prime numbers (i.e. D is squarefree). where the absolute bars || denote the cardinality of a set. The LCM in commutative rings The least common multiple can be defined generally over commutative rings as follows: Let a and b be elements of a commutative ring R. A common multiple of a and b is an element m of R such that both a and b divide m (i.e. there exist elements x and y of R such that ax = m and by = m). A least common multiple of a and b is a common multiple that is minimal in the sense that for any other common multiple n of a and b, m divides n. In general, two elements in a commutative ring can have no least common multiple or more than one. However, any two least common multiples of the same pair of elements are associates. In a unique factorization domain, any two elements have a least common multiple. In a principal ideal domain, the least common multiple of a and b can be characterised as a generator of the intersection of the ideals generated by a and b (the intersection of a collection of ideals is always an ideal). In principal ideal domains, one can even talk about the least common multiple of arbitrary collections of elements: it is a generator of the intersection of the ideals generated by the elements of the collection. See also - Crandall, Richard; Pomerance, Carl (2001), Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective, New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-94777-9 - Hardy, G. H.; Wright, E. M. (1979), An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (Fifth edition), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853171-5 - Landau, Edmund (1966), Elementary Number Theory, New York: Chelsea - Long, Calvin T. (1972), Elementary Introduction to Number Theory (2nd ed.), Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company, LCCN 77-171950 - Pettofrezzo, Anthony J.; Byrkit, Donald R. (1970), Elements of Number Theory, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, LCCN 77-81766

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_common_multiple

Learning the Swahili Articles is very important because its structure is used in every day conversation. The more you practice the subject, the closer you get to mastering the Swahili language. But first we need to know what the role of Articles is in the structure of the grammar in Swahili. Swahili articles are words that combine with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Generally articles specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun. Examples are "the, a, and an". UnlikeEnglish, which has only one definite article “the", Swahili has no definite and indefinite articles articlesand does not differentiate things/words according to gender. For example:Mtu (Person) can either be a man or a woman, Mtoto( child) can be male orfemale. When we say-Mtu mmoja amekuja( one person has come)- it can be either a man or a woman. However,there are also specific names for men and women mwanamme(man)mwanamke(woman), mvulana(boy) msichana(girl) For thethings, there are not labeled according to gender Kitabu(book)nyumba( house) – plural Vitabu(books) Nyumba(houses) You noticethat these are in another class as discussed in the section of nouns. Kitabu (book)is in the class of KI-VI and nyumba is in the class of I-ZI. So we say: kitabuni kizuri (a (the) book is good) and in plural vitabu ni vizuri(the books are good) Nyumba imejengwa(a(the)house has been built) and in plural nyumba zimejengwa( the houses havebeen built) You notice that in the second example the noun does not change but you can see the pluralin the sentence construction. Here are some examples: |English Articles||Swahili Articles| |the||not normally used| |a||not normally used| |one book||kitabu kimoja| |some books||baadhi ya vitabu| |few books||vitabu vichache| As you can see from the example above, the structure of the Articles in Swahili has a logical pattern. Locate the Articles above and see how it works with the rest of the sentence in Kiswahili. List of Articles in Swahili Below is a list of vocabulary where you can use the Definite and Indefinite Articles in Swahili. Try to practice but also memorizing this table will help you add very useful and important words to your Swahili vocabulary. |English Vocabulary||Swahili Vocabulary| |dinner||chakula cha jioni| |ice cream||ice cream| |lunch||chakula cha mchana| |salad||mchanganyiko wa mboga/matunda| Definite and Indefinite Articles have a very important role in Swahili, therefore they need very special attention. Once you're done with the Kiswahili Articles, you might want to check the rest of our Swahili lessons here: Learn Swahili. Don't forget to bookmark this page.

http://www.mylanguages.org/swahili_articles.php

Arctic sea ice In recent years, the area covered by Arctic sea ice, particularly the minimum extent in summer, has rapidly shrunk. This is thought to result from a combination of factors: over the past several decades surface air temperatures in the Arctic have been warming at about twice the global rate, and the ocean has been warming. Other possible factors may be changes to ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns, which play a role in flushing ice out of the Arctic Basin. Once melting is initiated, the lower ALBEDO of water compared to ice also provides a reinforcing feedback mechanism that accelerates further melting, because the open water is able to absorb more heat from the sun. Arctic sea ice extent changes since the mid-1970s Source: UK Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Met Office Hadley Centre, Climate change and the greenhouse effect—a briefing from the Hadley Centre, December 2005, p. 35. © British Crown Copyright 2005, the Met Office. Modelling suggests that under several of the IPCC's emissions scenarios, ice in the month of September (when it is at its minimum extent in the annual cycle) will have almost completely disappeared on average by 2100. However, the recent rapid decrease in Arctic sea ice is occurring faster than predicted by IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report. A new summer minimum was set in 2007 which is around 30 years ahead of a range of simulation model forecasts (see the Climate Institute’s Evidence of Accelerated Climate Change). An ice-free Arctic Ocean might be achieved well ahead of the timeframe indicated by IPCC modelling; if so, this suggests that the Arctic is even more sensitive to greenhouse warming than suspected to date. An animation of possible Arctic ice loss to 2100 can be viewed at http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climatechange/science/projections/ Present day and projected Arctic sea ice fractional concentration At the opposite end of the globe, the Antarctic Peninsula also appears to be warming. The collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf in 2002 was the largest single event in a series of retreats by ice shelves in the Peninsula during the last 30 years. The rate of warming in this region is approximately 0.5°C per decade, compared to the global rate of about 0.2°C per decade. The warming is indicated by increased summer snowmelt, loss of ice shelves and the retreat of marine and tidewater glacial fronts. Flow rate measurements for Antarctic Peninsula glaciers indicate accelerating trends. The Southern Ocean is also warming more rapidly than the global ocean. These changes are impacting the flora and fauna of the Peninsula: sea-ice adapted Adelie penguins are being replaced by the more open-water oriented Chinstrap penguins, and there has been increasing plant cover. However, surface temperatures over the rest of Antarctica have remained approximately stable, and the amount of snow falling in Antarctica appears to be increasing. Although regional snowfall is not easy to measure there (partly because the snow can blow considerable distances and accumulate) the number of days of precipitation has increased. Antarctica is the world's driest continent, but global warming—by increasing global evaporation—is likely on theoretical grounds to increase precipitation in many areas. The total average area of Antarctic sea ice has more or less stayed the same over the last three decades. In contrast, the mass of ice in the two large ice sheets over the continent, and associated ice shelves that represent the extension of the ice sheets over the ocean, may be changing. Antarctica contains most of the current global ice mass—enough to cause a sea level rise of about 60 metres if the ice sheets disappeared completely. However, large scale melting and dynamical loss of the Antarctic ice sheets is thought to be unlikely in the next century. Most at risk is the smaller West Antarctic ice sheet, which has the potential to contribute about 6 metres to sea level rise if it were lost completely. Current evidence suggests that the West Antarctic ice sheet is losing mass, which is partially offset by smaller gains in the East Antarctic ice sheet. There is considerable uncertainty over the influence of atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns on Antarctic temperatures, snowfall distribution and amount and how these patterns may change with global warming, which complicates efforts to predict changes in the continent's ice mass balance. Models are in general agreement in predicting that for the next century enhanced snowfall on the continent of Antarctica should exceed warming-induced ice losses, and this increased accumulation of ice should offset some of the sea level rise that would otherwise occur. Greenland ice sheet The Greenland ice sheet contains the equivalent of about 7 metres of sea level rise. Recent studies suggest that the ice sheet has been experiencing a net loss (losses due to melting and ice flow discharge are exceeding gains due to snow accumulation), and that the rate of loss is increasing. Ice mass loss from the Greenland ice sheet is thought to have contributed to a sea level rise of 0.05 millimetres per year from 1961 to 2003, with the rate increasing to 0.21 millimetres per year from 1993 to 2003. There is a high degree of year-to-year variability in the ice mass balance, driven largely by variability in the amount of summer melting, as well as variability in the rate of discharge via glaciers. Models predict that the Greenland ice sheet may shrink substantially over the next few hundred years in response to global warming. Results also suggest the ice sheet could disappear completely if temperatures rise above a critical threshold, and that this threshold could be crossed this century. The melting process would occur slowly, raising global sea level by about 7 metres over more than 1000 years, as shown in model simulation below. It is uncertain whether melting of the ice sheet could be reversed once the process was substantially underway, as the absence of ice would change the albedo to allow more of the sun's heat to be absorbed, and surface temperatures would also be enhanced by an overall lowering of surface elevation. Simulated melting of the Greenland ice sheet under atmospheric CO2 concentrations stabilised at 4x pre-industrial levels Evolution of the Greenland surface elevation and ice sheet volume versus time in the experiment of Ridley et al. (J. Climate, vol. 17, p. 3409, 2005) with the UKMO–HadCM3 AOGCM coupled to the Greenland Ice Sheet model of Huybrechts and De Wolde (1999) under a climate of constant quadrupled pre-industrial atmospheric CO2. Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I report—the physical science basis, Chapter 10 Global climate projections, Figure 10.38, p. 830. Outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets provide one of the mechanisms of ice loss from these large ice sheets. This dynamic drainage of ice can account for most of the observed Antarctic net ice mass loss, and about half of the Greenland mass loss (the remainder being due to melting of the ice sheet in excess of replenishing snowfall). Recent evidence suggests that the flow rate of these outlet glaciers is increasing, thereby enhancing the rate of mass loss from the ice sheets. This may foreshadow a more rapid rise in sea level that could have a potentially dramatic effect on coastal regions worldwide. Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance, the difference between accumulation and ablation (melting and sublimation). Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall, causing changes in mass balance. A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat. A glacier with sustained positive balance is also out of equilibrium, and will advance to re-establish equilibrium. Currently, there are a few advancing glaciers, although their modest growth rates suggest that they are not far from equilibrium. As a general rule, the world's glaciers have been retreating since the 1850s. Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas, European Alps, Rocky Mountains, Cascade Range, and the southern Andes, as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa, are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial loss. The rate of retreat of most glaciers has increased since 1990. The observed decline in mass balance of glaciers and ice caps (excluding those surrounding the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets) can be translated to an equivalent sea level rise of about 0.3 millimetres per year from 1960 to 1990; with the rate doubling to about 0.6 millimetres per year of equivalent sea level rise from 1990 to 2004. Retreat of the world’s glaciers Large-scale regional mean length variations of glacier tongues. The raw data are all constrained to pass through zero in 1950. The curves shown are smoothed with the Stineman method and approximate this. Glaciers are grouped into the following regional classes: SH (tropics, New Zealand, Patagonia), northwest North America (mainly Canadian Rockies), Atlantic (South Greenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Svalbard, Scandinavia), European Alps and Asia (Caucasus and central Asia). Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I Report—the physical science basis, Chapter 4 Observations—changes in snow, ice and frozen ground, Figure 4.13, p. 357. There is much information supporting the retreat of glaciers. Perhaps the most striking evidence relates to the retreat of European glaciers. The World Glacier Monitoring Service monitors changes in the mass, length, volume and area of glaciers worldwide. Between 1995 and 2000, 103 of 110 glaciers examined in Switzerland, 95 of 99 glaciers in Austria, all 69 glaciers in Italy, and all 6 glaciers in France were in retreat. As an example, since 1870 the Argentière and Mont Blanc Glacier have receded by 1150 metres and 1400 metres respectively. The rate of retreat appears to be increasing: the Trift Glacier in Switzerland retreated over 500 metres or 10 per cent of its total length in the three years 2003–2005. Closer to home, in both Papua New Guinea and New Zealand glaciers have retreated rapidly over the last 60 years, coinciding with warming over this period. Glaciers stockpile rock and soil that has been carved from mountainsides at their terminal end. These debris piles often form dams that impound water behind them and form glacial lakes as the glaciers melt and retreat from their maximum extents. These are commonly unstable and have been known to burst if overfilled or displaced by earthquakes, landslides or avalanches. So-called 'glacial lake outbursts' have occurred in every region of the world where glaciers are located. Continued glacier retreat is expected to create and expand glacial lakes, increasing the risk to infrastructure, property and life relating to glacial lake failures. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group I Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Chapter 4 Observations—changes in snow, ice and frozen ground.

http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/Browse_by_Topic/ClimateChange/theClimate/glaciers

Note: This lesson was originally published on an older version of The Learning Network; the link to the related Times article will take you to a page on the old site. Teaching ideas based on New York Times content. Overview of Lesson Plan: In this lesson, students will explore the significance of various body parts in artistic and social expression. Rachel McClain, The New York Times Learning Network Suggested Time Allowance: 45 minutes 1. Create a list of idioms or clichés involving the word “hand.” 2. Learn about an art exhibit dedicated to the artistic and social representation of the hand by reading and discussing the article “An Exhibition Honors the Human Hand.” 3. Research a body part and create a museum installation depicting the artistic and social significance of the body part throughout history. 4. Create a work of art based on a body part idiom. Resources / Materials: -reference materials such as art books, quotation/idiom books, and encyclopedias -computers with Internet access -copies of the article “An Exhibition Honors the Human Hand” (one per student) Activities / Procedures: 1. WARM-UP/DO NOW: In their journals, students respond to the following prompt (written on the board prior to class): Write a list of all the idioms that you can think of using the word “hand” and their meanings. After giving students time to write, discuss student lists, focusing on the following questions: How do you think this idiom came about? What does this idiom say about our perception of the significance of hands? 2. As a class, read the article “An Exhibition Honors the Human Hand,” focusing on the following questions: Note: While reading, keep a running list of images of the hand mentioned in the article for reference as the class answers the questions. a. According to the article, what links all of the images in the exhibit? b. Why does the exhibit only present images up to 1700? c. What are the six parts of the exhibit? On what aspect of the hand does each focus? d. What does the author of the article find interesting about the illustration “Front View of the Outermost Layer of Muscle”? e. What is Bede’s finger gesture for one million? f. What is the difference between the fates of men and women as depicted in “Two Chiromantic Hands”? g. What examples of the relationship between God and the hand of man are present in the exhibit? 3. Divide the class into groups of four, assigning each group a body part to research. Each should divide the research among the following categories: science, visual art, music, and literature, assigning one category to each student in the group. Using the Internet and other reference materials, each group looks for images and quotations that describe the significance of this body part in their medium. After collecting data, each group creates a museum installation dedicated to their body part, using the images and quotations they found in their research. A description, including its date, source (author or artist), and summary of its significance should accompany each piece. In a later class, students can display the installations around the room and discuss as a class how the different pieces display how perceptions of each body part have changed throughout history. 4. WRAP-UP/HOMEWORK: One of the pieces in the Folger Shakespeare Library uses the idiom “out of the frying pan into the fire” as a basis for a moral message through art. Use an idiom or cliché that incorporates the body part you researched in class (either directly or indirectly) as a starting point for your own work of art. Through music, visual art, film, writing, or any other artistic medium, create a work of art that expresses the meaning of the idiom. Further Questions for Discussion: –How can a person’s hands tell you about the type of person they are? –How do you think perceptions of the body have changed since 1700? –How can the body represent both scientific and religious beliefs? Give some examples. –Do you think someone’s future can be read on hie or her palm? Why or why not? –How do you think the increased use of computers and other technology has changed the way we use our hands? –How does the human hand distinguish us from animals? Evaluation / Assessment: Students will be evaluated on completion of journal entries, participation in class discussion, research for and creation of museum exhibits on a body part, and creation of works of art based on a body part idiom. figurative, intricate, dissected, nimble, impudicus, exegesis, waning, mechanistic, amorphous, authenticates, embellishment, chiaroscuro, chastity, franchise 1. Create a guidebook to teenager body language for adults (choose only appropriate gestures). Use diagrams to show each gesture, then explain what each one means, and with what gesture one could respond. 2. The article title begins with the idiom “rule of thumb.” Research this and other idioms, and create a dictionary of idioms and clichés, both historical and modern, that refer to body parts. For each entry, cite the origin of the phrase and its meaning. 3. Conduct research on one of the visual artists from the exhibit reviewed in the article. Choose one of his or her works and replicate it by hand. Compare the two works and assess your accuracy in recreating it. Write a short essay based on your experience answering the following question: Which body part do you think holds the greater responsibility for artistic skill: the mind or the hand? 4. Attend either the exhibit reviewed in the article or another art exhibit, and write a review analyzing the exhibit’s success in portraying its theme. American History- Learn about how changing notions of the body and humanity have produced art that is sometimes shocking or disturbing. Research a work of art (visual, musical, or literary) that was protested or banned because of its message. Write a short paper about the reaction surrounding its release and how it affected our society’s perceptions of the body and humanity. Global History- Research the shift mentioned in the article between the “ancient patterns of thought regarding the body as nature’s or G-d’s highest creation” and “a mechanistic world view.” Write a paper describing the significant events that caused this shift and how it affects us today. Science- The body is an intricate and efficient machine. Research one body system (circulatory, respiratory, immune, etc), and create a diagram showing how it functions. Social Studies- Common gestures often tell us a lot about the culture from which they originate. Research several gestures that are used in most cultures (such as “hello,” “goodbye,” or “wait”). Create a chart showing the various gestures used by different cultures to represent the same idea. Other Information on the Web: MuseumStuff.com (http://www.museumstuff.com) is dedicated to creating a Web-based guide to museum-related information. This information includes links to museum web sites and virtual exhibits, educational and entertaining games and activities, and extensive learning resources concerning topics typically promoted through art, science, and history museums. Museum Spot (http://www.museumspot.com/) is a free information resource center that simplifies the search for the very best and most useful museum information on the Web. From the site, quickly and easily locate museums by location and topic, explore museums by type, search for exhibits by artist, access educational and industry resources, and much more. Academic Content Standards: Language Arts Standard 4- Gathers and uses information for research purposes. Benchmarks: Uses a variety of resource materials to gather information for research topics; Determines the appropriateness of an information source for a research topic (CTSS – ‘english’, ’6-8’, ’4’) Language Arts Standard 7- Demonstrates competence in the general skills and strategies for reading a variety of informational texts. Benchmark: Understands how visual, spatial, temporal, and functional values of artworks are tempered by culture and history. (CTSS – ‘english’, ’6-8’, ’7’) Visual Arts Standard 3- Knows a range of subject matter, symbols and potential ideas in the visual arts. Benchmark: Knows different subjects, themes and symbols which convey intended meaning in artworks Visual Arts Standard 4- Understands the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. Benchmarks: Understands similarities and differences among the characteristics of artworks from various eras and cultures; Understands the historical and cultural contexts of a variety of art objects Language Arts Standard 4- Gathers and uses information for research purposes. Benchmarks: Synthesizes a variety of types of visual information, including pictures and symbols, for research topics; Determines the validity and reliability of primary and secondary source information and uses information accordingly in reporting on a research topic (CTSS – ‘english’, ’9-12’, ’4’) Language Arts Standard 7- Demonstrates competence in the general skills and strategies for reading a variety of informational texts. Benchmarks: Draws conclusions and makes inferences based on explicit and implicit information in texts; Scans a passage to determine whether it contains relevant information. (CTSS – ‘english’, ’9-12’, ’7’) Visual Arts Standard 3- Knows a range of subject matter, symbols and potential ideas in the visual arts. Benchmark: Understands how visual, spatial, temporal, and functional values of artworks are tempered by culture and history. Visual Arts Standard 4- Understands the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. Benchmark: Knows a variety of historical and cultural contexts regarding characteristics and purposes of works of art

http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2001/02/02/talk-to-the-hand/

What was life like for women in the first half of the 19th century in America? What influence did women have in shaping the attitudes towards slavery? Towards women's suffrage? One myth that Southern slave owners and proponents were happy to perpetuate was that of the slave happily singing from dawn to dusk as he worked in the fields, prepared meals in the kitchen, or maintained the upkeep of the plantation. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895) was a former slave who became the greatest abolitionist orator of the antebellum period. During the Civil War he worked tirelessly for the emancipation of the four million enslaved African Americans. In the decades after the war, he was the most influential African American leader in the nation. He delivered this speech on July 5, 1852. It is generally considered his greatest and one of the greatest speeches of the 19th century. Before you read the speech you can follow these links to learn more about Douglass’s life and the evolution of his thought in this period.

http://edsitement.neh.gov/calendar/2013-02-20

Language is the primary tool human beings use for thinking, communicating and learning. Having a knowledge of several languages can provide new perspectives on the surrounding world, enhanced opportunities to create contacts and greater understanding of different ways of living. The English language surrounds us in our daily lives and is used in such diverse areas as politics, education and economics. Knowledge of English thus increases the individual’s opportunities to participate in different social and cultural contexts, as well as in international studies and working life. Teaching of English should aim at helping the pupils to develop knowledge of the English language and of the areas and contexts where English is used, and also pupils’ confidence in their ability to use the language in different situations and for different purposes. Through teaching, pupils should be given the opportunity to develop all-round communicative skills. These skills involve understanding spoken and written English, being able to formulate one’s thinking and interact with others in the spoken and written language, and the ability to adapt use of language to different situations, purposes and recipients. Communication skills also cover confidence in using the language and the ability to use different strategies to support communication and solve problems when language skills by themselves are not sufficient. Teaching should help pupils to develop their skills in searching for, evaluating, choosing and assimilating the content of spoken language and texts from different sources. They should also be equipped to be able to use different tools for learning, understanding, being creative and communicating. Teaching should encourage pupils to develop an interest in languages and culture, and convey the benefits of language skills and knowledge. Teaching in English should essentially give pupils the opportunities to develop their ability to: • understand and interpret the content of spoken English and in different types of texts, • express themselves and communicate in speech and writing, • use language strategies to understand and make themselves understood, • adapt language for different purposes, recipients and contexts, and • reflect over living conditions, social and cultural phenomena in different contexts and parts of the world where English is used. Core content, In years 4–6 Content of communication • Subject areas that are familiar to the pupils. • Daily situations, interests, people, places, events and activities. • Views, feelings and experiences. • Daily life, ways of living and social relations in different contexts and areas where English is used. Listening and reading – reception • Different types of conversations, dialogues and interviews.• Films and dramatised narratives for children and youth. • Songs, sagas and poems. • Strategies to understand key words and context in spoken language and texts, for example, by adapting listening and reading to the form and content of communications.• Different ways of searching for and choosing texts and spoken English from the Internet and other media. • Language phenomena such as pronunciation, intonation, grammatical structures, spelling and also fixed language expressions in the language pupils encounter. • How words and fixed language expressions, such as politeness phrases and forms of address, are used in texts and spoken language in different situations. • How different expressions are used to initiate and complete different types of communications and conversations. Speaking, writing and discussing – production and interaction • Presentations, instructions, messages, narratives and descriptions in connected speech and writing. • Language strategies to understand and make oneself understood when language skills are lacking, such as through reformulations. • Language strategies to participate in and contribute to discussions, such as questions, and phrases and expressions to confirm understanding. • Language phenomena to clarify and enrich communication such as pronunciation and intonation, spelling and punctuation, polite phrases, and other fixed language expressions and grammatical structures.

http://kaliningradendre.se/?page_id=26

Despite their name, and the common conception that a centipede has 100 legs, this is in fact not true. The centipede has pairs of legs that run the length of the body of the centipede, which are normally between 15 and 30 pairs of legs in total and not 50. There are thought to be around 8,000 species of centipede worldwide, although only about 3,000 have actually been properly documented and undergone intense studying in the scientific world. The centipede can be found worldwide and has even been spotted inside the Arctic Circle. The centipede can range in size from a few millimetres to 30 cm long. The centipede has a bite that will be painful to humans but not fatal unless the human is allergic (like with wasp/bee stings). The centipede is usually found on land in moist habitats usually under rocks, leaf litter, logs and occasionally in burrows in the ground or rotting wood. The centipede favours damp environments and so is rarely found in the hot and dry desert regions. The centipede is one of the most dominant predators of the insect world, having claws on their first body segment is one of the centipedes noticeable traits. The centipede is a carnivorous animal and is therefore a pure meat-eater. Centipedes mainly prey on insects, spiders, earthworms and other small invertebrates although some large species of centipede have been known to prey on small mammals and reptiles. The centipede has a number of predators in it's natural environment although all the animals that generally prey on the centipede are relatively small. Birds, toads, frogs and small mammals such as shrews and mice are the most common predators of the centipede. The centipede is also seen by humans in certain cultures. Female centipedes lay an average of 60 eggs per clutch which are coated in a sticky substance for protection. The female centipede usually buries her eggs in the soil and some species of centipede are known to nurse their eggs and baby centipedes but not all. The centipede is one of the oldest animals on Earth having evolved into the form it is today, millions of years ago. The centipede has been found in fossils dating over 400 million years old.

http://a-z-animals.com/animals/centipede/edit/

Patterns of Ocean Circulation Environmental scientists study ocean circulation because, along with patterns of air movement in the atmosphere, the movement of water through the oceans helps determine weather and climate conditions for different regions of the world. The three main patterns of ocean circulation are gyres, upwelling, and thermohaline circulation. Patterns of ocean circulation: Gyres As the prevailing winds in earth’s atmosphere blow across the surface of the oceans, the winds push water in the direction that they’re blowing. As a result, the surface water of the oceans moves in concert with the air above it. This dual movement creates large circular patterns, or gyres, in each of the planet’s oceans. The ocean gyres move clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Ocean gyre circulation moves cold surface water from the poles to the equator, where the water is warmed before the gyres send it back toward the poles. The water’s temperature influences the temperature of the air: Cold currents bring cooler air to the coastline as they move toward the equator, and they bring warmer air to the continents they pass on their way back toward the poles. Patterns of ocean circulation: Upwelling Sometimes the movement of surface currents along a coastline leads to a circulation process called upwelling. As a result of the Coriolis effect, upwelling commonly occurs on the west coast of continents, where the surface waters moving toward the equator are replaced by deeper cold water that moves up to the surface. The deep water brings with it nutrients from the bottom of the ocean. These nutrients support the growth of primary producers, which support the entire food web in the ocean. Regions of the world where deep ocean upwelling occurs are often very productive with high numbers of many different types of organisms living in them. Patterns of ocean circulation: Thermohaline circulation The largest circulation of water on the planet is a direct result of changes in temperature and salinity. Salinity is the measure of dissolved salt in water. The pattern of ocean currents related to salinity and temperature is called the thermohaline circulation (thermo = heat; haline = salt). This figure gives you a general idea of what this pattern looks like. Sometimes called the thermohaline conveyor belt, this circulation pattern moves cold water around the globe in deep water currents and warmer water in surface currents. A single molecule of water being transported by thermohaline circulation may take a thousand years to move completely throughout the Earth’s oceans. The conveyor is driven by changes in the density of water as a result of changes in both temperature and salinity. Here’s how this circulation pattern works: Warm water in a shallow current near the surface moves toward the North Pole near Iceland. As this water reaches the colder polar region, some of it freezes or evaporates, leaving behind the salt that was dissolved in it. The resulting water is colder and has more salt per volume than it did before (and thus is more dense). The cold, dense, salty water sinks deeper into the ocean and moves to the south, as far as Antarctica. After it makes its way near Antarctica, the cold, deep current splits, one branch moving up toward India into the Indian Ocean and the other continuing along Antarctica into the Pacific Ocean. Each branch of the cold, deep current is eventually warmed in the Indian Ocean or the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. Although the water still contains the same amount of salt, it’s a little less dense because it’s warmer than the cold water surrounding it; as a result, it moves upward, becoming a surface current. The warm, shallow, less dense surface current moves to the west, across the Pacific Ocean, and into the Indian Ocean, where it rejoins the Indian Ocean branch. Both branches then continue into the Atlantic Ocean and head back toward the North Pole. Environmental scientists who study global climate change are interested in how increased ice melting in the Arctic and Greenland will affect the thermohaline circulation. The addition of large amounts of fresh water will reduce the salinity and density and may change the pattern of global ocean circulation.

http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/patterns-of-ocean-circulation.navId-813972.html

Simply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article. Once you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review. ...the AC signals that set up the switches employed in the circuit. Single-frequency tones were used in the switching network to signal availability of a trunk. Once a trunk line became available, multiple-frequency tones were used to pass the address information between switches. Multiple-frequency signaling employed pairs of six tones, similar to the signaling used in Touch-Tone dialing. What made you want to look up "multiple-frequency signaling"? Please share what surprised you most...

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/397133/multiple-frequency-signaling

Promoting Social and Moral Development through Sports Marty Ewing, PhD Promoting Social & Moral Development US Youth Soccer Parents Resource Library For most people the development of social roles and appropriate social behaviors should occur during the childhood years. Physical play between parents and children, as well as between siblings and/or peers, serves as a strong regulator in the developmental process. Physical play may take the form of chasing games, rough housing or wrestling, or practicing sport skills such as jumping, throwing, catching, and striking. These activities may be competitive or non-competitive and are important for promoting social and moral development of both boys and girls. Unfortunately, fathers will often engage in this sort of activity more with their sons than their daughters. Regardless of the sex of the child, both boys and girls enjoy these types of activities. Physical play during infancy and early childhood is central to the development of social and emotional competence. Researchers have reported that children who engage in more physical play with their parents, particularly with parents who are sensitive and responsive to the child, exhibited greater enjoyment during the play sessions and were more popular with their peers (MacDonald, 1988). Likewise, these early interactions with parents, siblings and peers are important in helping children become more aware of their emotions and to learn to monitor and regulate their own emotional responses. Children learn quickly, through watching the responses of their parents, that certain behaviors make their parents smile and laugh while other behaviors cause their parents to frown and disengage from the activity. If children want the fun to continue, they engage in the behaviors that please others. As children near adolescence, they learn through rough-and-tumble play that there are limits to how far they can go before hurting someone (physically or emotionally), which results in termination of the activity or later rejection of the child by peers. These early interactions with parents and siblings are important in helping children learn appropriate behavior in the social situation of sport and physical activity. Children learn to assess their social competence (i.e., ability to get along with and acceptance by peers, family members, teachers and coaches) in sport through the feedback received from parents and coaches. Initially, children are taught "you can?t do that because I said so." As children approach school age parents begin the process of explaining why a behavior is right or wrong because children continuously ask, "why?" Similarly, when children engage in sports, they learn about taking turns with their teammates, sharing playing time, and valuing rules. They understand that rules are important for everyone and without these regulations the game would become unfair. The learning of social competence is continuous as we expand our social arena and learn about different cultures. A constant in the learning process is the role of feedback as we assess the responses of others to our behaviors and/or comments. In addition to the development of social competence, sport participation can help youth develop other forms of self-competence. Paramount among these self-competencies is self-esteem. Self-esteem is how we judge our worthiness and indicates the extent to which an individual believes her/himself to be capable, significant, successful and worthy (Coopersmith, 1967). Educators have suggested that one of the biggest barriers to success in the classroom today is low self-esteem. Children are coming to our schools and sport teams with low self-esteem. Self-esteem is developed through evaluating our abilities and by evaluating the responses of others to us. Children actively observe parents' and coaches' responses to their performances looking for signs (often nonverbal) of approval or disapproval of their behavior. No feedback and criticism are often interpreted as a negative response to the behavior. Within the sport arena, research has shown that the role of the coach is a critical source of information which influences children?s self-esteem. Little League baseball players whose coaches had been trained to use a "positive approach" to coaching (more frequent encouragement, positive reinforcement for effort and corrective, instructional feedback) had significantly higher self-esteem ratings over the course of a season than children whose coaches used these techniques less frequently (Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979). However, the most compelling evidence supporting the importance of coaches' feedback was found for those children who started the season with the lowest self-esteem ratings. In addition to evaluating themselves more positively, low self-esteem children evaluated their coaches more positively than did children with higher self-esteem who played for coaches who used the "positive approach." Moreover, Barnett, Smoll and Smith (1992) found that 95 percent of the youth who played for coaches trained to use the positive approach signed up to play baseball the next year compared with 75 percent of the youth who played for untrained adult coaches. The importance of enhanced self-esteem on future participation cannot be overlooked. A major part of the development of high self-esteem is the pride and joy that children experience as their physical skills improve. (As adults we experience the same feelings when our boss compliments us on a job done well!) Children will feel good about themselves as long as their skills are improving. However, if children feel that their performance during a game or practice is not as good as that of others, or as good as they think mom and dad would want, they often experience shame and disappointment. Some children will view mistakes made during a game as failure and will look for ways to avoid participating in the task if they receive no encouragement to continue. At this juncture, it is critical that adults (parents and coaches) intervene to help children interpret the mistake or failure. Children need to be taught that a mistake is not synonymous with failure. Rather, a mistake means a new strategy, more practice, and/or greater effort is needed to succeed at the task. Because children often use social comparison as a way of determining their ability in sport, the highly visible arena of youth sports provides children with many opportunities to determine their ability compared with others on their teams. Unfortunately, given the influence of other factors such as maturation and previous knowledge of a sport on one?s ability to perform a sport skill, children often reach incorrect conclusions about their abilities. Thus, the role of parents and coaches becomes significant in helping children interpret the failure. The development of self-esteem and perceptions of competence are not as simple as providing only positive feedback. The role of coaches? feedback, while critical, is complex. For example, among 13 to 15 year old female softball players, skill development was the primary contributor to positive changes in self-perceptions of ability (Horn, 1985). However, certain coaching behaviors also influenced perceptions of self-esteem during practice situations. Specifically, players who received more frequent positive feedback or no feedback in response to desirable performances during practice scored lower in perceived physical competence, while players who received more criticism in response to performance errors had higher perceptions of competence. Although these results appear contradictory to interpretations of the roles of positive and negative reinforcement, Horn attributed these findings to the specific nature of the comments. Positive reinforcement statements given by coaches were often unrelated to players? skill behaviors. That is, statements were not responses to desirable skill techniques and behaviors, but rather were more general (e.g., "good job, Sally" rather than "good job, Sally, on using two hands to catch the ball"). Coaches? use of criticism was often a direct response to a skill error and usually contained skill relevant information on how to improve (e.g., "That?s not the way to hit a ball, Jill! Put both hands together and keep your elbows away from your body"). Thus, the quality of coaches? feedback is critical to children?s understanding of the feedback. Specifically, instructional content, rather than the quantity of the feedback is the key to helping athletes develop skills and perceived competence. Another issue related to social competence, particularly during the adolescent years, is how youth perceive their competence in an activity, including sport. Research has shown a significant relationship between physical competence, interpersonal skills, and peer acceptance (Weiss & Duncan, 1992). Boys and girls who believed that they were physically competent in sport were rated as having higher physical competence by their teachers. Those who believed that they were physically competent were also those who perceived themselves to be more popular with their peers, were competent in social relationships as rated by their teachers, and expected to be successful in interpersonal situations. Finally, the development of high self-esteem is critical to help youth buffer the negative influences experienced by youth in today?s society. For example, the Women?s Sports Foundation has proposed that girls who have high self-esteem are less likely to become pregnant as teenagers and are more likely to leave an abusive relationship than girls with low self-esteem. When teenagers evaluate themselves in a positive way, they are more capable of saying "no" to drugs and gangs. High self-esteem will not guarantee that youth will make the right decisions, but it does provide a stronger basis for resisting the pressures that currently exist. In addition to developing a positive sense of self, involvement in sport activities can assist children in learning what is right from wrong (i.e., moral development). Indeed, moral concepts of fairness support the very existence of the notion of sport (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995). For youth to learn about fair play, sport activities must be designed to facilitate cooperation rather than just competition. One of the best ways that participation in sport can teach our children about fair play is through teaching the rules of the game and, more importantly, ABIDING by the rules during competition. If the league rules mandate that every member of the team plays for a specified amount of time (e.g., one-quarter of the game or a specified number of innings or minutes), parents and coaches should follow the rule without grumbling about what will happen when we HAVE to put Chris, a low ability athlete, in the game. Equally important is instilling the understanding that time and positions must be shared during the early learning periods. In addition, many of children?s early experiences in informal and formal sports require that children serve as their own officials. Tennis players must call their own lines during competitions while pick-up games require that children call their own fouls. These games only continue peacefully to the extent that everyone cooperates to have a game and is fair in their officiating calls. If fair play is to be taught and learned, it is the responsibility of all those associated with the sport experience to help athletes learn and appreciate the concept of fair play. Parents, coaches, and officials will undermine the learning of the concept of fair play if they are not consistent in their teaching and personal conduct. Most coaches and parents espouse the virtue of fair play until they perceive that the opponent is gaining an advantage or winning unfairly. Parents may even chastise the coach who abides by the rules and does not win, which sends a mixed message to youth about the importance of fair play. Journalists and broadcasters have fallen into the same trap of believing that the only worthy performance was that given by the winning team regardless of whether they abided by the rules or not. For example, broadcasters laud the cleverness of a team which is able to confuse the official and send a better free throw shooter to the line instead of the person who was fouled. Parents and coaches must help youth interpret the appropriateness of these behaviors in light of what is right and wrong. Implications for Social and Moral Development Through Sport The development of appropriate social behavior begins BEFORE children enter sports. Parents and siblings provide important information to infants, toddlers and young children about acceptable ways to respond to being frustrated. For example, children learn that biting, hitting, pinching and kicking are not acceptable ways to retaliate because (1) these actions hurt others and (2) the play often stops when children act inappropriately. Learning the limits to which one can go and still maintain the ?game? is one way children learn how to interact successfully with other children. Participation in sport extends the learning of social competence by teaching children to cooperate with their teammates and opponents as well as abide by the rules. Without this cooperation the game will not continue. Parents and coaches must be persistent and consistent in teaching the value of cooperation. Parents must provide opportunities to learn social competence to both their daughters and sons. Fathers, in particular, are often more involved in teaching social competence through physical activity and sport to their sons. The outcomes of a high level of perceived competence (i.e., enhanced self-esteem, higher perceptions of competence, and greater acceptance by friends) are equally important to both girls and boys. Coaches can facilitate the development of social competence through the use of positive feedback. When teaching sport skills, coaches should provide plenty of instructional and encouraging statements. Children are going to make mistakes while learning and performing sport skills. The use of a positive approach to error correction will assure that children will want to continue to practice and will enhance self-esteem, particularly among youth who have lower self-esteem. Sport provides numerous opportunities to teach moral principles. The key to children learning what is right and wrong starts with coaches and parents being consistent in their OWN behavior. Coaches and parents should: use situations that arise in sport as opportunities to teach WHY certain behaviors are right and others are wrong talk about the importance of being honest promote acceptance of responsibility for one?s actions teach children to respect one?s teammates, opponents and officials Martha Ewing is an Associate Professor at the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at Michigan State University. The Institute for the Study of Youth Sports (YSI) was founded by the Michigan Legislature in 1978 to research the benefits and detriments of participation in youth sports; to produce educational materials for parents, coaches, officials, and administrators; and to provide educational programs for coaches, officials, administrators, and parents. You can contact the YSI at (517) 353-6689, or at [email protected]

http://www.mayouthsoccer.org/parents/promoting_social_moral_dev.aspx

Why use primary sources? What is history and how can we make sense of it? How can we excite our students about the past and teach them to think like historians? One way we can learn about the past is by examining primary sources. They make history come alive. They offer different points of view. Students will find them engaging. Analyzing them will encourage historical thinking. Making connections to the past will help them understand the present. What are primary sources? Textbooks, encyclopedias and biographies are examples of secondary sources that use information provided by someone else. Primary sources come from direct personal experiences or observations. Examples include photographs, journals, newspapers, letters, music, interviews, movies or songsheets. This activity links to a sampling of the millions of primary sources in the American Memory collections. Observe, think and ask. Holidays and celebrations are an important part of America's culture. Use the holiday-related primary source links in this activity to help your students connect to the past. As they examine the featured documents, encourage them to carefully observe what they see and hear. Draw on their prior knowledge to find out what understanding they already have about the documents. Stimulate their critical thinking skills to encourage further questioning and research. Practice the process with various media types – written documents, images, sound, and movie files. We have provided a simple graphic organizer to use as a note-taking tool. When you finish analyzing these sample documents, search for more examples throughout the collections. Once you get started, it will be hard to stop!

http://loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/holidays-past/introduction.html

This interactive activity from NOVA scienceNOW reviews several potential means of storing carbon dioxide (CO2) captured from industrial sources. Among the featured ideas are technologies that deliver compressed CO2 to underground cavities, saline aquifers, and the deep seabed. The benefit of storing, or sequestering, captured CO2 could be significant in the fight to slow or limit global warming. However, the list of drawbacks associated with carbon sequestration includes high cost, storage capacity limitations, a still-incomplete understanding of the relevant Earth systems, and uncertainty as to whether the CO2 can be safely and permanently contained. Through the carbon cycle, Earth captures about half of an estimated eight billion metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced annually through the combustion of fossil fuels. Land plants absorb CO2 for photosynthesis, and in the oceans, CO2 readily dissolves in seawater. Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming, the overwhelming consensus among scientists is that something must be done to remove most of what otherwise accumulates in the atmosphere or to reduce our combustion of fossil fuels in the first place. Many technological solutions are being explored to capture CO2 either in the air or directly at an emissions source. Once collected, the gas must be safely and permanently stored to prevent its release back into the atmosphere. Before that can happen, the CO2 must be compressed. By nature, gas is expansive and more difficult to contain than a solid or liquid. Using compression, CO2 gas can be converted into a "supercritical" fluid—somewhere between a gas and a liquid state. While this is both an energy-intensive and expensive process, once complete, the reformatted CO2 can be transported to a storage facility. Various storage solutions have been proposed, tested, and even put into limited use. They involve sites aboveground, belowground, and in the ocean. Aboveground solutions mostly rely on agricultural means to "fix" carbon in soil, while belowground solutions generally involve filling existing cavities, including depleted coal beds, oil and gas fields, or aquifers, with the fluid CO2. Ocean storage can also take many forms, including injecting CO2 deep into the seabed or stimulating growth at the surface of plankton populations, which use CO2 in photosynthesis. While each of these options has merits, each has its drawbacks as well. Although it may be appealing to plant trees and allow vegetation to absorb CO2 for photosynthesis, when plants die, they release much of their stored carbon back into the atmosphere. Another approach, using alkaline minerals to react with the acidic CO2 to form stable carbonates, appears effective, but the process of mining to obtain these minerals would make it prohibitively expensive. And as large a potential storage capacity as the oceans offer, the effects of increased levels of CO2 on organisms, especially benthic bottom-dwellers, is largely unknown. Existing research suggests that higher ocean acidity threatens calcium carbonate, the key structural constituent of coral skeletons and mollusk shells. Among other concerns about these technological solutions cited by both scientists and potential investors is the potential for leakages that could spoil freshwater supplies, and the inadequate storage capacity that most terrestrial solutions offer. And then there's the price: using present sequestration technologies, cost estimates range from $100 to $300 per ton of carbon emissions kept out of the atmosphere. All of this suggests that geological and ocean sequestration may only realistically represent one part of the solution to the problem—a solution that likely must also include reducing our consumption of fossil fuels. Academic standards correlations on Teachers' Domain use the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) database of state and national standards, provided to NSDL projects courtesy of JES & Co. We assign reference terms to each statement within a standards document and to each media resource, and correlations are based upon matches of these terms for a given grade band. If a particular standards document of interest to you is not displayed yet, it most likely has not yet been processed by ASN or by Teachers' Domain. We will be adding social studies and arts correlations over the coming year, and also will be increasing the specificity of alignment.

http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/nsn08.sci.ess.watcyc.capcarbonint/

Lesson Plans and Worksheets Browse by Subject - Ancient Civilizations - Christine K., secondscience - Sylvania, OH Ancient Civilizations Teacher Resources Find teacher approved Ancient Civilizations educational resource ideas and activities Sixth graders examine important information relating to Ancient Egypt while obtaining specific knowledge about ancient civilizations. In this ancient civilizations lesson, 6th graders read a chapter on Ancient Egypt, discuss and complete a 'Coat of Arms' worksheet, and explore websites dedicated to ancient civilizations. Learners explore the ancient civilization of Mali and examine various historical and cultural aspects of the civilization. In this ancient civilization of Mali lesson, students examine trade with respect to geographic locations, discover the Sudiata's Legacy and examine the five pillars of Islam. By working together, pairs of learners will complete a Pi webquest. Using the internet, they examine the ways people in the Ancient Civilizations of Egypt, Babylonia and Greece used Pi. To end the lesson, they review the concepts of radius, diameter and circumference by creating a cartoon or poster to honor and publicize Pi. Students identify and sort primary source photographs of contributions from ancient civilizations. In this ancient civilizations lesson, students work in small groups to identify and discuss the contributions. Students sort 53 photographs as coming from Egypt, Greece, China or Rome. Fifth graders analyze prints featuring ancient civilizations and create a postcard. In this postcards from the past instructional activity, 5th graders analyze a variety of pictures, identify primary and secondary sources, choose which civilization and picture they will use for their postcard. Students also write a message on the back, and share their work with the class.

http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/ancient-civilizations

Democracy - Elections Democratic elections are widely recognized as a foundation of legitimate government. By allowing citizens to choose the manner in which they are governed, elections form the starting point for all other democratic institutions and practices. Genuine democracy, however, requires substantially more. In addition to elections, democracy requires constitutional limits on governmental power, guarantees of basic rights, tolerance of religious or ethnic minorities, and representation of diverse viewpoints, among other things. To build authentic democracy, societies must foster a democratic culture and rule of law that govern behavior between elections and constrain those who might be tempted to undermine election processes. As Secretary of State Hillary Clinton remarked recently at Georgetown University, “Democracy means not only elections to choose leaders, but also active citizens and a free press and an independent judiciary and transparent and responsive institutions that are accountable to all citizens and protect their rights equally and fairly. In democracies, respecting rights isn’t a choice leaders make day by day; it is the reason they govern.” (Washington, D.C., December 14, 2009). E-Journal, More than elections: How Democracies Transfer Power - Western Hemisphere Leaders Discuss Economic, Social Opportunities. March 2010. - Cooperation Crucial to Western Hemisphere Nations’ Success. March 2010. - U.S., Colombia Sign Action Plan on Racial and Ethnic Equality. February 2010. - Democracy In Brief

http://bogota.usembassy.gov/elections.html

2. Sample Prolog Programs In this chapter we provide several sample Prolog programs. The programs are given in a progression from fairly simple programs to more complex programs. The key goals of the presentation are to show several important methods of knowledge representation in Prolog and the declarative programming methodology of Prolog. 2.1 Map colorings This section uses a famous mathematical problem -- that of coloring planar maps -- to motivate logical representations of facts and rules in Prolog. The prolog program developed provides a representation for adjacent regions in a map, and shows a way to represent colorings, and a definition of when the colorings in conflict; that is, when two adjacent regions have the same coloring. The section introduces the concept of a semantic program clause tree -- to motivate the issue of semantics for logic-based programming. 2.2 Two factorial definitions This section introduces the student to computations of mathematical functions using Prolog. Various built-in arithmetic operators are discussed. Also discussed is the concept of a Prolog derivation tree, and how derivation trees are related to tracings of Prolog. 2.3 Towers of Hanoi puzzle This famous puzzle is formulated in Prolog. The discussion concerns both the declarative and the procedural meanings of the program. The program write puzzle solutions to the screen. 2.4 Loading programs, editing programs Examples show various ways to load programs into Prolog, and an example of a program calling a system editor is given. The reader is encouraged to read sections 3.1 an 3.2 on How Prolog Works before continuing with 2.5 Negation as failure The section gives an introduction to Prolog's negation-as-failure feature, with some simple examples. Further examples show some of the difficulties that can be encountered for programs with negation as failure. 2.6 Tree data and relations This section shows Prolog operator definitions for a simple tree structure. Tree processing relations are defined and corresponding goals are studied. 2.7 Prolog lists This section contains some of the most useful Prolog list accessing and processing relations. Prolog's primary dynamic structure is the list, and this structure will be used repeatedly in later sections. 2.8 Change for a dollar A simple change maker program is studied. The important observation here is how a Prolog predicate like 'member' can be used to generate choices, the choices are checked to see whether they solve the problem, and then backtracking on 'member' generates additional choices. This fundamental generate and test strategy is very natural in Prolog. 2.9 Map coloring redux We take another look at the map coloring problem introduced in Section 2.1. This time, the data representing region adjacency is stored in a list, colors are supplied in a list, and the program generates colorings which are then checked for correctness. 2.10 Simple I/O This section discusses opening and closing files, reading and writing of 2.11 Chess queens challenge puzzle. This familiar puzzle is formulate in Prolog using a permutation generation program from Section 2.7. Backtracking on permutations produces all solutions. 2.12 Set of answers Prolog's 'setof' and 'bagof' predicates are presented. An implementation of 'bagof' using 'assert' and 'retract' is given. 2.13 Truth table maker This section designs a recursive evaluator for infix Boolean expressions, and a program which prints a truth table for a Boolean expression. The variables are extracted from the expression and the truth assignments are 2.14 DFA parser A generic DFA parser is designed. Particular DFAs are represented as Prolog 2.15 Graph structures and paths This section designs a path generator for graphs represented using a static Prolog representation. This section serves as an introduction to and motivation for the next section, where dynamic search grows the search graph as it The previous section discussed path generation in a static graph. This section develops a general Prolog framework for graph searching, where the search graph is constructed as the search proceeds. This can be the basis for some of the more sophisticated graph searching techniques in 2.17 Animal identification game This is a toy program for animal identification that has appeared in several references in some form or another. We take the opportunity to give a unique formulation using Prolog clauses as the rule database. The implementation of verification of askable goals (questions) is especially clean. This example is a good motivation for expert systems, which are studied in Chapter 2.18 Clauses as data This section develops a Prolog program analysis tool. The program analyses a Prolog program to determine which procedures (predicates) use, or call, which other procedures in the program. The program to be analyzed is loaded dynamically and its clauses are processed as first-class data. 2.19 Actions and plans An interesting prototype for action specifications and plan generation is presented, using the toy blocks world. This important subject is continued and expanded in Chapter 7. Prolog Tutorial Contents

http://www.csupomona.edu/~jrfisher/www/prolog_tutorial/2.html

Benefits. Expressive arts (art, music, dance and dramatics) provide content for literacy development. The arts not only provide important content but serve as a vehicle for developmental learning for children of all ages and abilities. The expressive arts offer important opportunities for expression, problem-solving, and social development. Through participation in expressive arts, children of all abilities can make great strides in the processes of understanding and creating symbols and developing their own personal iconography, both of which are critical to communication and literacy development. Adults can help all children find ways to express their knowledge, feelings, and ideas through visual symbols, dramatic gestures, and musical sounds. Children who are involved in expressive arts are participating in their own learning. When given choices and ample time to create, they will construct their own realities, communicate their feelings and ideas and make sense of and give meaning to their world. While this freedom of expression is important to all children, it is especially valuable to children with disabilities who might not be able to express themselves in other ways and who often do not feel in control of their environment due to their disabling conditions. A rich expressive environment. Classroom environments rich in language experiences and the arts, foster literacy development. Ways to support a rich expressive environment include reading and reenacting stories and poems, singing songs, listening to music, creating and looking at artworks displayed, and labeling objects in the classroom. "Reading" environmental print is an important step in understanding that words have meaning. Children proudly recognize familiar icons or symbols in their environment, such as a red hexagon "STOP" sign or the "Golden Arches" of McDonalds. Children "read" the symbol (shape) before they read the words. Label familiar objects in the child's environment to help them begin to make connections between the symbol shape and the word. Printed letters are also symbols, symbols of sounds and spoken words. Combinations of symbols form words. Print begins to have meaning. Wesley recognizes the letter "W," which is the first letter of his name. Each time he sees a word that begins with "W," Wesley announces, "That's my name!" This announcement clearly represents the extent of Wesley's current knowledge about print and demonstrates how "meaning-making" works and happens one step at a time. Expressive vocabulary. To express their knowledge and understanding children draw, speak, and write progressing through a complex development of graphic, oral, and written language. Children communicate ideas and feelings through drawings, words, gestures, body movements, and music. An expressive art vocabulary should be used when helping children talk about their art work and the art work of adults and peers.This will help the children to gain new words to express how they perceive their marks, shapes, forms, or images and how they feel about their work. Lines can be described as straight, crooked, curved, slanting, thick, thin, edge, smooth, jagged, long,or short.They can be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal. Lines can be single or multiple. Lines can be wavy or zig-zaggy. They can make shapes or forms. A child's body can create a line as it moves during dramatic play and responds to music. Sound and movement have direction. They can be fast or slow, high or low, loud or soft, beside, above, or under. Form and shape can be precise or amorphous (irregularly formed), positive or negative, many or single. Forms and shapes can be large or small and flat, bumpy, or round. They can have names like square, rectangle, triangle, andcircle. Space is the area around or enclosed by forms. It can be positive, negative or over-lapping. Space can be far, near, high, wide, deep, close, beside, inside, front, back, and middle. Colors have value, intensity, tint, and shade. Colors have names. They can be warm or cool, light or dark. There are primary colors, secondary colors, complementary colors and contrasting colors. Texture can be soft, fuzzy, rough, smooth, bumpy, hard, or slick. Texture can be achieved through simple or complex patterns and by varying or mixing the tools and materials used. Developmental stages. Children's drawing and emergent writing both follow developmental stages, universal patterns, and symbols when they are given time, space, and materials. Both mark making and writing begin with random scribbling, advance to controlled scribbles and marks, and then procede to mock letters and basic shapes and forms. Next children begin to combine shapes as they draw to represent something or someone. They explore combinations of mock and real letters. Finally recognizable or representational drawing and conventional letters appear. Remember that children spend a long time exploring, investigating, and playing with shapes, forms, and combinations of diagrams before they are interested in creating recognizable symbols to communicate an idea or feeling. Given their own writing materials and encouragement from adults, young children convey their curiosity and new ideas through drawing and through writing. Quality children's literature. Many wonderful children's books are available about art and adult artists; many others exist that are illustrated by well known artists. Choosing quality children's literature becomes a crucial part of fostering emergent literacy. By selecting quality children's literature, you enable children to be actively involved in stories. When books are used in combination with visual arts, drama, expressive movement and sound making, they can provide additional motivation to become literate and a reason to communicate visually. The expressive arts provide opportunities to reenact favorite books or stories internalizing and interpreting actions of characters in a story. See a selection of children's literature listed at the end of this article. Children develop skills. Symbol making and symbol recognition are major building blocks in early childhood. The expressive arts provide numerous opportunities for young children with disabilities to make marks, use gestures, and use spoken and written words, thereby becoming more fluent in their communication skills. A repeated symbol drawn may represent the child's initial self-portrait. Over time, the same symbol may begin to take on more detail and other symbols may begin to represent key features in the child's life, such as family members, a pet, or their name. Creativity, emergent literacy, problem solving, predicting, and sequencing are just a few of the skills developed when children reenact a story, create a graphic image with Kid Pix,or compose a song with creative movements. Children socially interact and expand their vocabulary as they negotiate for art materials, share props and tools, and collaborate in movement and dramatic play activities. Expressive movement further adds to the child's range of motion and control of actions. They will experience, with the assistance of props, such as scarves, the ability to make small and large movements. Technology. Children with disabilities can develop skills when technology is incorporated in the classroom setting. Technology in some settings is "just another center;" however, technology and adaptative peripherals are essential so children with disabilities can access the same or similar activities as their less disabled peers. Today's technology can grow right along with the child. Simple icons can be attached to switches so the child begins to develop an awareness of cause and effect. Depending on the developmental level of the child, additional choices may be added. For example: the audio CD, The Three Little Pigsby Greg & Steve, can be recorded onto the switches of a TalkPad. A small graphic of the wolf can be printed, laminated, and taped to the button. When pressed, the wolf will say, "Little Pig, Little Pig, let me come in." As the child becomes capable of making more choices, different phrases can be added using different icons for recognition. Words can be added to the icon to support the development of emergent literacy skills. Teachers can add technology to any classroom open house, family night, or parent-teacher conference. Early childhood teachers, participating in the Expressive Arts Outreach Project, have created individual child portfolios and classroom slide shows using various children's software including: Kid Pix, Disney's Magic Artist, Crayola's Make a Masterpiece,and HyperStudio. Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What do You See?(Martin & Carle, 1995) became the model for one classroom's expressive arts activity using Kid Pix Studio(Br¯derbund). Children used the rhyming patterns in the book and created a Kid Pix Studioslide show about their study of "brown" things. After hearing the story, children discussed objects that were brown and then drew pictures of their favorite brown things (e.g., chocolate, brown squirrel, monkey, chocolate Labrador) using the Kid Pixdrawing tools. Then, with teacher help, each child created his/her own page or "slide" and added sounds. The resulting slide show contained the children's drawings and their voices as each child narrated his/her section of the story. Using the slide show option from Kid Pix Studio,the pages ran automatically, resulting in an original classroom version of Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?Two copies of the slide show were printed out, laminated, and bound. One was placed in the classroom library and the other by the computer, where small groups of children enjoyed viewing their slide show and following along in the printed book. HyperStudio(Knowledge Adventure), an authoring program that contains drawing tools, can be used to produce 'stacks' (sequential computer screens) based on authentic experiences and interests of young children. Stacks can be used to relive classroom events, to retell familiar stories, to author new stories, and to facilitate experiences at home and school (Bell, Clark, & Johanson, 1998). Children can extend their expressiveness by being involved in initial planning, gathering materials, making decisions, implementing ideas, and producing stacks with varying amounts of adult assistance. Children create and plan sounds, images, text, video, links, animation, buttons, and transition effects. They can organize cards, evaluate aesthetic qualities of the stack, and suggest revisions. To introduce descriptive language, dance experiences, and drama activities to enable her children to express thoughts and feelings, to expand their understandings, and to extend their knowledge levels through creative self expression, one early childhood teacher developed an activity that led to a variety of expressive arts experiences for the children in her classroom. She collected several translucent scarves in many colors, brought them to the classroom, and invited each child to choose a scarf and move it through the air. Then she read the book Color Dance(Jonas, 1989). When she finished reading, she invited the children to stand and move their scarves again as she played classical music. She told the children to think of the dancers in the book and asked open ended questions including, "Tell me all the ways dancers with scarves can move." Matt said his scarf swirled. Others used descriptive words like swaying, swinging, hopping, flipping, flapping,and wrapping.Next, the teacher invited the children to draw their own color dance story. Some used crayons or markers and drew on paper. Others used graphics capabilities of HyperStudio.Then the teacher scanned photos taken of the experience and the children's drawings. These were used to create a HyperStudiostack about the children's color dance. The stack was then printed, pages were laminated and bound, and the resulting book was placed in the classroom book center. Using HyperStudioresulted in software that related an experience unique to this class. The children could see pictures of themselves involved in the activities, could hear their words, and could view their drawings. They could also revisit their "color dance" experience at the computer and at the classroom book center, where their printed version was shelved beside the original book by Ann Jonas. Summary. If children are given time, materials, and in some cases a few adaptations, children can "draw their stories and dance their poems." The experiences will help children communicate and make connections with emergent literacy. The expressive arts offer all young children important vehicles for learning: creating symbols, expressing feelings, and communicating ideas. The expressive arts fosters learning across many domains, including emergent literacy. Images, sound, and movement produced by children are symbols, just as words are abstract representations of events, people, animals, objects, and the environment. Bell, C., Clark, L., & Johanson, J. (1998). HyperStudio: A literacy tool.Closing the Gap, 17(3), 6. Jonas, A. (1989). Color dance.New York: Trumpet. Martin, B., & Carle, E. (1995). Brown bear, brown bear, what do you see?New York: Henry Holt. The following list contains children's books that focus on art in general, aesthetic elements like color, form, and line, artists, and books that support children's dramatic play. Baker, A. (1994). White Rabbit's color book.New York: Kingfisher Books. Bj–rk, C., & Anderson, L. (1985). Linnea in Monet's garden.Stockholm: RabÈn & Sj–gren Publishers. Blizzard, G. (1992). Come look with me: Animals in art.Charlottesville, VA: Thomasson- Grant, Inc. Carle, E. (1995). I see a song.NY: Scholastic. Cohen, C. (1988). The mud pony. dePaola, T. (1989). The art lesson.New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Florian, D. (1991). A potter.New York: Greenwillow Books. Gauch, P. (1980). Christina Katerina & the box.New York: Coward-McCann, Inc. Hubbard, P. (1996). My crayons talk. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. Hull, J. (1989). Clay.New York: Franklin Watts. Hutinger, P., et. al. (2001). ArtExpress.Macomb, IL : Center for Best Practices in Early Childhood, Western Illinois University. Johnson, C. (1955). Harold and the purple crayon.New York: Harper & Row. Lester, A. (1989). Imagine.New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Le Tord, B. (1995). A blue butterfly: A story about Claude Monet.New York: Doubleday. Lionni, L. (1975). A color of his own.New York: Scholastic. Lionni, L. (1995). Little blue and little yellow.New York: Mulberry Books. Micklethwait. L. (1993). A child's book of art.New York: Dorling Kindersley. Micklethwait, L. (1994). I spy a lion: Animals in art.New York: Greenwillow Books. Moss, S. (1995). Peter's painting.New York: Mondo Publishing. Pacovsk·, K. (1995). Flying.New York: North South Books. Seymour, R. (1994). The National Gallery abc.New York: Universe Publishing. Shaw, C. (1989). It looked like spilt milk. New York: Scholastic. Waters, E., & Harris, A. (1993). Painting, a young artist's guide.New York: Dorling Kindersley. Wolf, A. (1984). Mommy, it's a Renoir!Altoona, PA: Parent-child Press. Yenawin, P. (1991). Lines.

http://www.wiu.edu/thecenter/articles/draw2.html

Technicians are scrambling to contain the damage after March 11's devastating earthquake and tsunami knocked out power at Japan's Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. Seawater is being flooded into the reactor core to prevent overheating, and radioactive gas is being periodically vented to prevent pressure from building up. But these are merely stopgap measures to prevent a full meltdown of the reactor core. How likely is it that this strategy will fail and Japan will face a total meltdown? At the moment, not very. It's an inexact term, but "meltdown" generally refers to the complete melting of a plant's nuclear fuel rods. These rods are about half an inch in diameter and 12 feet long and are surrounded by a zirconium covering called cladding. To prevent overheating, water is constantly circulated through the reactor. When the cooling system fails, the rods, made of a ceramic material, can melt. The melted nuclear material drips down and accumulates, possibly penetrating the core. In the case of the Fukushima plant, it is believed that the top 2 to 3 feet of the rods were exposed after the power went out, causing them to overheat. The vessel containing the nuclear core has not been penetrated. Nuclear engineers prefer the term "partial melting" for events of this type. The good news is that the plant is not currently operating, meaning that the fuel is only producing about 6 percent of the heat normally generated when it's up and running. During the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, the plant was still running during a power surge that essentially turned the plant's reactor core into a small nuclear bomb, pushing actual radioactive material -- as opposed to gas with trace radioactive elements -- out into the air. The bad news is that without power, the plant's technicians can't resume the normal circulation of water through the core to cool down the rods. The controlled venting of steam from the reactor -- while necessary to prevent overheating -- is also problematic. Inside the core, the steam reacts with the protective zirconium casing surrounding the rods, creating hydrogen. When this hydrogen is vented out and interacts with oxygen, it can cause explosions like those that occurred at the plant on March 12 and 14. The steam also contains cesium and iodine -- radioactive elements that are dangerous to human health. The level of radioactivity around the plant, while relatively modest, is still twice what the Japanese government considers safe. This venting process could potentially continue for several months. The most severe instance of partial melting in history occurred at the Three Mile Island plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in 1979. The melting was caused when a pump pushing water into the reactor core failed for unknown reasons. Nuclear specialists say that the melting at Fukushima Daiichi may release more radioactivity than that incident. However, a disaster on the scale of Chernobyl, which left hundreds of square miles uninhabitable for years, is believed to be nearly impossible because of improved containment facilities at modern nuclear plants. Thanks to Mujid Kazimi, director of the Center for Advanced Nuclear Energy Systems at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and John Lee, professor of nuclear engineering and radiological sciences at the University of Michigan.

http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/03/14/what_happens_during_a_nuclear_meltdown

With constantly rising global energy needs, the uncertainty of long term fossil fuel supplies and their negative effect on the climate, there is a growing demand for environmentally clean energy sources. For decades, nuclear fission power has been a cheap and reliable source of energy for many countries. In such fission reactors, the actual fuel for the fission reaction is the uranium isotope U-235. A fission reactor generates electricity by fissioning materials such as U-235 by impacting them with thermal neutrons, which creates great amounts of energy (around 200 MeV per reaction). Each such fission reaction produces another 2-3 neutrons, which can then again be used to fission other atoms and so on. Some neutrons are lost in the reactor through several processes without ever causing a further fission reaction, such that the average number of neutrons that can cause further fissioning produced after one reaction is somewhat lower. The average number of fission neutrons produced for each given fission neutron is called the neutron multiplication factor, κ. In a nuclear power plant, it is desirable to keep κ close to 1, such that the number of reactions per unit time (and thus the power output) stays constant. This has as a consequence that a reactor is always operated close to criticality, i.e. close to the point where the fission reaction would run away if left to itself. The fact that fission reactors have to produce their own neutron flux is the central issue leading to this weakness. In other words, free neutrons are a valuable good in the nuclear power industry. One of the other main disadvantages of the current use of nuclear fission power is the fact that the current reserves of uranium will only be able to support the current energy equirements for about a century, if we assume U-235 to be the only fuel. Of the uranium that occurs naturally, this isotope makes up only 0.7 percent of the total mass, the rest of the uranium is made up by the isotope U-238. U-238 by itself cannot be used as fuel for a fission reactor, since it is not "fissile." Nonetheless, U-238 is a "fertile" isotope, which means that a fissile element (in this case plutonium-239) can be bred from it. It is therefore very desirable to find a means to breed the rest of the uranium resources such that they too can be used as fuel for nuclear power plants, since this would vastly increase the timescale over which nuclear fission could provide power. This breeding process can take place when U-238 is being hit by thermal neutrons, which again illustrates the great value of free neutrons for this industry. This is the central function of a fusion-fission hybrid reactor. The basic idea of the fusion-fission hybrid reactor is to use the high intensity neutron flux produced by a fusion reactor to drive a nuclear fission reaction and at the same time breed fissile fuel from fertile materials. A hybrid reactor will have as a core a nuclear fusion reactor, in which deuterium and tritium nuclei will be fused together to form helium and a fast neutron. Each such reaction releases about 17 MeV, which is substantially less than the 200 MeV released during the fissioning of U-235, but still remarkable. For the purpose of this paper I will focus on magnetic confinement fusion reactors. The most advanced and most promising such reactor design is the tokamak reactor. A tokamak is a toroidal chamber with magnetic coils around it such that they produce a toroidal field inside the chamber and prevents any charged particle from leaving the chamber. Since the fusion takes place with all materials in the plasma state, all nuclei are charged and will therefore be confined by this toroidal "magnetic bottle." The charged helium nucleus produced in each fusion reaction remains in the plasma and keeps it heated. In addition, auxiliary heating is required to keep the plasma at sufficient temperature for fusion to occur. The ratio of input heating power to output fusion power is denoted by the dimensionless factor Q. Currently, fusion machines are at the verge of reaching a Q-value of 1, while a commercial pure fusion reactor would require a Q of about 10 to be viable. The neutron produced in each reaction carries away about 14.5 of the total 17 MeV and is therefore the prime energy carrier of the reaction products. Since it is neutral, it is not charged and will escape from the magnetic confinement. The total outward neutron flux produced by a fusion reactor is substantial in relation to its power output, and poses a great engineering and materials science hurdle for the blanketing of the reactor core. In a hybrid reactor, there will be a blanket of fertile materials surrounding the fusion reactor core. This blanket will fulfill several purposes. First, the outgoing neutrons will be decelerated and their kinetic energy will be absorbed. Second, in the collision-rich deceleration process and in other atomic processes related to the neutron impacts in the blanket, a number of secondary neutrons is produced. Third, each free neutron can now either lead to a breeding reaction, thereby transforming a fertile nucleus into a fissile one, and fourth, the neutrons can hit fissile materials, producing great amounts of energy and further neutrons. The hybrid reactor design poses many great features. First, the fusion power required for the hybrid reactor to be viable is substantially less than that required for a pure fusion reactor. This is because the main purpose of the fusion core is not the production of energy, but rather the production of neutrons. The fissile materials in the blanket that are targeted by these neutrons produce substantially more energy per reaction and therefore can make up for weak power output performance of the fusion machine itself. In fact, a hybrid reactor would be viable with a fusion Q factor of only 2, which is much lower than the value of 10 required for a pure fusion machine. Second, a hybrid reactor would produce enough fissile fuel through breeding to fuel several other traditional fission reactors, which would lead to an even better overall power output performance. As a fertile blanketing material, either U-238 or thorium-232 are desirable, since they would breed the useful fissile isotopes Pu-239 and U-233, respectively. Third, the experience gained from commercially operating a fusion reactor in a hybrid design would be very useful in working towards the long term goal of sustainable pure fusion energy (which basically has unlimited fuel supply) without the strict requirements for performance as for a standalone fusion reactor. Fourth, the hybrid reactor doesn't increase the risk of nuclear proliferation, granted that hybrid reactors are run only in the politically stable countries that possess nuclear weapon technology today. In this case, the fissile fuel could be exported to other countries in a far subcritical concentration (mixed with fertile U-238 for example), such that very advanced enrichment technologies would be required to produce nuclear fuel suitable for weapons. The spent fuel can then be brought to the hybrid reactor "fuel production plants" again for additional breeding and so on. This overall situation would be similar to the present day situation in which a few uranium rich countries export fissile fuels in low, subcritical concentrations (the natural U-235 concentration of 0.7%) around the world. Fifth, the blanket subject to neutron flux could be used to transmute long-lived radioactive waste from conventional fission reactors into less harmful, short lived waste which is easier to dispose of. A hybrid reactor essentially combines the respective advantages of both nuclear fission and fusion, while mitigating their respective weaknesses. The hybrid reactor design produces useful fissile fuel from otherwise radioactive waste. This fuel can then be used in existing, conventional nuclear power plants. A hybrid reactor uses a nuclear fusion reactor core, which only requires a Q factor of 2 for the entire hybrid system to be viable, since most of the energy produced by the reactor will be generated by fission reactions in the blanketing. The engineering, construction and maintenance of the core fusion reactor will be helpful in achieving the future goal of pure fusion power. Finally, nuclear proliferation is not increased with the fuel producing hybrid reactor design, spent fuel which would otherwise be radioactive waste can be used to produce useful new fissile fuel and long-lived radioactive waste can be transmuted into less dangerous, shorter-lived waste. © Julian Kates-Harbeck. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author. H. A. Bethe, "The Fusion Hybrid," Physics Today 32, No. 5 (May 1979). J. P. Freidberg and A. C. Kadak, "Fusion-Fission Hybrids Revisited," Nature Phys. 5, 370 (2009).

http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2011/ph241/kates-harbeck1/

talk about the structure of DNA and RNA Warming up the brain: Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides, consisting of bases (purines and pyrimidines), as you probably recall from your genetics or cell biology class, sugars (ribose or deoxyribose), and a phosphate backbone. Remember that we have some rules, called "Watson-Crick" base pairing, by which adenylate nucleotides can hydrogen bond to thymidylate nucleotides (or uridylate in RNA), while guanylate nucleotides hydrogen bond to cytidylate nucleotides. A pairs with T (or U) Is this all starting to come back to you now? Let's find out. about the bases Stop me if you've heard this one... A guy walks into a bar and says "My name's Chargaff, and 22% of my DNA is "A" nucleotides. I'll bet anyone that they can't guess what percentage of my DNA is "C" nucleotides!" You say "I'm thirsty, so I'll take that bet!" and then Yes, it can be done! Erwin explains, we have double stranded DNA genomes, so if 22% is "A", then there must also be 22% "T", because every "A" base will be paired with a "T" base. You with me? So 22%+22%=44% is the percentage of the DNA that is either "A" or "T". That implies that the percentage that is "G" or "C" must be whatever is left, or 100%-44%=56%. Every "G" must be base paired with a "C" and every "C" must be base paired with a "G", so exactly half of that 56% must be "C" bases. That is, 28% are "C" bases and 28% are "G" bases. Here's a photo gallery (Click for larger images): red = oxygen, blue = nitrogen, white = hydrogen, gray = carbon. What atom does the amber color represent? The nucleotide bases make up the core of the double helix, as you can see in the picture below. This snapshot comes from a site you'll probably want to investigate, an "Interactive Animated Nonlinear Tutorial" by Eric Martz, from the Department of Microbiology at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst. Here's another good site to visit, to learn about the Chime plug-in, and to study the overall structure of DNA. Chime is pronounced with a hard "K" sound as in "kind", not a "Ch" sound as in "chair." You can develop a real "feel" for molecules if you familiarize yourself with the shareware RasMol (RasMac) program. With this program, you can inspect crystallographic structures downloaded from Brookhaven National Labs, turning the molecules on the screen so you can see them from every side and angle. Downloading instructions are available on the Web, as are instructions for finding molecules to play with. If you have the Chime plug-in working, you may be able to see the following two examples, generated by GLACTONE (http://chemistry.gsu.edu/glactone/). You may also download them directly and use An AT base pair hydrogen bonding come to pass? Well, suppose this is a cherry, and you're going to make chocolate cupcakes with cherries on top. You make the cake mix, fill the little cupcake holders and bake the cupcakes. Then you put a cherry on top of each, and whip up a batch of chocolate icing. Here is one, ready to cover with frosting! Here's one that was covered well, in fact it was so evenly covered with frosting that you can no longer see the cherry! Then, an interesting thing happens. On some of the cupcakes, the chocolate icing is very thin. It dribbles down onto the cake, leaving the cherry somewhat visible through the frosting. It is almost as if the cupcake and the cherry are fighting for the frosting, and the cupcake is winning! In fact, sometimes the frosting gets so thin, that there's nothing left to hold the cherry in place, so it pops out, leaving the frosting still stuck to the cake. Hmmm... What does this make us think of? Why polar covalent bonds, of course! You see, some atoms are more electronegative than others. Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, so in an -OH group, the oxygen takes more than its fair share of electrons. That's just like the cupcake taking more than its fair share of frosting. The electrons get very thinly distributed over the hydrogen and get more thickly distributed over the oxygen. That gives a partial negative charge to the oxygen and a partial positive charge to the hydrogen. Why? Because the electron is charged, and if more of it is distributed in one place, that place will get a bit of charge. Nitrogen can play the same trick, because it is also more electronegative than hydrogen. On the other hand, carbon and hydrogen are about the same in electronegativity, so they share the electrons pretty fairly. There will not be a partial charge on the carbon, because the electrons are distributed evenly in the bond. The carbon-hydrogen bond reminds us of the well-frosted cake - all neutrally distributed: On the other hand, the oxygen-hydrogen and nitrogen-hydrogen bonds remind us of the thinly-frosted cake, and the thin frosting leads to a "dipole moment", or partial charge: difference between DNA and RNA? DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose while RNA is made with the sugar ribose. It's just a matter of a single 2' hydroxyl, which deoxyribose doesn't have, and ribose does have. Of course, you all remember that RNA uses the base uracil instead of thymine Cytosine naturally has a high rate of deamination to give uracil Cytosine deamination (i.e. water attacks!) Uracil in the DNA is a big no no, and there are specific enzymes called uracil N-glycosylases (from the gene called ung, about which we'll have much more to say in a later lecture) that excises the offending deoxyuridylate nucleotide so that it can be replaced. If the uracil had arisin by deamination, then what will be the nucleotide base across from it? There will be a G nucleotide across from it, if the mutation just occurred. That's because the G was paired with the C that deaminated to a U. On the other hand, if there is a round of DNA replication before the uracil N-glycosylase arrives on the scene, then there will be an A nucleotide across from the U. That's because the U will have had a chance to be a template in DNA replication, and U base pairs to A, If you're an organism that doesn't want to end up looking like a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle (who as you may recall, were suffering from the effects of a "retromutagen" that made them behave like adolescent boys), then you should keep a sharp eye out for deoxyuridylate nucleotides. The dU should be excised rapidly and replaced with a C, so that these deamination events do not become "fixed" as a mutation. Some types of mutations change a pyrimidine to a different pyrimidine, or a purine to a different purine. We call these transition mutations. If a purine is mutated to a pyrimidine, then it is a transversion mutation. So, for example, a mutation of A to T or C to A would be what? Right! A transversion, and a mutation of A to G or T to G would be a transition. Sometimes deoxycytosine is methylated on its "5 position," so what would happen to the coding content of deoxy-5-methyl-cytosine if it were unlucky enough to be naturally deaminated? Deamination of 5-methyl cytosine gives you Do you know my name? So you see the problem...the 5-methyl cytosine is deaminated to thymidine. The new thymidine looks like any other thymidine - it's a mutation! A transition mutation, because it is a pyrimidine changed to another pyrimidine. Perhaps that is why there are so few CG dinucleotides in mammalian genomes. CG dinucleotides are frequently methylated on the C base, so CG may frequently mutate to TG, leaving CG "under represented". In fact, CG dinucleotides are sometimes associated with regulatory regions of genes, and we call them "CG islands" because they are so rare. about the sugars Now let's look at the sugar component of nucleic acids. Remember that ribose and which is deoxyribose? There is a 5' end and a 3' end to a nucleic acid. The 5' end frequently has a phosphate attached, while the 3' end is typically a hydroxyl group. A single strand of DNA has a "polarity" or "directionality." It isn't like a piece of string, in which you cannot distinguish one end from the DNA vs. RNA sugars Deoxyribose with thymine base Ribose with uracil base Study the phosphate at the 5' end click for larger image Study the hydroxyl at the 3' end click for larger image Synthesize? Degrade? Sit and wait? How does an enzyme like DNA polymerase Klenow Fragment know what to do next? Well, there are some general rules of conduct that these enzymes learn in school, and you can learn them too. rules of conduct for Klenow and T4 DNA polymerases 1. Remember your base pairing rules: G goes with C and A goes with T. 2. The 5' ends are strictly off limits, unless you have your holoenzyme license (and for your information, you 3. There will be no synthesis without a free 3' end, unless you have your RNA polymerase license (and for your information, you don't!) 4. There will be no degradation without a free 3' end, unless you have your endonuclease license (and for your information, you don't!) 5. There will be no synthesis without an underlying template, unless you have your terminal transferase license (and for your information, you don't!). Excess nucleotide substrates is NOT accepted as an excuse for untemplated additions to the 3' end. 6. Under no circumstances may you make a synthetic addition to the 5' end (even holoenzymes are not permitted to do that!). Having a template or substrate available is not an excuse for 3' to 7. There will be no reconstruction of a broken phosphodiester bond, unless you have your ligase license (and for your information, you don't!). If you are synthesizing DNA and run into an obstruction on your template, you must stop and leave the nick unrepaired. You may not excise the 5' nucleotide that is obstructing your path (see rule 2). 8. If you have no remaining template, then you must excise the nucleotide at the 3' end (and don't be tempted to break rule 5!). (repeat rule 8 until it does not apply). 9. If you have been provided with a free 3' end, a template, and a substrate molecule that is correct, you must add that nucleotide to the growing end of the strand (i.e. to the 3' end.) 10. If you have a free 3' end and a template, but after waiting for the appropriate number of milliseconds you are still missing the appropriate nucleotide substrate for the next synthetic step, you may go back and remove the one preceding nucleotide. Either of rules 9 or 10 may apply thereafter.

http://escience.ws/b572/L1/L1.htm

Harriet Tubman became famous as a "conductor" on the Underground Railroad during the turbulent 1850s. Born a slave on Maryland's eastern shore, she endured the harsh existence of a field hand, including brutal beatings. In 1849 she fled slavery, leaving her husband and family behind in order to escape. Despite a bounty on her head, she returned to the South at least 19 times to lead her family and hundreds of other slaves to freedom via the Underground Railroad. Tubman also served as a scout, spy and nurse during the Civil War. Harriet Tubman became famous as a "conductor" on the Underground Railroad during the turbulent 1850s. Born a slave on Maryland's eastern shore, she endured brutal beatings by her master and the harsh regime of the field hand. Her life was a testimony to the fierce resistance of African-American people to slavery. In 1849 Tubman fled Maryland, leaving behind her free husband of five years, John Tubman, and her parents, sisters, and brothers. "Mah people mus' go free," her constant refrain, suggests a determination uncommon among even the most militant slaves. She returned to the South at least nineteen times to lead her family and hundreds of other slaves to freedom via the Underground Railroad. Utilizing her native intelligence and drawing on her boundless courage, she eluded bounty hunters seeking a reward for her capture, which eventually went as high as forty thousand dollars. She never lost a fugitive or allowed one to turn back. Two things sustained her: the pistol at her side and her faith in God. She would not hesitate to use the pistol in self-defense, but it was also a symbol to instruct slaves, making it clear that "dead Negroes tell no tales." Timid slaves seemed to find courage in her presence; no one ever betrayed her. She affirmed her faith in God in her statement, "I always tole God, I'm gwine to hole stiddy on to you, an' you've got to see me trou [through]." Tubman collaborated with John Brown in 1858 in planning his raid on Harpers Ferry. The two met in Canada where she told him all she knew of the Underground Railroad in the East. Advising him on the area in which he planned to operate, she promised to deliver aid from fugitives in the region. Brown's admiration for her was immeasurable, and he wanted her to accompany him on the raid. Tubman planned to be present but was ill at the time and could not participate. Tubman's resistance to slavery did not end with the outbreak of the Civil War. Her services as nurse, scout, and spy were solicited by the Union government. For more than three years she nursed the sick and wounded in Florida and the Carolinas, tending whites and blacks, soldiers and contrabands. Tubman was a short woman without distinctive features. With a bandanna on her head and several front teeth missing, she moved unnoticed through rebel territory. This made her invaluable as a scout and spy under the command of Col. James Montgomery of the Second Carolina Volunteers. As leader of a corps of local blacks, she made several forays into rebel territory, collecting information. Armed with knowledge of the location of cotton warehouses, ammunition depots, and slaves waiting to be liberated, Colonel Montgomery made several raids in southern coastal areas. Tubman led the way on his celebrated expedition up the Combahee River in June 1863. For all of her work, Tubman was paid only two hundred dollars over a three-year period and had to support herself by selling pies, gingerbread, and root beer. After the war, Tubman returned to Auburn, New York, and continued to help blacks forge new lives in freedom. She cared for her parents and other needy relatives, turning her residence into the Home for Indigent and Aged Negroes. Lack of money continued to be a pressing problem, and she financed the home by selling copies of her biography and giving speeches. Her most memorable appearance was at the organizing meeting of the National Association of Colored Women in 1896 in Washington, D.C. Two generations came together to celebrate the strength of black women and to continue their struggle for a life of dignity and respect. Harriet Tubman, the oldest member present, was the embodiment of their strength and their struggle. Sarah Bradford, Harriet: The Moses of Her People (1886); Earl Conrad, Harriet Tubman (1943); Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century (1984). TIFFANY R. L. PATTERSON The Reader's Companion to American History. Eric Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors. Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. How to Cite this Page: Harriet Tubman. (2013). The History Channel website. Retrieved 12:43, May 20, 2013, from http://www.history.com/topics/harriet-tubman. Harriet Tubman. [Internet]. 2013. The History Channel website. Available from: http://www.history.com/topics/harriet-tubman [Accessed 20 May 2013]. “Harriet Tubman.” 2013. The History Channel website. May 20 2013, 12:43 http://www.history.com/topics/harriet-tubman. “Harriet Tubman,” The History Channel website, 2013, http://www.history.com/topics/harriet-tubman [accessed May 20, 2013]. “Harriet Tubman,” The History Channel website, http://www.history.com/topics/harriet-tubman (accessed May 20, 2013). Harriet Tubman [Internet]. The History Channel website; 2013 [cited 2013 May 20] Available from: http://www.history.com/topics/harriet-tubman. Harriet Tubman, http://www.history.com/topics/harriet-tubman (last visited May 20, 2013). Harriet Tubman. The History Channel website. 2013. Available at: http://www.history.com/topics/harriet-tubman. Accessed May 20, 2013.

http://www.history.com/topics/print/harriet-tubman

Antibiotic resistance is a type of drug resistance where a microorganism is able to survive exposure to an antibiotic. While a spontaneous or induced genetic mutation in bacteria may confer resistance to antimicrobial drugs, genes that confer resistance can be transferred between bacteria in a horizontal fashion by conjugation, transduction, or transformation. Thus, a gene for antibiotic resistance that evolves via natural selection may be shared. Evolutionary stress such as exposure to antibiotics then selects for the antibiotic resistant trait. Many antibiotic resistance genes reside on plasmids, facilitating their transfer. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multidrug resistant (MDR) or, informally, a superbug or super bacterium.

http://www.biosolutions.info/2012/06/antimicrobial-resistance.html

Wednesday, June 9, 1999 Published at 13:12 GMT 14:12 UK Moon's tail spotted The Earth passes through the sodium trail once a month By BBC News Online Science Editor Dr David Whitehouse The tail of sodium gas that streams out for great distances behind the Moon has been observed better than ever before. The new observations were made on the nights following the Leonid meteor shower of November 1998. The sodium atoms were blasted into space as tiny meteorites struck the lunar soil, it is believed. The tail of sodium gas was seen to stretch for distances of at least 800,000 kilometres (500,000 miles) behind the Moon. Its appearance changed over three consecutive nights. Since the Apollo Moon program, scientists have known that the Moon has an atmosphere, but it is extremely thin. "It is one continuously being produced by evaporation of surface materials, and then continuously being lost by escape or impact back onto the surface," said Michael Mendillo, professor of astronomy at Boston University, where the new research was conducted. Ten years ago, ground-based telescopes revealed that sodium gas formed part of the lunar atmosphere. "There are less than 50 atoms of sodium per cubic centimetre in the atmosphere just above the surface of the Moon," says Jeffrey Baumgardner, of Boston University's Centre for Space Physics. In contrast there are ten thousand million billion molecules per cubic centimetres in Earth's atmosphere at the surface. The researchers found that when the Moon is new, it takes two days or so for sodium atoms leaving the surface to reach the vicinity of the Earth. They are pushed away from the Moon by the pressure of sunlight and, as they sweep past us, the Earth's gravity pulls on them, focusing them into a long narrow tail. If the Moon's sodium tail were perhaps a thousand times brighter it would be bright enough for the human eye to see. It would appear as a glowing orange cloud dominating the night-time sky.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/363105.stm

Word Sort Instructions Your child will be bringing home a collection of spelling words weekly that have been introduced in class. Each night of the week your child is expected to do a different activity to ensure that these words and the spelling principles they represent are mastered. These activities have been modeled and practiced in school so your child can teach you how to do them. Monday – Remind your child to sort the words into categories like the ones we did in school. Your child should read the word aloud during this activity. Ask your child to explain to you why the words are sorted in a particular way. — What does the sort reveal about spelling in general? Ask your child to sort them a second time as fast as possible. Tuesday – Do a blind sort with your child. Lay down a word from each category as a header and then read the rest of the words aloud. Your child must indicate where the word goes without seeing it. Lay it down and let your child move it if he or she is wrong. Repeat if your child makes more than one error. Wednesday – Assist your child in doing a word hunt, looking for words in a book they have already read that have the same pattern, sound, or both. Try to find two or three for each category. Have your child write them in his or her word study notebook. Thursday – Do a writing sort to prepare for the Friday test. As you call out the words in a random order, you child should write them in categories. Call out any words your child misspells a second or even a third time. Thank you for your support. Together we can help your child make valuable progress!

http://www.laurens55.k12.sc.us/Page/6292

EARLY WHALE HISTORY Pakicetus, early ancestor of whales Whales and dolphins first emerged about 50 million years ago. Fossils of a 51-million-year-old whales that could actually walk were found in the Himalayan foothills in Pakistan in 1981. This creature, called Pakicetus , was a relatively small, furry, four-legged animal that looked like an otter with a furry crocodilian head. Fossils of a 49-million-year-old whale, called Ambulocetis natans , were found in Pakistan in 1994. It resembled Pakicetus but was larger and had splayed legs.[Source: Douglas Chadwick, National Geographic, November 2001] Transitional fossils are ones that show evolution from one group to another. Once called missing links they have ancestral features of the older species as well as novel traits of the descendant. Pakicetus is regarded as a transition fossil between land animals and whales: it could move on land but was adapted for life in the sea, with paddlelike forelimbs, ears able to hear underwater and nostrils receded towards a blowhole position. [Source: Newsweek, July 2, 2007] There is some debate about which terrestrial mammals are closest relatives of whales. It was originally thought that whales evolved from doglike ungulates called mesonychids that lived around 50 millions a year because their jaw bones resembled those of whales. This theory has large been discarded. Ambulocetus These days, most scientist believe that are artiodactyls—even-toed mammals such as deer, sheep, bison, pigs, camels and cattle—are the closest relatives of whale. Artiodactyl-like ankle bones found in ancient whales are offered as proof of this theory. Further evidence includes the fact that whales and artiodactyls have multi-chamber stomachs and similar patterns of folding in their cortexes. Moreover, mother-and-calf behavior of whales is similar to that of moose and caribou and their mating behavior is similar to big horn sheep. Sources: Britain-based Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society; International Whaling Commission (IWC) Websites and Resources: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration noaa.gov/ocean ; Smithsonian Oceans Portal ocean.si.edu/ocean-life-ecosystems ; Ocean World oceanworld.tamu.edu ; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute whoi.edu ; Cousteau Society cousteau.org ; Montery Bay Aquarium montereybayaquarium.org Websites and Resources on Fish and Marine Life: MarineBio marinebio.org/oceans/creatures ; Census of Marine Life coml.org/image-gallery ; Marine Life Images marinelifeimages.com/photostore/index ; Marine Species Gallery scuba-equipment-usa.com/marine Whales and Hippos Ambulocetus natans Many scientists consider hippopotami, which are not artiodactyls but arose from them, as the closest relatives of whales. Genetic studies indicate that the closest land cousins of whales are hippopotami while seals are related to dogs and manatees and dugongs are most closely related to elephants. Since the hippo theory has to come to light scientist have found that hippos and whales have certain anatomical similarities such as the lack of scrotums, body hair and sebaceous glands and similarity in internal organ such as lungs. Some scientist believe that whales evolved from a primitive artiodactyl called anthracotheres. It was a small creature that looked a bit like a hippopotamus and had four hoofs on each foot as hippos do today. They were abundant throughout Eurasia in the early mammal age. Some marsh-dwelling species could have evolved into early whales. The oldest hippo fossils date to 16 million years ago. Scientists think that they and whales had a common water-loving ancestor that lived 50 million to 60 million years ago. From it evolved early cetaceans, which eventually adapted to the water full time, and early piglike anthracotheres. Anthracotheres flourished, forming 37 distinct genera across the world before dying out leaving just one descendant 2.5 millions year ago—the hippopotamus. Later Whale History Balenottera di Castelfiorentino Fossils of 40-million-year-old whales with fingers have been found in Egypt. By this time ancient whales had lost their fur but retained four fingered limbs. They resembled a cross between a seal and a crocodile. Some species had flukes. Some had tails. Over time early whales: 1) lost use of their outer ears and began receiving waterborne sound in their jawbones; 2) their hind limbs grew smaller and smaller; 3) their front legs developed into flippers; 4) their nostrils migrated from their nose to the top of their heads; and they began giving birth to young at sea. Baleen whales began branching off from the toothed whale family about 25 million years. The Aetiocetus , a proto baleen whale that lived between 24 and 6 millions years ago, had teeth but showed signs of developing baleen plates from skin tissue on its upper jaws. Bowheads and right whales first appeared about 22 million years ago. As evidence of their ancient terrestrial past many species of modern whales have tiny bones that are remnants of their hind legs, buried deep in their bodies. Some have a few bristles near their blowholes, reminders that ancestors were once covered in fur. Wadi Al-Hitan A 25-million-year-old fossil skull, found in Australia and kept at the Museum Victoria, shows that the ancestors of baleen whales were not gentle giants. This ancient whale had teeth and was 3.5 meters long and may have attacked sharks. Valley of the Whales Tom Mueller wrote in National Geographic, “Thirty-seven million years ago, in the waters of the prehistoric Tethys Ocean, a sinuous, 50-foot-long beast with gaping jaws and jagged teeth died and sank to the seafloor. Over thousands of millennia a mantle of sediment built up over its bones. The sea receded, and as the former seabed became a desert, the wind began to plane away the sandstone and shale above the bones.[Source: Tom Mueller, National Geographic, August 2010] In 2009, Philip Gingerich, a vertebrate paleontologist at the University of Michigan, unearthed the creature, called Basilosaurus, at a place in the Egyptian desert known as Wadi Hitan. Standing in sand strewn with fossil shark teeth, sea urchin spines, and the bones of giant catfish, he told National Geographic while fingering an eight-inch-long bone, "It isn't every day that you see a whale's leg,’ Basilosaurus ribs Basilosaurus was indeed a whale, but one with two delicate hind legs, each the size of a three-year-old girl's leg, protruding from its flanks. These winsome little limbs—perfectly formed yet useless, at least for walking—are a crucial clue to understanding how modern whales, supremely adapted swimming machines, descended from land mammals that once walked on all fours. Gingerich has devoted much of his career to explaining this metamorphosis, arguably the most profound in the animal kingdom."Complete specimens like that Basilosaurus are Rosetta stones," Gingerich told me as we drove back to his field camp. "They tell us vastly more about how the animal lived than fragmentary remains." Wadi Hitan—literally "valley of whales"—has proved phenomenally rich in such Rosetta stones. Over the past 27 years Gingerich and his colleagues have located the remains of more than a thousand whales here. , and countless more are left to be discovered. When we pulled into camp, we met several of Gingerich's team members just back from their own fieldwork. We were soon discussing their results over a dinner of roast goat meat, foul mudamas (fava bean puree), and flatbread. Mohammed Sameh, chief ranger of the Wadi Hitan protected area, had been prospecting for whales farther to the east and reported several new bone piles—fresh clues to one of natural history's great puzzles. Jordanian postdoc Iyad Zalmout and grad student Ryan Bebej had been excavating a whale rostrum poking out of a cliff face. "We think the rest of the body is inside," said Zalmout. Mysteries About the Evolution of Whales Basilosaurus isis lower jaw in Wadi Al-Hitan The common ancestor of whales and of all other land animals was a flatheaded, salamander-shaped tetrapod that hauled itself out of the sea onto some muddy bank about 360 million years ago, Tom Mueller wrote in National Geographic. Its descendants gradually improved the function of their primitive lungs, morphed their lobe fins into legs, and jury-rigged their jaw joints to hear in the air instead of water. Mammals turned out to be among the most successful of these land lovers; by 60 million years ago they dominated the Earth. Whales were among a tiny handful of mammals to make an evolutionary U-turn, retrofitting their terrestrial body plan to sense, eat, move, and mate underwater. [Source: Tom Mueller, National Geographic, August 2010] How whales accomplished such an enormous transformation has baffled even the greatest scientific intellects. Recognizing the conundrum as one of the great challenges to his theory of evolution by natural selection, Charles Darwin took a stab at accounting for whales in the first edition of Origin of Species. He noted that black bears had been seen swimming with their mouths open for hours at a time on the surface of a lake, feeding on floating insects. "I can see no difficulty in a race of bears being rendered, by natural selection, more and more aquatic in their structure and habits, with larger and larger mouths," Darwin concluded, "till a creature was produced as monstrous as a whale." His critics poked such loud and gleeful fun at this image, however, that he eventually omitted it from later editions of his book. Nearly a century later George Gaylord Simpson, the preeminent paleontologist of the 20th century, was still at a loss to explain where whales fit in his otherwise orderly evolutionary tree of mammals. "The cetaceans are on the whole the most peculiar and aberrant of mammals," he remarked peevishly. "There is no proper place for them in a scala naturae. They may be imagined as extending into a different dimension from any of the surrounding orders or cohorts." If science could not account for the transformation of whales, antievolutionists argued, perhaps it never happened. They contended that land animals that began to adapt to aquatic life would soon be neither fowl nor fish, incapable of surviving in either medium. And if whales really had made this huge transition, where were the fossils to prove it? "The anatomical differences between whales and terrestrial mammals are so great that innumerable in-between stages must have paddled and swam the ancient seas before a whale as we know it appeared," wrote the authors of Of Pandas and People, a popular creationist textbook first published in 1989. "So far these transitional forms have not been found." Search for Fossils of Early Whales Philip Gingerich had unintentionally taken up this challenge in the mid-1970s, Tom Mueller wrote in National Geographic. After earning his Ph.D. at Yale, he began excavating in Wyoming's Clarks Fork Basin, documenting the meteoric rise of mammals at the beginning of the Eocene, after the extinction of the dinosaurs ten million years earlier. In 1975, hoping to trace migrations of mammals from Asia to North America, he started fieldwork in middle Eocene formations in the Punjab and North-West Frontier (now called Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province) Provinces of Pakistan. He was disappointed to discover that the 50-million-year-old sediments he had targeted were not dry land but marine beds on the eastern edge of the Tethys Ocean. When his team uncovered some pelvic bones in 1977, they jokingly attributed them to "walking whales"—a preposterous notion. At that time the best known fossil whales were thought to be similar to modern whales, with sophisticated mechanisms for underwater hearing, powerful tails with broad flukes, and no external hind limbs. [Source: Tom Mueller, National Geographic, August 2010] Then in 1979, a member of Gingerich's team in Pakistan found a skull about the size of a wolf's but with prominent—and very unwolflike—sails of bone at the top and sides of the skull to secure robust jaw and neck muscles. Stranger still, the braincase was little bigger than a walnut. Later the same month Gingerich came across some archaic whale specimens in museums in Lucknow and Kolkata (Calcutta), India. "That's when the tiny braincase started to make sense, because early whales have big skulls and relatively small brains," Gingerich remembers. "I began to think that this small-brained thing might be a very early whale." When Gingerich freed the skull from its matrix of hard red stone back in his lab in Michigan, he found a grape-size nugget of dense bone at its base called the auditory bulla, with an S-shaped bony crest on it known as the sigmoid process—two anatomical features that are characteristic of whales and help them hear underwater. Yet the skull lacked several other adaptations that living whales use to hear directionally beneath the waves. He concluded that the animal had probably been semiaquatic, spending significant time in shallow water but returning to land to rest and reproduce. Discovering this most primitive known whale, which Gingerich named Pakicetus, made him see whales in a new light. "I started thinking more and more about the huge environmental transition that whales had made," he remembers. "This was a creature starting out as a terrestrial animal and literally turning into an extraterrestrial. Since then, I've been consumed by the search for the many transitional forms in this huge leap from land back into the sea. I want to find them all." In the 1980s Gingerich turned his attention to Wadi Hitan. Along with his wife, paleontologist B. Holly Smith, and their Michigan colleague William Sanders, he began looking for whales in formations some ten million years younger than the beds where he'd found Pakicetus. The trio excavated partial skeletons of fully aquatic whales like Basilosaurus and the smaller, 16-foot Dorudon. These had large, dense auditory bullae and other adaptations for underwater hearing; long, streamlined bodies with elongated spinal columns; and muscular tails to drive them through the water with powerful vertical strokes. The area was teeming with their skeletons. "After a short time in Wadi Hitan you think you're seeing whales everywhere," Smith says. "And after a little more time you realize you really are. We soon understood that we'd never be able to collect all the whales, so we started mapping them and excavating only the most promising specimens." Finding Leg Bones of Early Whales Tom Mueller wrote in National Geographic, “It wasn't until 1989, however, that the team found the link they were seeking to the whales' terrestrial ancestors, almost by accident. Near the end of the expedition Gingerich was working on a Basilosaurus skeleton when he uncovered the first known whale knee, on a leg positioned much farther down the animal's spinal column than he had expected. Now that the researchers knew where to look for legs, they revisited a number of previously mapped whales and rapidly uncovered a femur, a tibia and fibula, and a lump of bone that formed a whale's foot and ankle. On the last day of the expedition Smith found a complete set of slender, inch-long toes. Seeing those tiny bones brought her to tears. "Knowing that such massive, fully aquatic animals still had functional legs, feet, and toes, realizing what this meant for the evolution of whales—it was overwhelming," she remembers. [Source: Tom Mueller, National Geographic, August 2010] Dorudon Though unable to support a Basilosaurus's weight on land, these legs weren't completely vestigial. They had attachments for powerful muscles, as well as functional ankle joints and complex locking mechanisms in the knee. Gingerich speculates that they served as stimulators or guides during copulation. "It must have been hard to control what was going on down there on that long, snakelike body, so far from the brain," he says. Whatever Basilosaurus actually did with its little legs, finding them confirmed that the ancestors of whales had once walked, trotted, and galloped on land. But the identity of these ancestors remained unclear. Certain skeletal features of archaic whales, particularly their large, triangular cheek teeth, strongly resembled those of mesonychids, a group of hoofed Eocene carnivores. (The massive, hyena-like Andrewsarchus, probably the largest carnivorous mammal that has ever lived on land, may have been a mesonychid.) In the 1950s immunologists had discovered characteristics in whale blood that suggested a descent from artiodactyls, the mammalian order that includes pigs, deer, camels, and other even-toed ungulates. By the 1990s molecular biologists studying the cetacean genetic code concluded that the whale's closest living relative was one specific ungulate, the hippopotamus. Missing Link Between land Animals and Whales: the Anklebone Zygorhiza kochii Gingerich and many other paleontologists trusted the hard evidence of the bones more than the molecular comparisons of living animals, Tom Mueller wrote in National Geographic. They believed whales had descended from mesonychids. But to test this theory, Gingerich needed to find one bone in particular. The astragalus, or anklebone, is the most distinctive element of the artiodactyl skeleton, because it has an unusual double-pulley shape, with clearly defined grooves at the top and bottom of the bone like the grooves on a pulley wheel that holds a rope. The shape gives artiodactyls greater spring and flexibility than the single-pulley form found in other quadrupeds. (Living whales were of no help, of course, because they have no anklebones at all.) [Source: Tom Mueller, National Geographic, August 2010] Back in Pakistan in 2000, Gingerich finally saw his first whale ankle. His graduate student Iyad Zalmout found a grooved piece of bone among the remains of a new 47-million-year-old whale, later named Artiocetus. Minutes later Pakistani geologist Munir ul-Haq found a similar bone at the same site. At first Gingerich thought the two bones were the single-pulley astragali from the animal's left and right legs—proof that he'd been right about the origin of whales. But when he held them side by side, he was troubled to see that they were slightly asymmetrical. As he pondered this, manipulating the two bones as a puzzler maneuvers two troublesome puzzle pieces, they suddenly snapped together to form a perfect double-pulley astragalus. The lab scientists had been right after all. Walking back to camp that evening, Gingerich and his team passed a group of village children playing dice with the astragali of a goat. (People in various cultures have used the anklebones of domestic artiodactyls in games and fortune-telling for millennia.) Zalmout borrowed one and gave it to Gingerich, then watched in amusement as his professor spent the rest of the evening alternately staring at the whale ankle in one hand and the goat ankle in the other, noting the unmistakable similarities. "That was a major find, but it upset my applecart," Gingerich says with a wry smile. "Still, now we knew for sure where whales came from and that the hippopotamus theory wasn't complete science fiction."Since then Gingerich and a handful of other paleontologists have filled in the story of early whales, tooth by tooth, toe by toe. Evolution of Whales Maiacetus Tom Mueller wrote in National Geographic, “Gingerich believes the first cetaceans probably resembled anthracotheres, svelte hippo-like browsers that inhabited swampy lowlands in Eocene times. (An alternative theory, advanced by paleontologist Hans Thewissen, is that whales descended from an animal similar to Indohyus, a prehistoric deerlike artiodactyl the size of a raccoon that was partly aquatic.) Whatever their shape and size, the earliest whales appeared about 55 million years ago, like all other modern mammalian orders, during the spike in global temperatures at the beginning of the Eocene. They lived along the eastern shores of the Tethys, where the waters exerted a strong evolutionary pull: warm, salty, rich in marine life, and free of aquatic dinosaurs, which had gone extinct ten million years earlier. Chasing new kinds of food sources deeper into the water, these early waders gradually developed longer snouts and sharper teeth better suited for snapping up fish. By about 50 million years ago, they'd reached the stage exemplified by Pakicetus: proficient four-legged swimmers that still moved about on land. [Source: Tom Mueller, National Geographic, August 2010] By adapting to water, early whales gained access to an environment closed to most other mammals, rich in food and shelter, and short on competitors and predators—perfect conditions for an evolutionary explosion. What followed was a starburst of idiosyncratic experiments in being a whale, most of which ended in extinction long before modern times. There was the hulking, 1,600-pound Ambulocetus, an ambush hunter with squat legs and huge snapping jaws, like a hairy saltwater croc; Dalanistes, with a long neck and head like a heron; and Makaracetus, with a short, curved, muscular proboscis that it may have used for eating mollusks. Around 45 million years ago, as the advantages of a water environment drew whales farther out to sea, their necks compressed and stiffened to push more efficiently through the water, behind faces lengthening and sharpening like a ship's prow. Hind legs thickened into pistons; toes stretched and grew webbing, so they resembled enormous ducks' feet tipped with tiny hooves inherited from their ungulate ancestors. Swimming methods improved: Some whales developed thick, powerful tails, bulleting ahead with vigorous up-and-down undulations of their lower bodies. Selection pressure for this efficient style of locomotion favored longer and more flexible spinal columns. Nostrils slid back up the snout toward the crown of the head, becoming blowholes. Over time, as the animals dived deeper, their eyes began to migrate from the top toward the sides of the head, the better to see laterally in the water. And whale ears grew ever more sensitive to underwater sound, aided by pads of fat that ran in channels the length of their jaws, gathering vibrations like underwater antennae and funneling them to the middle ear. Saghacetus osiris Though finely tuned to water, these 45-million-year-old whales still had to hitch themselves ashore on webbed fingers and toes, in search of fresh water to drink, a mate, or a safe place to bear their young. But within a few million years whales had passed the point of no return: Basilosaurus, Dorudon, and their relatives never set foot on land, swimming confidently on the high seas and even crossing the Atlantic to reach the shores of what is now Peru and the southern United States. Their bodies adjusted to their exclusively aquatic lifestyle, forelimbs shortening and stiffening to serve as flippers for planing, tails broadening at the tip in horizontal flukes to create a hydrofoil. The pelvis decoupled from the spine, allowing the tail a broader range of vertical motion. Yet like talismans from a long-forgotten life ashore, their hind legs remained, complete with tiny knees, feet, ankles, and toes, useless now for walking but good perhaps for sex. The final transition from basilosaurids to modern whales began 34 million years ago, during the sudden phase of cooling climate that ended the Eocene epoch. A drop in water temperatures near the Poles, shifts in ocean currents, and an upwelling of nutrient-rich seawater along the western shores of Africa and Europe drew whales into entirely new environmental niches and drove the remaining adaptations—big brains, echolocation, insulating blubber, and in some species, baleen in place of teeth for straining krill—present in cetaceans today. Whales, Evolution and Creationism Discoverers of Balenottera Castelfiorentino Thanks in large part to Philip Gingerich, the fossil record of whales now offers one of the most stunning demonstrations of Darwinian evolution rather than a refutation of it. Ironically, Gingerich himself grew up in a strictly principled Christian environment, in a family of Amish Mennonites in eastern Iowa. (His grandfather was a farmer and lay preacher.) Yet at the time, he felt no clash between faith and science. "My grandfather had an open mind about the age of the Earth," he says, "and never mentioned evolution. Remember, these were people of great humility, who only expressed an opinion on something when they knew a lot about it." [Source: Tom Mueller, National Geographic, August 2010] Gingerich is still baffled by the conflict that many people feel between religion and science. On my last night in Wadi Hitan, we walked a little distance from camp under a dome of brilliant stars. "I guess I've never been particularly devout," he said. "But I consider my work to be very spiritual. Just imagining those whales swimming around here, how they lived and died, how the world has changed—all this puts you in touch with something much bigger than yourself, your community, or your everyday existence." He spread his arms, taking in the dark horizon and the desert with its sandstone wind sculptures and its countless silent whales. "There's room here for all the religion you could possibly want." Ancient Whale Named For "Moby Dick" Author fossils of Livyathan melvillei June 2010, AP reported: “Scientists have discovered an ancient whale whose bite ripped huge chunks of flesh out of other whales about 12 million years ago - and they've named it after the author of "Moby Dick." The prehistoric sperm whale grew about 18 meters (60 feet) long, not unusual by today's standards. But unlike modern sperm whales, Leviathan melvillei, named for Herman Melville, sported vicious, tusk-like teeth some 36 centimeters (14 inches) long. [Source: AP, June 30, 2010] The ancient beast evidently dined on other whales, researchers said in the journal "Nature." They report finding a skull of the beast in a Peruvian desert. The researchers named it in tribute to the 19th-century author and his classic tale of the great white whale, which includes frequent digressions on natural history that punctuate the action."There is a chapter about fossils," the paper's co-author, Olivier Lambert of the Natural History Museum in Paris, said. "Melville even mentions some of the fossils that I studied for my PhD thesis." Anthony Friscia, a paleontologist at the University of California, Los Angeles, who wasn't involved in the discovery, said scattered finds of huge fossilized teeth had long hinted at the ancient whale's existence. But without a skull to fit them in, the creature's shape, size and feeding habits remained a mystery. "The fact that they have found the entire jaw - well, almost the entire skull - is what's pretty unprecedented," he said. The ancient beasts "were the killer whales of their time, although on a much grander scale," Friscia said. "They were close to the biggest things around." Friscia said he thought the choice of a name was fantastic. "You gotta love any time you get a nod to literature in taxonomy," he said. "It was a big whale, so why not?" Image Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) noaa.gov/ocean ; Wikimedia Commons Text Sources: Mostly National Geographic articles. Also the New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Smithsonian magazine, Natural History magazine, Discover magazine, Times of London, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Lonely Planet Guides, Compton’s Encyclopedia and various books and other publications. © 2009 Jeffrey Hays Last updated March 2012

http://factsanddetails.com/world.php?itemid=2224&catid=53&subcatid=341

For the Latest Bird Watching News, Hot Birding Spots, Tips & More, Subscribe to Our Free Newsletter: The Birder Alert! Bird reproduction begins, as in mammals, when an egg, or ovum, is fertilized in the oviduct by contact with a sperm cell. The fertilized ovum forms the nucleus of the egg, which will be equipped with a food source (the yolk) and a protective shell before laying. Certain domesticated birds like chickens and ducks regularly lay eggs without receiving sperm from the male - the eggs we buy in the grocery stores are unfertilized eggs. As yet another adaptation for lightness, the male's testes only enlarge when producing sperm; then they become several hundred times the normal Sperm passes to the cloaca in a coiled tube, where it is often temporarily stored. The resulting bulge in the cloaca is used by ornithologists to judge a bird's breeding condition. We use cloacal scores to record breeding condition at our MAPS banding stations. We have a scoring method to record the cloacal protuberance condition: 1=conical, 2=tubular, 3=bulging. It is a gradual progression as the male comes into breeding condition. The female has two ovaries, except in raptors, where it varies individually. Usually only the left ovary develops and like the male cloaca, shrinks after producing the season's ova - another probable adaptation for lightness for bird reproduction. Sperm is transferred to the female during copulation by direct contact of the two cloacas. The male briefly stands on the back of the female while the cloacas are pressed together (the "cloacal kiss").

http://www.birdwatching-bliss.com/bird-reproduction.html

The Ice Sheets at both poles are changing - shrinking at increasing rates - rates that are faster than was ever expected by scientists. Combined with the shrinking of these expansive blankets of continental ice is the disappearance of large expanses of sea ice. These changes will impact all of us through sea level rise and a changing climate globally. But how and when? In order to answer these questions we need to be constantly measuring and monitoring the polar regions for ice thickness, understanding the properties of the rapidly changing ice streams, and looking deeper to see what lies under the tongues of floating ice called ice shelves. These tongues of ice are the terminus of the ice sheet as it streams down from the continent and extends out over ocean water. How much water lies below can have an impact on how quickly the ice will melt, sections of ice will break off, or whole ice sheets start to break apart causing further impact. Working with NASA and other ICE Bridge partners, Lamont will be measuring previously unattainable information. Using high resolution gravity technology, refined and carefully tested in their Antarctic AGAP field season, Lamont scientists will collect data on the space and volume that lies between the ice tongues and the bedrock.

http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/research/marine-geology-geophysics/ice-bridge

Joint session of the United States Congress From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Forms of Joint Session and Joint Meeting While any meeting of both House and Senate of the US Congress is commonly called a Joint Session, there is a distinction between the two terms Joint Session and Joint Meeting: - Joint Session of congress requires a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate to meet. Joint sessions include the counting of electoral votes following a Presidential election and the State of the Union and other Presidential addresses. - Joint Meetings occur with unanimous consent agreements to recess and meet. These are usually convened to hear addresses from US or foreign dignitaries other than the President. Meetings of Congress for Presidential Inaugurations are a special case called formal joint gatherings, but may also be Joint Sessions if both houses are in session at the time. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House and take place at the House Chamber. However, the Constitution requires the President of the Senate to preside over the counting of electoral votes. State of the Union At some time during the first two months of each session, the President customarily delivers the State of the Union Address, a speech in which he assesses the situation of the country and outlines their legislative proposals for the congressional session. The speech is modeled on the Speech from the Throne given by the British monarch, and is mandated by the Constitution of the United States. Thomas Jefferson discontinued the original practice of delivering the speech in person before both houses of Congress, deeming it too monarchical. Instead, Jefferson and his successors sent a written message to Congress each year. In 1913, President Woodrow Wilson reestablished the practice of personally attending to deliver the speech; few Presidents have deviated from this custom since. Subjects of Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings In addition to State of the Union Addresses, inaugurals and counting of electoral votes, Joint Sessions usually fall into one of several topics. Foreign dignitaries Foreign Heads of State and Heads of Government from 48 countries have addressed Joint Meetings of Congress more than one hundred times. Heads of State or Government from the United Kingdom have addressed Joint Meetings most often - eight times. Prime Minister Winston Churchill addressed Congress three of those eight times. Twice have Joint Meetings been attended by the Heads of State or Government from two countries. On September 18, 1978, Congress was addressed by Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt, and Menachem Begin, Prime Minister of Israel. On July 26, 1994, Congress was addressed by Hussein I, King of Jordan, and Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel. On February 28, 2006, Silvio Berlusconi, Prime Minister of Italy, addressed the Congress at the invitation of President Bush; before him just three other Italian statesmen had the honour of addressing the Congress: Alcide De Gasperi, Giovanni Gronchi, and Bettino Craxi. Presidential addresses In addition to State of the Union Addresses, Presidents deliver addresses to Congress on specific subjects. The first such speech was delivered by John Adams on the subject of US relations with France. The most popular subjects for such addresses are economic, military and foreign policy issues. Military leaders Joint Meetings of Congress are sometimes called to hear addresses by Generals, Admirals or other military leaders. Perhaps the most notable example is Douglas MacArthur's farewell address to Congress. Nine times, Congress has jointly met to hold a memorial service for a deceased President or former President. Congress has also met to memorialize Vice President James Sherman and Marquis de La Fayette. Congress sometimes meets to mark the anniversary of an historical event or of a Presidential birthday. The first such occasion was the centennial of George Washington's first inauguration in 1889. Congress has met to mark the centennial of the birth of each President since Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The next Presidential centennial will be Lyndon Johnson's on August 27, 2008. It is not yet known whether Congress will hold a Joint Meeting or not. Historic Joint Sessions Any Joint Session is significant. - The first occurrence of a Joint Session was April 6, 1789 in New York City during the 1st Congress, for the counting of electoral votes. - The first formally recorded Joint Meeting occurred in December 18, 1874 during the 43rd Congress in Washington, DC, as a reception of King Kalakaua of Hawai'i. Because of a severe cold and hoarseness, the King could not deliver his speech, which was read by former Representative Elisha Hunt Allen, then serving as Chancellor and Chief Justice of the Hawaiian Islands. - Joint Meetings, Sessions, Inaugurations. Congressional History. Office of the Clerk, House of Representatives, US Capitol. Retrieved on January 23, 2007.

http://www.bazpedia.com/en/j/o/i/Joint_session_of_the_United_States_Congress_377f.html

Hay fever; Nasal allergies Definition of Allergic rhinitis Allergic rhinitis is a collection of symptoms, mostly in the nose and eyes, which occur when you breathe in something you are allergic to, such as dust, dander, or pollen. Causes, incidence, and risk factors An allergen is something that triggers an allergy. When a person with allergic rhinitis breathes in an allergen such as pollen or dust, the body releases chemicals, including histamine. This causes allergy symptoms such as itching, swelling, and mucus production. Symptoms that occur shortly after you come into contact with the substance you are allergic to may include: Signs and tests The health care provider will perform a physical exam and ask you questions about your symptoms. Your history of symptoms is important in diagnosing allergic rhinitis, including whether the symptoms vary according to time of day or the season, and exposure to pets or other allergens. The best treatment is to avoid what causes your allergic symptoms in the first place. It may be impossible to completely avoid all your triggers, but you can often take steps to reduce exposure. Most symptoms of allergic rhinitis can be treated. More severe cases require allergy shots. Paula J. Busse, MD, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Division of Clinical Immunology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. – 6/29/2010

http://www.drgreene.com/adam/allergic-rhinitis/

1999 Learning Strategies Learning Strategy 11 Developing a Class Constitution through Participatory Democracy Martin Doucette (NS), Derryk Flemming (ON), Bernie Rubinstein (ON) Through an examination of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, students create a class "constitution". In this interactive environment, students experience first hand the principles of participatory democracy. Global: foster citizenship. General: Introduce the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Establish class norms. Facilitate a consensus form of decision making. Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Provincial Education Act. Discuss with students the two main questions which should arise when pondering the establishment of class norms: Where do we start? Why have class rules, and where do we look for models? Brainstorm about areas that will comprise the class constitution. Discussion of roles within a group: recorder, reporter, leader, and resource manager. Clauses are written on overheads so each group can present them to Students from each group present individual clauses. Discussion is held to determine acceptability. Once clauses have all been ratified, the amendment procedure must be discussed. Use Canadian and American amending formulas as models. Discuss why amending procedure is so difficult in both countries. Print final version of class constitution. Students confirm ownership by signing master copy. Post master-copy and distribute among participants. - Self-evaluation of group participation. - Set a rubric for marking the clauses. - Optional quiz of key concepts and terms. * The ideas and opinions expressed in the Learning Strategies belong to their authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Library of Parliament. The Library of Parliament does not edit the Learning Strategies for content accuracy or currency of information.

http://www.parl.gc.ca/About/Parliament/Education/LearningStrategies/lesson.asp?Language=E&tife=1&lpl=77

PRINCIPLES OF POND FISH CULTURE 1. Fish are dependent for food directly or indirectly on plants. 2. The weight of fish which can be produced in natural waters is dependent upon the ability of the water to raise the plants. We could increase production by adding plant organic matter produced elsewhere. 3. The ability of water to produce plants is dependent upon sunshine, temperature, CO2, Mineral from soil or rocks, nitrogen (NO3- and NH4-) , O2 and water. 4. The Natural fertility of the water is dependent on the fertility of the soil in pond bottom and watershed. 5. Fertlity of water can be increased by adding inorganic fertilizers. 6. After adding all essential minerals and all available nitrogen, the next limiting factor is CO2. This compound can be increased by adding organic matter followed by liming (Ca, Mg). 7. The next limiting factor in fish production, after mineral and CO2 are provided, is oxygen demand of all living and dead organisms in the water. This can be supplied by running water rich in oxygen or pumping water from the bottom and aerate it. If oxygen in the water falls below 1.0 ppm, fish die. One ppm oxygen is enough for fish in resting condition, but for active fish, 3.0 ppm is needed. 8. Microscopic plants (planktonic algae) are the principal food producing plants for fishes. 9. Microscopic plants are the most desirable, because : (a) short life cycle, (b) mobility, (c) more nutritious, and (d) small size. 10. Rooted plants are less desirable, because: (a) long life, (b) immobility, (c) less nutritious, (d) large size, and (e) shading effect. 11. a. The more fertile the water the heavier the plankton concetration becomes, the more shallow becomes light penetration and photosynthesis. b. Heavy plankton concetration in top water causes shallow stratification and low oxygen or none in deeper water. Strong wind, or heavy cold rain causes overtum, causing trouble to the fish. Water with no oxygen spread too fast and could kill the fish. Heavy plankton can be killed by the use of CuSO4. Light can penetrate deeper, so does the production of oxygen. c. the deeper the fertile lake or pond (heavy plankton) the higher the precentage of the total volume of water deficient of oxygen during period of stratification. 12. Rooted plants are desitable, in part, in waters of low fertility, because : (1) Oxygenate deep water as far down and light penetrates, (2) draw nutrients from pond bottom soil, (3) prevent marginal erosion, (4) provide surface for food organisms, and (5) provide food for fish derectly or indirectly. 13. The longer the food chain from plant to fish the lower the production of fish obtained. The conversion rate from: Plant to fish = 5 – 10 Plant to insect = 5 – 10 Insect to fish = 3 – 10 fish to fish = 2 – 5 14. At a given level of fertility the fish production is constant for a particular species and a certain rate of stocking. The total pound/acre is dependent upon the number of fish present and the size harvested. Small fish produce high number of lbs/acre, and large ones produce small number of lbs/acre. 15. For short period of time we can regulate number ( and final size) by the number stocked. This can be done by frequent draining before the fish are old enough to spawn. For non spawner there would be no difficulity. Mortality rate can be up to 20 percent a year. 16. For long period of time the number of fish and sizes must be controlled by biological methods such as: 1. Repression - prevents reproduction, e.g. carp. 2. Predation - method of controlling the number of young fish. 3. Starvation - this could lead to weakning of fish, thus vulnerable to disease and parasites. 4. Limited spawing area 17. The greatest total weight to any one forage species (for short periode of time for piscivorous fish) can be produced in waters containing only that species. 18. The greatest total weight of fish can be produced by combination of forage fish differing in feeding habits. 19. The presence of piscivorous species decreases the total weight or fish, decreases the number of fish, but increases the average size. 20. The rate of feeding required to maintain a fish is less than the rate required for growth. 21. The amount of food required to maintain one-pound fish for one year is equal to the feed required to raise the fish to one pound. 22. A population of fish at a given level of food abundance will tend to expand until harvestable food equals the amount required for maintenance. 23. Feeding at maintenance is uneconomical for extended periods. Feeding to satiety is uneconomical too. Econimical feeding rate varies with the size of fish. 24. Economical feeding rate per acre is limited by the eficiency of the ecological system in waste disposal and reoxygenation. 25. High quality feeds must contain in proper proportion; protein for building fish flesh carbohydrate and fat for energy, minerals for contruction and regulation, and vitamins for regulation of life processes. 26. Quality of feed influences (a) the amount of waste, (b) health of fish, and (c) rate of growth. 27. By increasing feeding rate the stocking rate of fish can be increased. This could increase the incidence of parasites and diseases. 28. Within limits regulation of feeding rates can replace predation in obtaining a high percentage of harvestable fish. 29. Rates of growth of fish vary widely and are dependent upon : (a) their ability to grow, (b) the quality of feed, (c) space – waste disposal system, (d) temperature, (e) the amount of feed per individual. 30. Minimum age at spawning is dependent upon rate of growth. H.S. SWINGLE Auburn University

http://hobiikan.blogspot.com/

Tremor is a rhythmic, involuntary back-and-forth oscillation of part of the body. Tremor in children may be caused by familial essential tremor, focal epilepsy, or a psychogenic movement disorder. Tremor is often seen with ataxia, dystonia, or myoclonus. Physiologic tremor is the normal shaking that occurs when people attempt to exert large forces or lift heavy objects. If a child has weakness, this type of tremor may be accentuated. Ataxia may lead to tremor when the inaccurate movements are corrected and then repeatedly over corrected. Tremor may occur... - While at rest - While maintaining a fixed arm position or posture (postural tremor) - With movement or kinetic, action, or intention tremor Tremor may occur in the hands, feet, back, neck, face, voice, or other parts of the body. The frequency of the tremor may be described by the number of cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz). Tremor may appear suddenly, or worsen gradually over months or years. Many types of tremor disappear during sleep, only to return the next day upon awakening. Tremor is often associated with other neurological disorders; therefore, it is important to look for the cause of tremor. In familial essential tremor, the onset may occur at any age. Once started, this type of tremor often continues or become slowly worse with time. Some family members may notice that the tremor improves briefly after drinking alcohol. This type of tremor is usually postural, and may be particularly evident while the child attempts to eat or drink from an open cup. The child is examined to determine which body parts are affected, as well as the frequency and amplitude of the tremor. The tremor is examined while the child is at rest, while holding a posture against gravity (e.g., as with the arms outstretched), and while reaching for targets. Tremor may be accentuated by attempting to drink from a nearly full cup of water. It may be difficult to distinguish myoclonic or dystonic tremor from "true" tremor. Frequently, the distinction depends upon whether or not other symptoms are present, such as dystonic posturing or stimulus sensitivity. The child's strength must be assessed, as enhanced physiologic tremor may become more apparent if there is muscle weakness. Family history of tremor is important, as several types of tremor, myoclonus, or dystonia may be inherited. It is also important to look for medications or toxins that are known to cause tremor. Enhanced physiologic tremor, shaking/shuddering spells (although these may be a precursor to essential tremor), spasmus nutans. Static (fixed) injury: Stroke (particularly in the midbrain or cerebellum), multiple sclerosis juvenile parkinsonism, Wilson's disease, Huntington's disease, Tay-Sachs disease hyperthyroidism, hyper-adrenaline state (including anxiety or pheochromocytoma), hypomagnesemia, hypocalcemia, hypoglycemia, hepatic encephalopathy valproate, lithium, thyroid hormone, tricyclic antidepressants, stimulants (cocaine, amphetamine, caffeine, thyroxine, bronchodilators), neuroleptics, cyclosporin, toluene, mercury, thallium, amiodarone, nicotine, lead, manganese, arsenic, cyanide, naphthalene, ethanol, lindane Other causes of tremor: peripheral neuropathy, cerebellar disease or malformation, psychogenic tremor, familial essential tremor The workup of tremor depends upon the specific type of tremor and its possible cause. Any medications that may worsen tremor should be avoided, if possible. If the tremor had sudden onset, an MRI of the head may be able to show a stroke, multiple sclerosis, or other lesion. Electroencephalogram (EEG), which measures electrical activity in the brain, is important if there is a suspicion that the tremor is due to focal seizures. If there has been gradual onset, it is important to check electrolytes, including glucose, calcium and magnesium, thyroid function, copper in the urine (for Wilson's disease), and possibly the amount of adrenaline metabolites (for pheochromocytoma). If parkinsonian features are present, a trial of L-DOPA may be helpful. Rarely, an EMG may help to determine if the tremor is more likely to be due to dystonia or myoclonus. Tests for myoclonus, including EEG with back-averaging and SEP, may help to confirm the presence of dystonia or myoclonus. If there is a family history of tremor, it may be helpful to try the use of alcohol. This is often tried with an adult family member, rather than the child. If the tremor improves with alcohol, this suggests that it will also improve with other medications, including the dopamine agonist primidone. Often, mild tremor does not require treatment. If there is a specific illness such as Parkinson's or Wilson's disease, tremor will improve with appropriate therapy for the underlying condition. Otherwise, symptoms may often be treated with propranolol, primidone, or benzodiazepines (i.e., clonazepam, diazepam, lorazepam). In all cases, the child should start with a very small dose. The dose should be increased gradually in order to avoid side effects. If the tremor is felt to by psychogenic, then psychotherapy may be helpful in determining and avoiding any psychiatric triggers for the movement. Kids Move is WE MOVE's Web site devoted to pediatric movement disorders. Healthcare professionals and parents may access up-to-date information about the recognition, assessment, treatment, and avenues of support that are available for individuals concerned with childhood movement disorders

http://endoflifecare.tripod.com/juvenilehuntingtonsdisease/id55.html

Geometry is heavily tested on the GRE Math section, and a thorough review of geometrical concepts is essential to a high score. Consider the following problem: “If the length of an edge of a cube X is twice the length of an edge of cube Y, what is the ratio of the volume of cube Y to the volume of cube X?” The easiest way to solve this is to pick a number for the initial edge length and plug it into the problem. For instance, let’s say cube X is a 4x4x4 cube. Cube X would have a volume of 64. Cube Y would have to be a 2x2x2 cube, since 2 is half of 4, and it would have a volume of 8. The ratio of the volume of cube Y to the volume of cube X would thus be 8 to 64, or 1/8. However, you really should have known that to begin with. Imagine that cube X had edges that were three times as long as those of Cube Y. Then Cube X would now be a 6x6x6 cube if Cube Y remains a 2x2x2 cube, and the volume ratio would be 8 to 216, or 1/27. Notice something? 8 is 2 ^3, and 27 is 3^3. If the ratio of the sides is 1:4, the ratio of the volumes will be 1:64. If the ratio of the sides is 1:5, the ratio of the volumes will be 1:125. Since these are cubes, you just cube the ratios. 1^3 is 1, and 4^3 is 64; 5^3 is 125. If you know this simple property of the relationship between length and volume, it will take a problem that would take 30 seconds to solve and turn it into a problem that takes 5 seconds to solve. On a timed exam, that could be the difference between getting another, harder question right or wrong. Memorizing these kinds of mathematical facts is something that the GRE test writers expect top scorers to do, and they write the questions so that they can be solved quickly if you know them. It also pays to memorize the squares and cubes of the numbers 1 through 12. So with cubes, you cube the ratio of the sides. What about squares? If you guessed that you square the ratio of the side lengths in order to get the ratio of the areas, you’d be right, as you can see from a quick demonstration. If the original square has side lengths of 1 and the new square has side lengths of 2, the side ratio is 1:2 and the area ratio is 1:4. If the new square has side lengths of 3, then the side ratio is 1:3 and the area ratio is 1:9. If the new square has side lengths of 4, then the side ratio is 1:4 and the area ratio is 1:16, and so on. Sure enough, you just square the original ratio. So now you know about cubes and squares, but what about tesseracts? “Tessawhats?” you say? A tesseract is to a cube as a cube is to a square, just as a cube is to a square what a square is to a line. Still confused? Let me explain it this way: say you draw a line a foot long running from east to west. This line only exists in one dimension: east-west. Then, you decide to square it by adding three more lines: two perpendicular to it running north to south and one parallel to it running east to west. This square exists in two dimensions: east-west and north-south. Now you decide to turn the square into a cube by adding lines in the up-down dimension, so that each edge of the original square is now the edge of another square emanating from it. This cube exists in three spatial dimensions: east-west, north-south, and up-down. Now you take this cube you’ve made and decide to square it…in a fourth spacial dimension. What is this fourth dimension? Who knows. We live in a world in which we experience only three spacial dimensions, so it is impossible for us to imagine what a four dimensional object would look like. That hasn’t stopped mathematicians from naming four-dimensional objects, and this hypercube I’ve just described to you is called a tesseract. As you know, even though a cube is a three dimensional object, it is possible to draw a cube on a piece of paper in only two dimensions by using perspective and all those other artistic illusions. Likewise, some have attempted to render tesseracts in three dimensions in order to give some approximation of what they might look like. Having never seen an actual tesseract, though, you might still find these representations confusing. In terms of doing calculations, though, tesseracts are simple as can be. For a square with side lengths of 1 and another square with side lengths of 2, the ratio of side lengths is 1:2^1 (since sides are 1 dimensional), or 1:2, and the ratio of areas will be 1:2^2 (since squares are 2 dimensional) or 1:4. For a cube with side lengths of 1 and another cube with side lengths of 2, the ratio of volumes is 1:2^3 (since cubes are 3 dimensional), or 1:8. So, for a tesseract with side lengths of 1 and another tesseract with side lengths of 2, the ratio of hypervolumes(?) is 1:2^4 (since tesseracts are 4 dimensional), or 1:16. It just follows the pattern. Try not to think about it too much. If you’re having trouble with tesseracts, don’t worry. They’re not on the test. I just wrote about them to mess with your head. Remember, if you ever want extra help getting ready for the GRE, you can always study with experts like me through Test Masters. Until then, happy studying!

http://www.newgre.org/preparation/sample-math-problem-hip-square-or-cube/

Armistice Day, held on 11 November every year, commemorates the signing of the armistice between the Allies and Germany at 11 am on 11 November 1918 - the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month. Although hostilities continued in some areas, the armistice essentially brought an end to World War I. After the end of World War I, Armistice Day was marked each year by a two-minute silence at 11am, a chance for people to stop and remember the 20 million who died during the conflict. Now the two-minute silence is more often held on Remembrance Sunday, the Sunday closest to Armistice Day, which is a day of remembrance for all those killed in war. - Wikipedia - Armistice Day Armistice Day is held in each year on 11 November to commemorate the signing of the armistice which ended World War I on 11 November 1918. - British Red Cross - Justice and Fairness The Justice and Fairness teaching resource allows students to explore issues of fairness and justice through the lens of international humanitarian law or the “laws of war”.

http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/resources/a/armisticeday.asp

Here is a brief sketch of 19th century military organization to help civilians reading history The combat arms of an army were classified as infantry, cavalry and artillery. Infantry moved by marching, and its weapon was the individual firearm--musket or rifle, replacing the lance of the medieval army. Cavalry moved by riding, and its weapon was the sabre, later a carbine. Firing a muzzle-loading weapon while mounted was very unsatisfactory. Artillery moved by horse-drawn transport, and its weapon was the smoothbore cannon, howitzer or mortar. There were many variations within each category. Mounted infantry moved by riding, but dismounted to fight as infantry on the ground, and was armed with muskets. Dragoons were cavalry armed with carbines (originally short muskets called "dragons," hence the name) rather than sabers or lances, but U.S. dragoons originally had a saber and two pistols. Dragoons were intended as mounted infantry, at least at first. Grenadiers were infantry who threw hand bombs. Sometimes the name was simply used for units of hardened veteran soldiers. Light infantry and cavalry were units with light arms and limited supplies so they could maneuver rapidly and move quickly. For longer engagements, they required support. Units called "heavy" could operate more independently, but had cumbersome supply trains. In addition to the combat arms, there were other necessary branches. The quartermaster corps and commissary were responsible for transport and supply, and the pioneers or engineers for stream crossings and the building and assault of fortifications. Sappers and miners were engineers who burrowed under enemy fortifications to collapse them or to blow them up by explosives. The ordnance corps dealt with firearms, artillery pieces, and ammunition. By the mid-19th century, a signal corps was appearing to handle flag signalling, telegraphs, messenger services, codes and ciphers, and other communications tasks. The sanitary corps provided hospitals and medical services, not latrines (toilets). Marines were soldiers carried aboard ships for naval combats, which originally were carried out by boarding and fighting on the decks. After the practice of fighting at sea with cannon became standard, marines became a kind of sea-mobile army, fighting mainly on land. The basic unit of an army for recruitment, training and administration was the company, commanded by a Captain. These were often enlisted and trained by their Captain in a restricted locality. The Captain was assisted by his Lieutenants, usually two or three, and the First Sergeant. A company could be divided into platoons commanded by Lieutenants. A platoon could be further divided into squads. In the cavalry, companies were called troops instead. In the artillery, they were called batteries, and their subdivisions sections. Companies, troops or batteries were given letter designations in the US Army, such as A Company, H Troop, B Battery. Lieutenants and Captains are company-grade officers. The rank of Ensign became Second Lieutenant, and Lieutenant became First Lieutenant. Lieutenants are sometimes called subalterns. Non-commissioned officers were appointed from the ranks. These correspond to foremen in civilian life, and directly supervise small numbers of men. The Corporal was the first level above Private, Sergeant the next. Several different levels of sergeant were created, of which the First Sergeant was the most important, who handled the administrative duties of a company for the commanding officer. The commanding officer looks upward, the First Sergeant downward, in the chain of command. Noncommissioned officers are identified by chevrons worn on the sleeve. In armies of Spanish heritage, the noncommissioned ranks were: soldado raso (private), cabo (corporal), sargento (sergeant), brigada (staff sergeant) and alférez (master sergeant). Under the Uniform Militia Act of 1792, a company consisted of 64 privates plus noncommissioned and commissioned officers, and musicians. In 1813, the company was increased to 100 privates. Note that 64 is 8 x 8, and 100 is 10 x 10, so these units made nice squares on the parade ground. Five companies made a battalion, two battalions a regiment, four regiments a brigade, and two brigades a division. A squadron of cavalry was analogous to (but smaller than) a battalion of infantry, often consisting of two troops. The regiment, commanded by a Colonel, was the basic independent command, and was generally associated with a limited geographic area if not a numbered regiment of a standing army. In the United States, the state was the usual area, and a state's regiments were numbered sequentially. Sometimes the Colonelcy was an honorary post, and the regiment was actually commanded by its Lieutenant Colonel. The rank of Major elevated an officer from company duty to command of a battalion or squadron, or to service as a staff officer. Men and officers enlisted in a regiment, and remained with it if they were in the permanent, regular army. Promotion for the officers depended on vacancies in superior posts in their regiment, so promotion was slow. When the regiment had losses in battle or otherwise, they were made up by enlistment, not by replacements as in modern armies. A regiment could be reduced to small size by these losses. Regiments were seldom up to full size of 640 or 1000 men. The Regimental Sergeant Major was the ranking noncommissioned officer of the regiment. General officers commanded larger bodies of men, called divisions, corps and armies, usually put together arbitrarily for definite purposes. The brigadier general was a regular step in the American army, between colonel and major general, but in the British army the rank was termed brigadier, and was a special rank, like commodores in the navy, between captains and admirals. The Major General was the usual general officer, commanding a division, corps or army as required. In earlier days, it was the usual highest regular rank. Lieutenant General was a special senior rank, usually commanding an army. In the United States, Washington was the first and only Lieutenant General until the Civil War. The ranks of General and Field Marshal (U.S., General of the Army) were used later in a kind of rank inflation or competition between the officers of allied armies. American generals are identified by stars, from one for a brigadier, to five for general of the army. In most armies, stars are used for the ranks from second lieutenant to captain. An aide-de-camp is a junior officer of any rank, or even a civilian, reporting personally to a general officer, as an adviser, messenger or trusted agent. In the 19th century, the word was spelled aid-de-camp by many in the U.S., as apparently sounding more masculine, and confusing the man with his service. Spanish officer ranks were: sub-teniente, teniente, capitán, comandante, teniente-coronel, coronel, general de brigada, general de divísion, teniente-general, and capitán-general. Other ranks are occasionally met with, such as mayor and mariscal de campo, or field marshal, a rank probably originated by Napoleon. The generalísimo is the commander-in-chief. The Mexican army had the same distinction between militia and line (regular) units and ranks as existed in the United States. If there were vacancies in the officer ranks of a regiment, junior officers from elsewhere could be assigned to these positions and given a brevet rank suiting the post. Their permanent rank still depended on seniority in their own regiments. Regular army officers assigned to volunteer units often had brevet rank far above their regular rank. A regular captain could easily become a brevet brigadier general (Grant is an example). Volunteer regiments were named or numbered, as the 11th Illinois Regiment, and often nicknamed as well. The adjutant of a regiment was responsible mainly for personnel matters, and usually had the rank of Captain. Majors, Lieutanant Colonels and Colonels are called field-grade officers. The basic infantry weapon was the smoothbore musket, with flint or percussion lock. Flintlocks were used from about 1630 to as late as the 1840's. (The troublesome matchlock disappeared much earlier.) Powder, ball and bullet were eventually combined in a cartridge wrapped in stout paper. The cartridge was torn open, the powder poured down the muzzle with the wad and bullet rammed on top of it. Some powder was placed in the firing pan, or a prepared percussion cap was put in place. Rate of firing was a very important quality of an infantry unit. Although fighting was often done in formation in early times, later infantrymen fired from cover or from rifle pits, later called "foxholes." Muskets were equipped with bayonets, turning the weapon into a pike for close combat, after the charge had been fired. The rifle, in which grooves in the barrel gave the bullet a spin, was more accurate than a musket, but slower-firing and mechanically more troublesome. Early rifles were long and not well-adapted to bayonets. Around 1812, the infantry musket was a flintlock of .70 caliber, with a range of about 100 yd, while .40 caliber rifles had a range of 300 yd. A stand of arms was the individual equipment of one man, including things like a ramrod, powder horn and other equipment in addition to the weapon itself. This should not be confused with a stack of arms, which is three firearms making a tripod for temporary storage. Firearms should not be laid on the ground. The term "half cock" comes from the way a rifle lock was designed. The hammer could be drawn back to this first detent so that it was free of the flint or whatever to allow adjustments. This may have uncovered the pan to allow priming, since this was usually covered by the steel "frizzen" that the flint struck. At "full cock" it was drawn back all the way against the hammer spring and held by a second detent. When the trigger was pulled, both detents were withdrawn, and the hammer descended to strike the flint or percussion cap. If the trigger were pulled at half cock, the gun would probably not fire. The basic artillery weapon was the smooth-bore cannon on a 2-wheeled carriage. The trail of the carriage was carried on a limber, with two wheels and harness, for movement. To "limber up" meant to put the trails on limbers in preparation for moving. Ammunition was carried in special wagons called caissons. Horses pulled the limbers and caissons. Gunners either marched or rode. When in battery, the cannon were restrained to limit recoil. The charge consisted of powder, wad and shot. Shot was spherical (since the barrel was not rifled, and a nonspherical projectile would tumble), and could be solid, canister ("grapeshot" containing bullets), chain shot, or exploding shell. It was impossible to control the explosion of shells accurately with the usual time fuzes. Artillery was usually employed "point-blank" in level fire over short ranges, acting as a barrier to infantry advance. It was extremely effective when massed in this way, rather ineffective when scattered as individual pieces. Mortars gave high-angle fire, lobbing shells into fortifications at short range. Howitzers were cannon for launching explosive shells at medium angles of elevation, commonly used by infantry units. Shells often did not explode as desired, since the simple time fuze was inaccurate. When they exploded as intended, fragments rained down on men beneath them, perhaps in trenches or behind cover. Percussion fuzes were used to good effect by the Prussian forces in the War of 1870. They tended not to explode in soft ground, however. Shrapnel was a special kind of ammunition composed of bullets in a casing ("grapeshot"). It was projected from a cannon, and then blown apart by a small charge. The name later was attached to the fragments of an exploding shell. The size of an artillery piece was usually stated by the weight of iron shot that it threw. Howitzers were specified by diameter of the barrel, a practice that later became universal for all artillery pieces. Artillery in the field had to be carefully protected from the enemy by infantry or cavalry, since it could not move rapidly. A term you may run into is "spiking" a cannon to render it useless. Smoothbore cannon were fired by bringing a light to the touch hole, which was the opening of a hole drilled through to the barrel, and filled with powder to act as a fuse. To spike a cannon, a tapered steel pin was driven into the touch hole with a hammer until it was flush with the surface, or cut off flush. This pin could not be easily drawn out again (there was nothing to hold on to), and had to be laboriously drilled out before the cannon could be used again. Cavalry originally fought with sabers and lances, but short firearms that could be fired while mounted later became universal. It is very clumsy to manage a musket or rifle while mounted (two hands are required), and long-range fire is impossible. The saber was still always used for close combat, however. Repeating magazine carbines, which appeared in the 1860's, made cavalry very efficient, especially against infantry armed with muskets with slow firing rates. Until late in the Civil War, the US Army badly misused cavalry, spreading it out in small detachments as pickets and guards. Cavalry was most effective when in large massed units, which could move rapidly and had great shock power. American dragoons were armed with sabers and two pistols. Dragoons fought from horseback, mounted infantry dismounted to fight with muskets or rifles. They were each most effective on their appropriate terrain (open and smooth for dragoons, wooded or rough for mounted infantry). The copper percussion cap, generally separate, was introduced around 1830. The Prussian army adopted the Dreyse needle gun (the needle was the firing pin) in 1843, but it was not seriously used until 1866, in the Austro-Prussian war. A Prussian rifleman could get off six shots to an Austrian's one, so easy was it to reload with brass cartridges. This very rapidity of fire made some military authorities reluctant to adopt breech-loading rifles, since soldiers "would use up their ammunition too rapidly." Such was the competence of these experts! Many historians, not experienced with rifles, vastly overstate their useful ranges. Most soldiers can effectively use a rifle at ranges only up to 100 to 200 yards, which was the very limit for smoothbore muskets. It is difficult to produce aimed fire at 400 or 500 yards, simply because of the nature of open sights (which were universally used). Certainly a good breech-loading rifle, like the French Chassepot of 1866-1874, could send a bullet 1000 yards and more, but it could not be aimed at such a range. The ultimate sensitivity of the eye corresponded to a transverse distance of a foot or so in this case, so whether a bullet would hit a target was a matter of pure chance. However, at normal ranges the new rifles were much more effective. The introduction of breech-loading rifles, which could fire much more rapidly than muzzle-loaders, and of rifled, breech-loading artillery pieces, as well as machine guns (mitrailleuses, Gatling guns) fundamentally changed battle tactics. The mass cavalry charge became suicidal, so the traditional role of cavalry, as a shock arm, vanished. Only reconnaissance and raiding duties remained for it. Close-order infantry formations, that provided assurance and courage to the soldier, were also impossible. Infantry now had to advance as skirmishers, taking advantage of cover and concealment and perhaps adopting the attractive alternative of "getting lost." Artillery became dominant in the field, and counter-battery fire could now prove effective, with the increased range and accuracy. Artillery was now part of the attack, not a defensive barrier or a reserve strength, as it had been regarded by Napoleon. These changes were just beginning at the time of the American Civil War (1861-65), but were fully apparent in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71, which is still an excellent example, well worth study. Added to the capabilities of the railway and telegraph, introduced at about the same time, warfare was fundamentally altered in these years. In the 20th century, aircraft and armor again changed battles significantly. The one was difficult to hit, from its speed and height, while the other was oblivious to small arms. Armor reprised the role of cavalry as a shock arm, while aircraft were a very mobile and long-range sort of artillery. However, these developments are beyond our scope here. Troops on campaign were issued several days' rations, which they carried in their haversacks. A ration is a standard amount of food required for one soldier for one day. In the U.S. Army, a ration in 1812 included 20 oz. of beef or 12 oz. salt pork, 18 oz. flour or bread, 4 oz. rum, brandy or whiskey, salt, vinegar, soap and candles. Also issued were corn meal, biscuit (hardtack), coffee and sugar. Soldiers cooked their own food, in general, over a campfire. The commissary (an officer) was responsible for the food supply, often obtaining it from local contractors who dealt with individual farmers. Since money was involved, corruption was rife. Soldiers also carried their weapons, ammunition, a bed roll and spare clothing, especially spare socks and boots, and perhaps a bandage. At night, a bivouac would be made, where the men slept on the ground in the open. (bivouac comes from the German Beiwacht, and is an old term.) At intervals, the wagon train would come up, and camp was made, with tents for sleeping and kitchens for hot food. A good site for a camp offered wood for fires, water for men and animals, grass for grazing, and a good position for defense, with ample views and not dominated by high ground. The quartermaster was responsible for these things and general supplies. The paymaster paid the troops. Ammunition and other supplies were replenished in camp. The care of mounts placed special demands on the cavalry. Horses had to be watered, fed and rested in order to do their best. Soldiers' needs and luxuries that were not supplied by the quartermaster or commissary were catered to by sutlers and other camp followers. These individuals were useful, perhaps essential, but often engaged in gambling, swindling, trickery and sharp practice, especially around payday. They often encroached on government transport and supplies, and could be a cover for spies and saboteurs who mingled with them. The worst cases were handled severely by the Provost Marshal, who usually kept a close surveillance. Sutlers sold alcoholic beverages, cards and dice, stationery, personal items such as combs and razors, delicatessen, knives, pornography and newspapers, or anything by which they could make a profit. Prostitutes also hung about, and to banish them would cause a mutiny. We know a canteen as a soldier's water bottle, but the word was also used for his mess kit. The canteen was more significantly an official establishment where a soldier could purchase food, liquor and other essentials without relying on sutlers. There were dry canteens that sold tobacco and foodstuffs, and wet canteens that sold mainly alcoholic beverages. A army could forage for fresh food and fodder for its animals, otherwise called robbing it from the locals. In the absence of such loot, the army fell back on staple supplies, such as salt pork, hard tack and dried apples. Horses were the chief sufferers when forage was scanty, because an army could not carry much feed with it, and many horses preferred corn or oats, not grass. A cavalry unit could carry none, since wagons could not keep up with it. Horses that could subsist on grazing were more useful than the finer horses requiring oats and corn. Water was a continuing concern, for both men and animals. Bad water supply often spread communicable disease. In spite of all this, armies of the 19th century could operate in much more difficult and isolated campaigns than today's armies, which depend on fragile, complex supply systems. The conveyances that carry the supplies and support equipment of an army on the move are called its trains. This does not imply wagons connected together, or anything like that, but simply a column of wagons or pack animals. Transport was a very difficult matter, and often determined the course and outcome of campaigns. Wheeled vehicles, such as wagons and artillery, require prepared roads and bridges to be capable of moving with any speed or reliability. A "road" was often just a track from which trees had been cleared to permit wagons to pass, laboriously and slowly. There was, of course, no continual maintenance of such roads after they were made. Only pack animals, carrying perhaps 300 pounds each, can be used on primitive trails, and make 12-15 miles per day in good conditions. In marshes and mud, pack animals sometimes required causewayed paths, raised above the muck. In either case, supplies move no faster than men on foot. Canoes on rivers were generally faster than horses on land. River transport was best when it could be had, but streams tended to have too little or too much water in them, and were frozen for several months of the year. Infantry can march where cavalry and artillery cannot easily go. However, a hard freeze made it possible to cross water and swamps, and sledges became useful in snow. Railways and waterways, however, could move men and supplies rapidly and in large quantities with the aid of steam. Men and materiel were often moved in such masses by railways that poor planning in unloading and distribution created chaos. Rivers generally go where they list, and have varying amounts of water in them, but railways went in useful directions and were available at any season, besides usually having a telegraph line beside them. They are also unaffected by mud, which can slow an army to a crawl. Parade ground drill is now used only for ceremonies, but it once had a very important role in giving commanders control over their men. Mass formations stiffened infantrymen in battle, and gave them courage. Units had to form line of battle from line of march, and were repositioned to meet threats from the flanks and other exigencies. Fighting in ranks prevented dispersal of units and encouraged bravery, but became impossible with rapid-firing weapons, and was useless against artillery, as was mentioned above. A rank is a line of men side by side, while a file is a line of men one behind another. A difficult, but essential, evolution for a unit was to wheel, where the ranks moved like spokes of a wheel, to face a different direction. In the United States, there was often very little training of volunteer militia units before they were sent into battle, whether of drilling or the manual of arms. Most, however, were well acquainted with the use of firearms, which was then not as simple as just pulling a trigger. One of the most fundamental military principles is that an obstacle, to be effective, must be covered by fire, either by riflemen or artillery. Otherwise, it may inconvenience the enemy, but that is all it will do. Under fire, however, an obstacle is very difficult and expensive to pass. Another principle is that some force, a reserve, must be reserved for reinforcing threatened areas. If all the force is engaged, any breakthrough will be fatal. However, reserves can be sent to any area of unexpected enemy strength. A third principle is that every operation must have a definite, clearly-stated objective, either territorial or operational, and everything must contribute to the attainment of that objective. A fourth principle is the control of commanding ground, usually higher ground with good views, and fighting on ground of your own choosing, not the enemy's. A fifth principle, attributed to Frederick the Great, was that of concentration of force at a point of enemy vulnerability, which requires the ability to maneuver forces quickly and accurately. Armies maneuver to achieve advantage. Surprise is, of course, one of the chief advantages. An effective maneuver is to "turn the enemy's flank," or to move so that your front faces the end of the enemy's line. Then, all your fire can be brought to bear on the limited width of the enemy's line and roll it up while he can reinforce his position only with difficulty. Also, it may be possible to advance farther and enclose the enemy, attacking him from the rear and threatening his supplies. For this reason, one tries to "anchor" a flank on an obstacle such as water, a cliff or gorge, or an impassable thicket. A classic maneuver is the encirclement, when both wings move around an enemy and close behind him. Often the enemy is enticed to advance by a feigned withdrawal in the centre. A dangerous movement is the "flank march" past an enemy lurking on one flank or the other. A spread-out column on the march is weak at every point against a flank attack, which may divide a force fatally. One should distinguish between tactics, or the detailed managment of small engagements, and strategy, large-scale plans that may involve political considerations. Tactics are a matter for company and field officers, strategy for generals. The term "picket" is frequently met with. This referred originally to an isolated sentry or small squad of men, posted on a route of approach. A picket would not fight, on detecting an enemy in any force, but would set up an alarm as quickly as possible and retire into its lines. Like many military terms, this one comes from French, picquet, a general term for a detachment of men in a camp assigned a specific mission. A related concept is the chain of sentries within sight or earshot of each other, perhaps making a ring around a camp. These also became known as pickets, as in picket fence. Small detachments of cavalry roamed about, or "patrolled" an area. A vedette is a sentry with enhanced surveillance, perhaps stationed on a high point, or on horseback. Stragglers were men who had become separated from their units in the chaos and movements of battle, often voluntarily. There was a temptation to desert when in this situation, since one might be presumed to have been killed, and listed as "missing" in default of a body. General commands to bodies of troops in the field were made by drum or bugle call. Reveille, Lights Out or Tattoo, and mess calls organized camp life. Charge and Retreat controlled movements in battle. There were drum rolls expressing these orders as well as bugle calls. Other calls brought the men to ranks and dismissed them. The orderly drum called unit commanders to the commander's side. The cavalry call "boots and saddles" told the unit to prepare to ride. Sergeants and corporals commanded the men around them by shouting. Flags and guidons showed where the command of the units was located, and provided rallying points. An Officer of the Day, or OD, was a junior officer who saw that the guard was posted and efficient. This duty was passed around among the officers of a camp, fort or other installation. The guard ranged from the formal, decorative guards of Buckingham Palace to the serious and essential guard of a unit in the field facing an enemy. Troops detailed for guard duty bunked in a guard room, where the OD had an office, and were posted and relieved by the Corporal of the Guard, or his equivalent, who marched his detail around the guard posts. A guard occupied a fixed post, or had prescribed rounds to march while on duty. They challenged persons approaching their posts, asking for the password. They arrested drunken soldiers and pilferers, and watched for fire. The guard was specially necessary by night, but guards were also posted by day. Alarms were passed to the OD, who took the necessary action. The principal means of communication was the messenger or courier. Every headquarters had a large number of these, who continually moved back and forth, usually on foot but sometimes mounted, carrying written messages. By mid-century, semaphore signalling with flags was used over short distances, and then the electromagnetic field telegraph came into use. However, the written message was the most common form of communication, and remained so for many years. The field telegraph was first extensively used by the United States Army in the Civil War, 1861-1865. Carrier pigeons could be used in certain circumstances, but it should be remembered that they return only to their home roosts when taken to a distance and released, so they can only be used on fixed routes, and in only one direction. During the Siege of Paris, 1870-71, coal-gas balloons were used to carry messages, pigeons and a few passengers out of Paris. The pigeons returned carrying photographically-reduced messages. This was insecure, but far better than nothing. Observation of the movement of enemy troops was of great importance, since it reduced the chance of surprise and revealed opportunities for effective countermeasures. It was, however, very difficult until observations could be reported quickly by flags or telegraph, which was not possible until the 1860's. Hot-air observation balloons were used experimentally in the Civil War, with reports telegraphed from the basket to the ground. Similarly, observations were reported from high places by using signal flags. High-angle artillery fire where the point of impact is not visible from the field piece must also be guided by observation, unless it is just random shooting. The measures mentioned in this paragraph were not available in earlier times. When casualties occurred, the wounded were quickly collected in places from which they could be sent to hospitals when transport was available. The dead were buried near where they fell by burial parties, often of local citizens. The presence of dead and wounded did not improve the courage and morale of the remaining troops, so they were removed from sight as soon as possible. The identification of fatalities was difficult, since they did not carry the "dog tags" that have improved the situation at the present day. Surgeons attended wounded soldiers on the field, but were probably not present in sufficient numbers. Generally, wounded troops were carried to the surgeon's tent for attention. More soldiers, however, died from disease than from any actions of the enemy, especially from contaminated water and insect-borne diseases. Camps, with their crowding and poor sanitation, were ideal ground for the spread of infection. The conditions in field hospitals did not improve until the latter half of the century, largely through the efforts of gallant women such as Florence Nightingale, Dorothea Dix, and Mary Lincoln. A parolewas a promise by a prisoner of war not to take up arms against his captors for the duration of the current conflict. On this promise, he was allowed to go free and return home. After the catastrophic Battle of Sedan in 1870, 550 French officers were released on parole. This offer was less often extended to enlisted men, because they were considered to have fewer scruples of honour, and were more difficult to account for. Sometimes it was permitted to whole garrisons after an honourable siege, who marched out "with the honours of war," keeping their arms. Parole lessened the considerable expense of keeping prisoners of war. Prisoners who were exchanged usually did not have to give paroles. Classic sieges were still employed in the 19th century. The methods of attacking fortifications were worked out in the 17th century by classic military engineers like Vauban. Cannon had already rendered fortifications vulnerable since the late 14th century, and had only improved. The advance was by means of a series of parallels, deep trenches dug parallel to the walls. When one parallel was complete and guns were firing from it, a tunnel was dug forward and another parallel was extended. Finally, the wall, or glacis, was attained, and by sapping, mining and explosives a breach was made in the wall of the fortress. If this was judged a "material breach" that could be used for an assault, the defenders could honourably give up the struggle, and were usually allowed to depart with the honours of war, avoiding the grievous casualties to both sides in an actual assault. The sieges of Vicksburg and Petersburg in the American Civil War, and the sieges of Strasbourg and Paris in the Franco-Prussian War, are good examples of 19th-century sieges. The United States Army consisted of regulars, volunteers and militia. In times of war, the militia made up about 90% of the Army. The regular army was officered by West Point graduates (the Military Academy opened in 1802), and was considered a career by both officers and men, with 5-year enistments the rule. In 1789, the regular army was only 840, in 1801, 5400, reduced to 3300 in 1802. Even as late as the Spanish-American War, a regular army of only 30,000 was authorized, and only 25,000 were actually supported. The regular army of today is huge by comparison. In 1890, 1 of every 2500 Americans was in the army. In 1990, 1 in 178 was in the active armed forces (about the same proportion was in prison). Promotion in the regular army was slow, and precedence was more carefully guarded than by the chickens in a henhouse. The Army was commanded by a Commanding General, who was a Major General, the highest rank, except for Lieutenant General Washington, and Winfield Scott in 1861. Regular army regiments were usually numbered, as the 1st Cavalry, or 4th Infantry. On an officer's uniform, rank was shown by straps on the shoulders, using symbols that are roughly the same as they are today. In times of national emergency, calls for volunteers were issued. These volunteers joined regular army regiments, but were not considered permanent members, and often served only for the emergency. Volunteer should be distinguished from the militia, who were, of course, volunteers in a broad sense, but were supposed to be part of an existing military force. Amendment II to the Constitution reads: "A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed." The customs of the Roman Republic were looked to as the theory, where in times of national need citizens formed armies, bringing weapons with them, and placing themselves under the command of lawful authority. The perverse interpretation of this amendment in later days, when its purpose has been totally forgotten, is familiar to all. What it actually guaranteed is no longer available, and is indeed unwanted. It was deprecated by General Harrison that so few citizens prized the rights given by this Amendment. The arguments against a standing army as an instrument of a despotic state was always just theory; the effective reason was simply that no one wanted to support such an army, and the militia was a cheap way to provide for the necessary forces. General Harrison, and everyone else at the time, would have been astonished at the use of the amendment to allow the possession of firearms for general purposes in contradiction to law. The amendment merely guaranteed the survival of the militia system, under local control, in the United States. It was generally possible to recruit militia for active service (whatever the theory) only for short periods of enlistment, and then only outside of planting or harvest time. When an area was under threat of Indian depredations, it was nearly impossible to induce men to leave their homes unprotected. The men were not paid, and were not supplied with uniforms and equipment, but only issued rations and ammunition. They were called "hunting shirt men" for this reason. The hunting shirt was an outer garment with fringes and other decoration, usually green--the camouflage suit of the 18th century. It would be called a jacket today. The "40-day men" often ate up supplies collected for a campaign after they were enlisted, then returned home before the action commenced. Such militia were untrained and unused to military discipline. Many showed up without weapons, or with strange rustic arms, and were given sticks to drill with. All able-bodied citizens were expected to appear at muster days, which did not amount to more than a battalion muster in the spring, and a regimental muster in the autumn. There was usually a fine for nonattendance. This was supposed to create a citizen army, but had as little effect as the measures for public education. Very little military training took place during muster days, which were famous for riot and drunkenness, and provided a background for droll stories. William Henry Harrison clearly saw the defects in the militia system, and strove for reform when he was Congressman after 1816. His program advocated (1) military training at government expense; (2) universal service; (3) elementary military training in schools, and professors of tactics in seminaries. Congress was then, as always, averse to militia reform. Harrison's program was strictly in accord with the second amendment, and necessary for the amendment to have any real effect. He was luckier with pensions for war veterans and their widows and children, and in the recognition of the new South American republics. Volunteer regiments often had officers that were political appointees, and commissions were frequently bought, with what amounted to bribes. Officers often sought fame and military glory, and were easy to insult, quick to take umbrage. Such officers affected splendid uniforms and fine horses, but were of very indifferent quality. In most cases, company or regimental officers were elected by the men, and the results, bad as they were, were often better than those achieved by political patronage or bribery. Often, volunteers objected to service under regular army officers, and regular troops under volunteer officers. Kentucky General Jo Daviess said that the "land is infested with generals so grossly incompetent" in 1811. The officers of General William Hull called him a "cowardly imbecile." Colonel John Boyd, commanding the U.S. 4th Infantry, a regular officer, called the militia an "untutored and undisciplined band." He was trying to form a camp in a hollow square on the way to Tippecanoe by shouting orders, and had got himself into a fine mess when General Harrison came up and straightened things out. Later, he demonstrated his general incompetence in New York. The best of the militia units were the mounted infantry, such as those raised in Kentucky or Tennessee for the War of 1812. They moved rapidly, dismounting to fight as infantry, and were better-trained than the usual raw militia. Harrison greatly approved of them, and two regiments of mounted infantry were added to the regular army later. The way the army was organized in the War of 1812 (and later!) is demonstrated by the formation of a mounted infantry brigade of Ohio miliita under General Tupper in 1812. The companies of Captains Roper, Clarke and Bacon were ordered to form a battalion and elect a major (Roper was elected). This battalion was ordered to join R. M. Johnson's battalion and form a regiment. Johnson was elected colonel. This regiment was united with Colonel Findlay's regiment to form a brigade of about 800 men, and General Tupper was assigned the command by Washington City. The brigade mucked about south of the Maumee avoiding contact with the enemy as far as possible. Tupper delayed and fumbled, though encouraged by General Harrison to do something useful. The brigade ate the rations so arduously collected for them at the front, after which it returned to Urbana for more supplies. The federal government and the states offered large bounties for enlistment, since citizens did not jump at the opportunity to serve their country, whatever they bellowed when drunk down at the tavern. Conscription, regarded as an evil French practice, was sometimes resorted to in order to satisfy the quotas. At the beginning of the War of 1812, a bounty of $8 plus 160 acres of land was offered for a 5-year volunteer enlistment. By 1814, the bounty had climbed to $124 plus 320 acres of land, a princely amount, showing how desperate was the search for soldiers. The buying of substitutes (a French practice) was also permitted. All this attracted swindlers, creating a business of enlistment brokering and bounty jumping that was endemic from then to the end of the Civil War. The Second Amendment guaranteed a right that nobody sought. The militia could not reasonably be expected to display reckless courage under their conditions of service, when they were expected back home for the harvest after a short season of fighting. Short enlistments hampered every volunteer army until the Civil War, when enlistments were eventually made "for the duration." In some cases, it was simply a way to get a little cash (after the militia became paid) while doing an exciting job of only moderate danger. In 1820, a private soldier was paid only $6 per month, in addition to subsistence. The commissary provided basic rations for officers who could not afford better, since officer's pay was also low. Such troops could not reasonably be expected to make forlorn hope charges, or stand when attacked in the open by veteran regulars. Every surprise or reverse soon developed into a rout. Militias sometimes refused to fight outside of their own states, and many refused to cross the U.S. border. The best American commanders understood the limitations, and occasional strengths, of their militia and volunteers. A militia was under the command of the Governor of its state, who appointed its officers. When called into federal service, the federal government assumed the burdens of paying the soldiers and supplying them, so states were usually eager to federalize their regiments. There was controversy over who should then name the officers, and this produced severe controversies between the Governors and the Secretary of War. Some militia units refused to serve under regular officers, and even the politics of the officers made a difference. The Republican Oxford County militia in Maine refused to take orders from the Federalist state militia officers, and warfare almost broke out between the militias. The Indian wars that had been continual before independence only intensified as western settlement was pushed. The United States was at war with somebody, internally or externally, almost continuously in the 19th century, so there was a constant need for soldiers. Governors were ex officio Commanders in Chief of the state militias, and appointed the officers. Companies were organized by the citzens for the local Indian wars. In times of national emergency, a call was made on the state militias for regiments, that would then be supported by the Federal government. Private citizens, even as late as Theodore Roosevelt, could organize units and present them to the state. These regiments were organized, as best suited conditions, into brigades, divisions, corps and armies under officers appointed by the Secretary of War or the Commanding General. A Brigadier General commanded a brigade or division, a Major General a corps or army (roughly speaking). Theatres of war were commanded by Major Generals and called Departments. All this organization was laboriously created on the spot. A unified command was not achieved until 1864 under Lieutenant General Grant. Not until 1903 were there peacetime divisions and armies, and a Chief of Staff. These reforms came much later than similar reforms in the French and German armies. The outstanding qualities of Indians as warriors has largely been forgotten or discounted. They were brave and skilled, far superior to their opponents, though much fewer in number. Their greatest defect was that they fought by mutual agreement, not by a unified command, and any important action required a great deal of talking and argument. They removed their dead and injured from the battlefield with great care, but fought a total war. The Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811 was the first victory of the U.S. over the Indians where roughly equal forces were engaged. In the disastrous defeat of St. Clair in 1791 by the Miamis, where his whole army was lost, only 8 to 10 warriors were killed. Braddock's defeat in colonial times resulted in the deaths of only a few warriors. This was the rule, not the exception. Indians made excellent use of cover and concealment, and were much better marksmen than their enemies. An army sent against them could not make the normal use of scouts and patrols, which never returned if they were sent out, to keep themselves informed. Indians could easily evade sentries and infiltrate camps, moving silently and swiftly. General Harrison remarked that militia sentinels were "not very remarkable for their vigilance." Messengers sent through dangerous territory seldom were seen again. Indians did not make concerted mass attacks except where surprise or the situation gave some hope of quick victory, but were alert to attack isolated detachments and the unaware. New tactics were developed by General Wayne in the 1790's to meet this threat, and these tactics were adopted and improved by General Harrison in the early years of the next century. Most American commanders seemed unaware of them, and continued to walk into disaster. Two instructive, interesting, and very well documented, conflicts of the mid-19th century are the United States Civil War (1861-65), and the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Excellent introductions will be found in: S. Foote, The Civil War, A Narrative, 3 vols. (New York: Random House, 1958). M. Howard, The Franco-Prussian War (New York: Macmillan, 1961). Each of these references contains an extensive bibliography leading to further information. Readers should particularly seek first-hand accounts to avoid the conscious and unconscious biases (and sometimes ignorance, especially in technical areas) of secondary histories. Railways and telegraphs, as well as maps, are not adequately treated in general historical works. Composed by J. B. Calvert, once 1st Lt. US Army Signal Corps Created 26 March 2001 Last revised 26 August 2006

http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/hist/army.htm

What's the Chance? Click on the image to enlarge it. Click again to close. Download PDF (774 KB) This is a level 4 statistics activity from the Figure It Out series. place probability of events on a continuum This activity establishes the key idea that probability can always be expressed as a number between 0 and 1. It also provides a useful context for learning how to place fractions and decimals on a number line. The mathematical context of this activity is appropriate for students who are at stage 7 (advanced multiplicative part–whole) or 8 (advanced proportional part–whole) of the Number Framework. It provides a good followup to an introductory discussion on the concepts and language of probability. An introductory discussion could begin with a question such as “What is the chance that someone will one day walk on the Sun?” The purpose of the question is to explore ways of describing a situation that has no chance of eventuating. Hopefully, someone will suggest “zero” or “nil”; if not, you may need to prompt them. A follow-up question could be “Is it possible to find an event with a smaller chance (or probability) of happening than this?” Once you have established that if something is impossible, it has a probability of zero, the label “0” can be attached to the far left end of a line on the board or a length of rope on the floor. The line or rope represents a continuum. If you wish, the standard notation can be introduced at this point: P (someone will walk on the Sun) = 0. This is read as “The probability that someone will walk on the Sun is zero.” The second challenge is to establish that if something is inevitable, it has a probability of 1. A suitable starter question could be “What is the chance that the Sun will come up tomorrow?” This should lead to the label 1 being placed at the far right end of the continuum represented by the line or rope. Once the extremes of 0 and 1 are established, explore the meaning of the space between them. At first, you could get your students to judge whether an event is impossible, possible, or certain. Each event can be given a label and placed either at the appropriate extreme or in-between. “What is the chance you will eat potatoes tonight?” Apart from opening up a discussion on family and cultural differences, a question such as this will generate responses like “not very high” that can then be quantified. A family may eat this vegetable 3 times a week, so the chance of potatoes on any particular night becomes “3 out of 7” (unless the family has a rigid weekly menu, in which case the probability on any particular night may be 0 or 1!). It is also important to discuss events where the probability is evenly balanced or nearly so. A suitable question could be “What is the chance that the next child born in our town will be a girl?” This example could lead to the idea that there may be ways of calculating probability, at least in some circumstances. It could also be used to introduce the idea that a probability can be written as a fraction, leading to the understanding that “one out of two” can also be written as 1/2 . Note that, because this is a different conceptual use for fractions, it is important not to assume that your students will automatically see that words like “3 out of 7” can be converted to a fraction, or that they can interpret a fraction written in the form 3/7 as a probability. Explicit teaching is needed. Bear in mind that research shows that students often have difficulty using number lines. While they are an essential tool, do not assume that a student can read them or place numbers on them. This is especially the case when working with decimals or fractions. Answers to Activity 1. Several are definite: v. 0. (India does not play netball at an international level.) vi. 0. (The Prime Minister must be a New Zealand citizen.) vii. 0, during your lifetime. Other answers will vary greatly depending on personal circumstances and personal assessment. 2. Discussion will vary. In most cases, personal circumstances will determine that people come up with different outcomes, for example: iii. Some will be keeping up frequent email correspondence with friends, and others won’t. So probabilities could vary from close to 0 through to 1. Someone who does not have a computer will have 0 probability of getting email unless they access it through someone else’s computer. viii. Most will have a high probability of getting junk mail on any given day, perhaps 4 out of 5 (or 4/5 or 0.8). If, however, they live in an out-of-theway place, they may never get any, in which case the probability is 0. ix. The assigning of probabilities to sports events is usually determined as much by personal loyalties and prejudices as anything! x. Some mothers never buy lottery tickets, so they would have 0 probability of winning $1,000,000; others regularly buy tickets, in which case, the probability is marginally greater than 0! xi. Some will bike every day (giving a probability of 1), when it is not wet (this probability may be 9/10 or 0.9), and others never bike (in which case the probability is 0). xii. If Grandma has already died before her 80th birthday, the probability of her reaching 80 is 0; if she is nearly 80 and in good health, the probability may be 19/20 (or 0.95). 3. Events and placements will vary. Answers should be sensible.

http://www.nzmaths.co.nz/resource/whats-chance

Letter knowledge is understanding that letters are different from one another and that they have different names and sounds. There are many different ways to encourage letter knowledge in your child. - Help your baby recognize simple shapes like circles and squares. When pointing out the shapes of toys, describe it out loud by saying, "This ball is round" and "This block has corners." - Hang a mobile with different shapes over your baby's crib. - Play with simple puzzles or have your older baby or toddler match items of the same shape. - Read alphabet books and sing alphabet songs to introduce your baby or toddler to letters. - When children are ready to learn about letters, start with letters that are the most interesting to them, such as the first letter of their name. Check out this list of suggested books for developing letter knowledge skills.

http://westervillelibrary.org/kids/born2read/letter-knowledge

Smooth muscle is responsible for the contractility of hollow organs, such as blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, the bladder, or the uterus. Its structure differs greatly from that of skeletal muscle, although it can develop isometric force per cross-sectional area that is equal to that of skeletal muscle. However, the speed of smooth muscle contraction is only a small fraction of that of skeletal muscle. Structure: The most striking feature of smooth muscle is the lack of visible cross striations (hence the name smooth). Smooth muscle fibers are much smaller (2-10 m in diameter) than skeletal muscle fibers (10-100 m ). It is customary to classify smooth muscle as single-unit and multi-unit smooth muscle (Fig. SM1). The fibers are assembled in different ways. The muscle fibers making up the single-unit muscle are gathered into dense sheets or bands. Though the fibers run roughly parallel, they are densely and irregularly packed together, most often so that the narrower portion of one fiber lies against the wider portion of its neighbor. These fibers have connections, the plasma membranes of two neighboring fibers form gap junctions that act as low resistance pathway for the rapid spread of electrical signals throughout the tissue. The multi-unit smooth muscle fibers have no interconnecting bridges. They are mingled with connective tissue fibers. Fig. SM1. Single-unit and multi-unit smooth muscle. Innervation and stimulation: Smooth muscle is primarily under the control of autonomic nervous system, whereas skeletal muscle is under the control of the somatic nervous system. The single-unit smooth muscle has pacemaker regions where contractions are spontaneously and rhythmically generated. The fibers contract in unison, that is the single unit of smooth muscle is syncytial. The fibers of multi-unit smooth muscle are innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers and respond independently from each other upon nerve stimulation. Nerve stimulation in smooth muscle causes membrane depolarization, like in skeletal muscle. Excitation, the electrochemical event occurring at the membrane is followed by the mechanical event, contraction. In the case of smooth muscle, this excitation-contraction coupling is termed electromechanical coupling; the link for the coupling is Ca2+ that permeates from the extracellular space into the intracellular water of smooth muscle. There is another excitation mechanism in smooth muscle, which is independent of the membrane potential change; it is based on receptor activation by drugs or hormones followed by muscle contraction. This is termed pharmacomechanical coupling. The link is Ca2+ that is released from an internal source, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The role of mechanical events of smooth muscle in the wall of hollow organs is twofold: 1) Its tonic contraction maintains organ dimensions against imposed load. 2) Force development and muscle shortening, like in skeletal muscle. Myofibril proteins: In general, smooth muscle contains much less protein (~110 mg/g muscle) than skeletal muscle (~200 mg/g). Notable is the decreased myosin content, ~20 mg/g in smooth muscle versus ~80 mg/g in skeletal muscle. On the other hand, the amounts of actin and tropomyosin are the same in both types of muscle. Smooth muscle does not contain troponin, instead of it there are two other thin filament proteins, caldesmon and calponin. The amino acid sequence of smooth muscle actin is very similar to that of its skeletal muscle counterpart, and it seems likely that their three-dimensional structures are also similar. Smooth muscle actin combines with either smooth or skeletal muscle myosin. However, there is a major difference in the activation of myosin ATPase by actin, smooth muscle myosin has to be phosphorylated for actin-activation to occur. The size and shape of the smooth muscle myosin molecule is similar to that of the skeletal muscle myosin (Fig. M1). There is a small difference in the light chain composition; out of the four light chains of the smooth muscle myosin two have molecular weight of 20,000 and two of 17,000. The 20,000 light chain is phosphorylatable. Upon phosphorylation of the light chain the actin-activated smooth muscle myosin ATPase increases about 50-fold, to about 0.16 mol ATP hydrolyzed per mol of myosin head per sec, at physiological ionic strength and temperature. (Under the same conditions, the actin-activated skeletal muscle myosin ATPase is 10 -20 mol/mol/sec). The ionic strength dependence of smooth muscle myosin Ca2+-activated ATPase also differs from that of skeletal muscle myosin (Fig. M5), increasing ionic strength increases the smooth muscle myosin ATPase but decreases the skeletal muscle myosin ATPase. Four smooth muscle specifc myosin heavy chain isoforms are known ( described in Quevillon-Cheruel et al., 1999). Two isoforms (named SMB and SMA) are defined by the presence or the absence of an insert of seven amino acids in the N-terminal globular head region. The two others (SM1 and SM2) differ at their C-termini by 43 versus 9 amino acids. To understand the role of the C-terminal extremities of SM1 and SM2 in smooth muscle thick filament assembly, various fragments of these myosins, such as the rod region, the rod with no tailpiece, or light meromyosins were prepared as recombinant proteins in bacterial cells (Rowner et al., 2001; Quevillon-Cheruel et al.,1999). The results showed that the smooth muscle myosin tailpieces differentially affect filament assembly and suggested that homogeneous thick filaments containing SM1 or SM2 myosin could serve distinct functions within smooth muscle cells. Although the mechanism of thick filament assembly for purified smooth muscle myosins in vitro has been described, the regulation of thick filament formation in intact muscle is poorly understood. Cross-sectional density of the thick filaments measured electron microscopically in intact airway smooth muscle (Herrera et al., 2002) showed that the density increased substantially (144%) when the muscle was activated. In resting muscle, in the absence of Ca2+, the filament density decreased by 35%. It appears that in smooth muscle filamentous myosin exists in equilibrium with monomeric myosin; activation favors filament formation. Kathleen Trybus pioneered in expressing and purifying smooth muscle myosin subfragments using the baculovirux /insect cell expression system. This procedure and the methods needed to characterize the new proteins (gel assays, ATPase activity determinations, transient state kinetic parameters, and the vitro motility assay) are described in her review (Trybus, 2000). Studies on engineered smooth muscle myosin and heavy meromyosin showed: the interaction between the regulatory light chain domains on two heads is critical for regulation of smooth muscle myosin (Li et al., 2000; Sweeney et al., 2000), a long, weakly charged actin-binding loop is required for phosphorylation-dependent regulation of smooth muscle myosin (Rovner, 1998), and coiled-coil unwinding at the smooth muscle myosin head-rod junction is required for optimal mechanical performance (Lauzon et al., 2001). In vitro, both caldesmon and calponin are inhibiting the actin-activated ATPase activity of phosphorylated smooth muscle myosin. In case of calponin, this inhibitory activity is reversed by the binding of Ca2+-calmodulin or by phosphorylation. Calponin is a 34-kDa protein containing binding sites for actin, tropomyosin and Ca2+-calmodulin. Caldesmon is a long, flexible, 87-kDa protein containing binding sites for myosin, as well as actin, tropomyosin, and Ca2+-calmodulin. Electron microscopy and three-dimensional image reconstruction of isolated smooth muscle thin filaments revealed that calponin and caldesmon are located peripherally along the long-pitch actin helix (Hodgkinson et al., 1997; Lehman et al., 1997). The physiological role of caldesmon or calponin is not known. Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation of the 20-kDa Myosin Light Chain Myosin light chain kinase and myosin light chain phosphatase: Smooth muscle (as well as skeletal and cardiac muscle) contains myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), activated by Ca2+-calmodulin, the enzyme which transfers the terminal phosphate group of ATP to serine (and/or threonine) hydroxyl groups of phosphorylatable light chain (LC) according to the following reaction: LC-OH + MgATP2- ® LC-O-PO32- + MgADP- + H+ (1) Dephosphorylation is brought about by smooth muscle myosin light chain phosphatase (MLCP) according to the following reaction: LC-O-PO32- + H2O ® LC-OH + HPO42- (2) The properties of MLCK are reviewed by Stull et al. (1996) and the properties of MLCP are reviewed by Hartshorne et al. (1998). It is generally believed that LC phosphorylation-dephosphorylation controls the contraction-relaxation cycle of smooth muscle: For a long time, research focused on the role of MLCK in smooth muscle contractility, but recently the interest shifted to MLCP. It turned out that MLCP is composed of three subunits: a catalytic subunit of 37-38-kDa of the type 1 phosphatase, a subunit of about 20-kDa whose function is not known, and a larger 110-130-kDa subunit that targets MLCP to myosin. The phosphatase activity of the catalytic subunit is low and it is enhanced significantly by addition of the targeting subunit. Upon phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues in the targeting subunit, its activating effect on the catalytic subunit is lost, and thereby the MLCP holoenzyme is inhibited. Recent reports (Feng et al., 1999; Kaibuchi et al., 1999; Nagumo et al., 2000; Somlyo and Somlyo, 2000; Sward et al., 2000) indicate that in smooth muscle a Rho-regulated system of MLCP exists. Rho-kinase is the major player in this system, the enzyme phosphorylates the 130-kDa myosin binding subunit of MLCP and thereby inhibits MLCP activity. Due to the antagonism between MLCK and MLCP, inhibition of MLCP results in an increase in the phosphoryl content of LC with concomitant increase in muscle force. Under these conditions, submaximal Ca2+-levels are sufficient for maximal force, a phenomenon called increased Ca2+-sensitivity (Somlyo and Somlyo, 1994). Specific inhibitors for rho-kinase Y-27632 (Feng et al., 1999; Kaibuchi et al., 1999), and HA-1077 (Nagumo et al., 2000; Sward el al., 2000) are available. MLCP activity can also be inhibited by a 17-kDa myosin phosphatase inhibitor protein, called CPI-17, (Kitazawa et al., 2000) , which inhibits the catalytic subunit of MLCP and the holoenzyme MLCP. Phosphorylation of CPI-17 at Thr38 increases its inhibitory potency 1000-fold. The solution NMR structure of CPI-17 has been determined.(Ohki et al., 2001), it forms a novel four-helix. Phosphorylation of Thr38 induces a conformational change involving displacement of one helix without significant movement of the other three helices. Rho-kinases and PKC are responsible for the phosphorylation of CPI-17. A rich array of second messengers regulate MLCP activity under physiological and pathological conditions (Solaro, 2000) through phosphorylation of either the targeting subunit of MLCP or CPI-17. Myosin light chain phosphorylation in intact smooth muscle: 32P-labeling of the muscle is a reliable method for such studies. When a dissected smooth muscle, e.g. artery or a uterine strip, is incubated at 37oC in physiological salt solution containing radioactive inorganic phosphate, the 32P permeates the plasma membrane and enters the intracellular space of the muscle. Through the oxidative phosphorylation mechanism the 32P incorporates into the terminal P group of ATP: ADP + 32P ® ADP32P Transfer of the terminal 32P of ATP to LC-OH by MLCK (equation 1) yields the radioactive LC-O-32PO32- species that can be isolated and quantified. The isolation involves two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis and the quantification requires measuring the specific radioactivity of the terminal P of ATP. Smooth muscle contraction is correlated with LC phosphorylation (reviewed by Bárány and Bárány, 1996c). Fig. SM2 illustrates an experiment: Two carotid arteries were dissected from freshly killed pigs and labeled with 32P. One artery was contracted with KCl for 30 sec then frozen in liquid nitrogen, while the other artery was frozen in the resting state. The arteries were pulverized, washed with perchloric acid to precipitate the muscle proteins and remove 32P-containing phosphate metabolites from the muscle. The washed residue was neutralized with a NaOH solution then dissolved in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). After centrifugation at high speed to remove insoluble particles, the protein content of the supernatant was determined and aliquots of 360 mg protein were subjected to 2D polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. This procedure separates the proteins according to their charge (pH 4-6) in the first dimension and according to their size (SDS ) in the second dimension. After staining, the profile of the arterial proteins appeared, shown in the upper row of Fig. SM2. LC, is in the lower middle part of the gel, it contains multiple spots. The LC spots were scanned, the staining intensities are shown in the lower row of the Figure. The radioactive spots on the gel were detected by autoradiography, the middle row of Fig. SM2 shows the black spots on the film corresponding to the radioactive spots on the gel. Visual inspection of the radioactive LC spots in the Figure shows much more radioactivity in LC from the contracting muscle (right) than from the resting muscle (left). One can calculate the incorporation of the 32P-phosphate into LC as follows. First one has to determine the specific radioactivity of the terminal P of ATP from the muscle. The ATP is in the perchloric acid extract of the frozen and pulverized muscle, described before, and Bárány and Bárány (1996c) describe the determination of the specific radioactivity. The next step is the determination of the radioactivity in LC: the gel spots are excised, digested with H2O2, and after the gel is dissolved, radioactivity (counts per minute) is measured. The extent of LC phosphorylation can be calculated from the radioactivity in the LC spots and in the terminal phosphate of ATP, from the total protein applied onto the gel, and from the LC content of the total protein (Bárány and Bárány, 1996c). Such a calculation shows that under conditions of Fig. SM2, the LC of the resting muscle contained 0.25 mol 32P-phosphate/mol LC, whereas the LC of the contracting muscle contained 0.70 mol. Thus, 0.45 mol 32P-phosphate was transferred by MLCK from the terminal phosphate of ADP32P to free LC-OH groups as the result of muscle contraction. Fig. SM2. Light chain phosphorylation during smooth muscle contraction as studied by 2D gel electrophoresis. (Bárány and Bárány, 1996a, with permission from Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction, 1996, Academic Press). Left, 32P-labeled porcine carotid arterial muscle was frozen at rest. Right, 32P-labeled porcine carotid arterial muscle was frozen 30 sec after 100 mM KCl challenge. Upper panel shows the Coomassie blue staining pattern of the arterial proteins; middle panel shows the corresponding autoradiograms; bottom panel shows the corresponding densitometric scans of LC. Isoforms of the 20-kDa myosin light chain: Protein isoforms have the same size but different charge. They are generated either by protein modification or genetic alteration. Protein phosphorylation is the physiological protein modification, because phosphorylation of a protein increases its negative charge. Thus, LC has at least two isoforms, a non-phosphorylated and a phosphorylated one. Genetic alteration changes the amino acid composition of a protein, thereby providing at least two isoforms. For instance, completely dephosphorylated LC exhibits two spots on 2D gels (Fig. SM3) with a percentage distribution of 85% and 15%, corresponding to the major and minor LC isoforms. Fig. SM3. Myosin light chain isoforms as analyzed by 2D gel electrophoresis. LC was dephosphorylated by homogenizing porcine carotid arteries in 150 mM NaCl and 1 mM EGTA, followed by incubation at 25oC for 2 hours. Top, stained gel, LC spots are numbered as 2 and 4, corresponding to their isoform number. Bottom, densitometric tracing of the LC spots. Figure SM4 illustrates the formation of LC isoforms as a result of phosphorylation. The major isoform (LCa) when mono-phosphorylated (PLCa) moves into Spot 3, and when it is di-phosphorylated (2PLCa) moves into Spot 2. The same Spot 2 also contains the non-phosphorylated minor isoform (LCb), thus the comigration of the di-phosphorylated LC isoform with the minor isoform makes Spot 2 radioactive. This explains why out of the four LC spots three are phosphorylated. The mono-phosphorylated minor isoform (PLCb) moves into Spot 1, which is the most acidic spot. Fig. SM4. Scheme for the explanation of four stained and three radioactive LC spots, shown on Fig. SM2. (Bárány and Bárány, 1996a, with permission from Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction, 1996, Academic Press). Phosphorylation site: The amino acid sequence of LC exhibits a similarity among LCs from various smooth muscles. Such a conservative sequence suggests a functional significance for the protein. The phosphorylation sites are located at the amino terminal part of the LC molecule, shown in Fig. SM5. Serine 19 is the site that is phosphorylated by MLCK in the intact muscle. Threonine 18 is phosphorylated by MLCK rarely. Beside MLCK, protein kinase C (PKC) also phosphorylates LC; the sites involve Serine 1, Serine 2, and Threonine 9. Fig. SM5. Phosphorylation sites of LC. Two-dimensional tryptic peptide mapping: Phosphopeptide maps differentiate MLCK-catalyzed LC phosphorylation from that catalyzed by PKC (Erdodi et al., 1998). Fig. SM6 illustrates the experiment: With ADP32P as a substrate, pure LC was phosphorylated either by MLCK (middle panel), or PKC (right panel). Actomyosin that contains endogenous LC, MLCK, and PKC, was also phosphorylated (left panel). The 32P-LC was isolated by 2D gel electrophoresis, digested by trypsin, and the peptides were separated by 2D peptide mapping. The map of LC phosphorylated by MLCK exhibits four peptides: A, B, both containing serine residues, corresponding to the Ser-19 site, and C, D, both containing threonine, corresponding to the Thr-18 site. When LC is phosphorylated by PKC, the map exhibits two peptides: E, containing serine, corresponding to Ser-1 or Ser-2 site, and F, containing threonine, corresponding to theThr-9 site. When LC is phosphorylated in actomyosin, peptides characteristic for both MLCK and PKC phosphorylation are present. Fig. SM6. Autoradiograms of 2D phosphopeptide maps of LC tryptic digests. Fig. SM7. Phosphopeptide maps of LC from K+-contracted muscle versus PDBu-treated muscle. The role of Ca2+ in light chain phosphorylation: As in skeletal muscle, Ca2+ also plays a central role in the contractility of smooth muscle. In skeletal muscle TN-C is the target of the myoplasmic Ca2+, whereas in smooth muscle Ca2+ activates MLCK. Actually, the Ca2+ complexed to calmodulin is the activator of the enzyme. In agreement with the in vitro studies, intact smooth muscle cease contracting when Ca2+ is omitted from the bathing solution, or when it is complexed with EGTA. Furthermore, inhibitors of calmodulin, such as trifluoperazine or chlorpromazine inhibit smooth muscle contraction. In the resting muscle there is about 0.1 µM Ca2+, upon stimulation the Ca2+ concentration increases about 100-fold through electromechanical or pharmacomechanical coupling. It is conventional to use fluorescent indicators to follow changes in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration immediately after the stimulation and during the plateau of the mechanical activity. Large variations are reported, depending on the nature of the smooth muscle, the tissue preparation, or the drug used. However, all investigators agree that in order to elicit relaxation the Ca2+ level in the sarcoplasm must be returned near to the resting value. Two mechanisms participate in decreasing the Ca2+ level: 1) The plasma membrane Ca2+ transporting ATPase pumps Ca2+ from the inside into the extracellular space. 2) The sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+ transporting ATPase pumps Ca2+ into the SR. Stretch-induced light chain phosphorylation: As discussed before, smooth muscle can be stimulated electrically or by chemical agents. Here we describe the mechanochemical activation of smooth muscle. Stretching of arterial or uterine muscles induced light chain phosphorylation to the same extent as was observed in muscles contracted by K+ or norepinephrine (Bárány and Bárány, 1996c). Muscles which were stretched 1.6 times their resting length did not develop tension, but contracted normally when the stretch was released and the muscles were allowed to return to their rest length. Importantly, this contraction was spontaneous, indicating that the stretch-induced activation carries all the information necessary for normal contraction. Mobilization of Ca2+ was necessary for the stretch-induced light chain phosphorylation and contraction to occur. When EGTA (the strong Ca2+ complexing agent) was added to the muscle bath both the stretch-induced phosphorylation and the stretch-release-induced tension were inhibited; however, upon removal of EGTA by washings, both processes were fully restored. Treatment of the muscle with chlorpromazine (the calmodulin inhibitor) also abolished both the stretch-induced LC phosphorylation and the stretch-release-induced tension development. These results suggest the presence of mechanosensitive receptors in smooth muscle that are interacting with Ca2+ release channels in SR. Further comments are warranted on the finding that 1.6 times stretched muscles, which are unable to contract (because there is no overlap between actin and myosin filaments), are able to fully phosphorylate their LC. Accordingly, smooth muscle contraction and LC phosphorylation are not coupled. Time course experiment also demonstrated that LC phosphorylation precedes tension development. Thus, LC phosphorylation plays a role in the activation process but not in the contraction per se. Furthermore, K+-contracted muscle maintains its tension for a prolonged time although its LC becomes dephosphorylated. This is another example for the lack of coupling between phosphate content of LC and contractility of muscle. Phosphorylation of Heat-Shock Proteins Low molecular weight heat schock proteins are phosphorylated in smooth muscle: A 27-28-kDa protein is phosphorylated in various intact smooth muscles and smooth muscle cells (reviewed in Bárány and Bárány, (1996c). Cyclic nucleotide-dependent vasorelaxation is associated with the phosphorylation of a 20-kDa heat shock protein, called HSP20 (Beal et al., 1997; Rembold et al., 2000). It was found that HSP20 is an actin-associated protein (Brophy et al.,1999; Rembold et al. 2000) suggesting that smooth muscle relaxation may be brought about by the binding of the phosphorylated HSP20 to the actin filaments. The binding of an agonist (e.g. norepinephrine or oxytocin) to the surface receptor of smooth muscle induces a signal that spreads from the outside to the inside of the plasma membrane and activates several effectors that ultimately initiate contraction. There are three components of this system that we discuss: 1) Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, 2) G-proteins, 3) Phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate: The inositol ring contains six hydroxyl residues, most of them can be phosphorylated by specific kinases. Inositol 1-monophosphate is the constituent of phosphatidylinositol (PI) one of the phospholipids in animal cell membranes. PI 4-kinase and PI (4) P 5-kinase to generate PI (4) P and PI (4,5) P2, respectively, sequentially phosphorylate PI. Inside the cell membrane resides a phosphoinositide specific phospholipase C, one of its hydrolytic product is inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3), (see Fig. SM 8). Fig. SM8. D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. (Bárány and Bárány, 1996b,with permission from Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction, 1996, Academic Press). The arrow indicates the site of the ester link with diacylglycerol in phosphatidylinositol. The negative charge of the phosphate group is not indicated. G-proteins: The guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G-proteins) are heterotrimers consisting of a-, b- and g-subunits. The a-subunits appear to be most diverse and are believed to be responsible for the specificity of the interaction of different G-proteins with their effectors. Fig. SM9 depicts a simple model for the activation of G-proteins. In the basal state, the a-subunit contains bound GDP and association of a- and bg-subunits is highly favored, keeping the G-protein in the inactive form. Stimulation of the G-protein results when it binds GTP rather than GDP. Receptors interact most efficiently with the heterotrimeric form of the G-protein and accelerate activation by increasing the rate of dissociation of GDP and enhancing the association of GTP. Activation of G-protein coupled receptor results in the dissociation of heterotrimeric G-proteins into a-subunits and bg-dimers. Finally, the G-protein a-subunit has an intrinsic hydrolytic activity that slowly converts GTP to GDP and returns the G-protein to its inactive form. Fig. SM9. Model for the activation of G-proteins. ( Bárány and Bárány, 1996b, with permission from Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction, 1996, Academic Press). Phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C: This term refers to a family of enzymes all specific for the phosphoinositide moiety of the phosphatidylinositol, but differing in their specificity depending on the number of the phosphoryl groups on the inositol ring. The b-, g- and d-isoforms of PI-phospholipase C (PI-PLC) show the greatest specificity for the trisphosphorylated phospholipid (PIP2)). There are two basic mechanisms by which agonists activate PIP2 hydrolysis (Fig. SM10). In case of hormones, neurotransmitters, and certain other agonists, the signal is transduced to b-isozymes of PI-PLC. The upper left row of Fig. SM10 shows the most common pathway for PI-PLCb-isoform activation, initiated by stimulation of a a1-adrenergic receptor (a1-R) with norepinephrine (NE), and involving Gaq-proteins. The lower left row shows the activation of PI-PLC-b isoforms, initiated by acetylcholine (ACH) stimulation of M2-muscarinic receptor (M2-R), and mediated by the b g-subunit of the pertussis toxin-sensitive G-protein (GI). Concerning the other basic activating mechanism, e.g. in the case of growth factors, activation of their receptors results in enhanced tyrosine kinase activity. The right part of Fig. SM10 shows the activation of PI-PLC-g isoforms, initiated by the binding of epidermal growth factor (EGF) to its receptors, and executed by the tyrosine phosphorylation (YP) of PI-PLC-g . In all three examples, the activated PI-PLC hydrolyzes PIP2 to form the messengers IP3 and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 releases Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and thereby initiates smooth muscle contraction. DAG activates protein kinase C, the exact result of this activation is not known at the cellular level. Fig. SM 10. Pathways for activation of PI-PLC isoforms. (Bárány and Bárány, 1996b, with permission from Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction, 1996, Academic Press). . The Contractile Event of Smooth Muscle A scheme for smooth muscle contraction is shown in Fig. SM11. Contraction is initiated by the increase of Ca2+ in the myoplasm; this happens in the following ways: - Ca2+ may enter from the extracellular fluid through channels in the plasmalemma. These channels open, when the muscle is electrically stimulated or the plasmalemma is depolarized by excess K+. - Due to agonist induced receptor activation, Ca2+ may be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). In this pathway, the activated receptor interacts with a G-protein (G) which in turn activates phospholipase C (PLC). The activated PLC hydrolyzes phosphatidyl inositol bisphosphate; one product of the hydrolysis is inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). IP3 binds to its receptor on the surface of SR, this opens Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ from SR is entering the myoplasm. - Ca2+ combines with calmodulin (CaM) and the Ca2+ -CaM complex activates MLCK, which in turn phosphorylates LC. The phosphorylated myosin filament combines with the actin filament and the muscle contracts. Fig. SM11. A scheme for smooth muscle contraction. ( Bárány, 1996, with permission from Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction, 1996, Academic Press). Two books (Bárány, 1996; Kao and Carsten, 1997) and a special journal issue (Murphy, 1999) are recommended for further studying the mechanism of smooth muscle contraction.and relaxation. Monomer (G) to Polymer (F) Transformation of Actin in Smooth Muscle Mehta and Gunst (1999) and Jones et al (1999) reported the existence of G-actin in smooth muscle, based on the method of DNase I inhibition and phalloidin staining, respectively. Subsequently, Bárány, et al (2001) showed the exchange of the actin-bound nucleotide in intact smooth muscle. This was based on the separation of the actin bound nucleotides from the cytoplasmic nucleotides with 50% ethanol (Fig. SM12). Fig. SM12. Extraction of nucleotides and radioactivity from 32P-labeled arterial smooth muscles (From Bárány et al., 2001).The percentage of the total absorbance and counts eluted from the muscles in 8 extractions is shown on the Fig. SM12. Extraction of nucleotides and radioactivity from 32P-labeled arterial smooth muscles (From Bárány et al., 2001).The percentage of the total absorbance and counts eluted from the muscles in 8 extractions is shown on the ordinate. The composition of the PCA extract is shown on Fig. SM13. Fig. SM13. Dowex -1 chromatography of Extracts No. 7 and 8, shown in Fig. SM12.(From Bárány et al., 2001). Squares correspond to Counts per ml and triangles correspond to Fig. SM13. Dowex -1 chromatography of Extracts No. 7 and 8, shown in Fig. SM12.(From Bárány et al., 2001). Squares correspond to Counts per ml and triangles correspond to Absorbance. In order to quantify the extent of exchange of the actin-bound nucleotide and Pi, one has to determine their specific activity (counts /min/mol nucleotide or Pi) and compare it with those of the specific activities (s.a.) of the gamma- and beta-phosphates of the cytoplasmic ATP and that of PCr (Bárány et al., 2001). With this knowledge one can calculate the percentage exchange for each of the actin components; for instance , the percentage exchange of the actin-bound- ADP is: (s.a. of actin-ADP/s.a. of beta-P of cytoplasmic ATP) x 100 Fig. SM14 compares the exchange of the actin-bound ADP between smooth and skeletal muscles. The exchange is rapid in smooth muscle, half-time about 15 min, whereas the exchange is slow in skeletal muscle, about 15% in three hours, in agreement with the studies of Martonosi et al., 1960) in live animals. Fig. SM14. Time course of the exchange of the actin-bound ADP in smooth (porcine carotid artery) and skeletal (rat vastus lateralis) muscle. (From Bárány et al., 2001). Fig. SM14. Time course of the exchange of the actin-bound ADP in smooth (porcine carotid artery) and skeletal (rat vastus lateralis) muscle. (From Bárány et al., 2001). Characteristics of the exchange of the actin-bound nucleotide in smooth muscle: ATP is a prerequisite for the exchange to take place. If ATP synthesis is inhibited by azide or iodoacetamide the exchange is also inhibited. If ATP sysnthesis is reduced, by incubation of the muscles with deoxyglucose, instead of glucose, the exchange is also reduced. Ca2+ is not required for the exchange, i.e. full exchange is observed in the muscle in the presence of EGTA. Several smooth muscles, arteries, uteri, urinary bladder, and stomach exhibiited the exchange of the actin-bound nucleotide and phosphate, suggesting that the exchange is a property of every smooth muscle. Upon contraction of smooth muscle, the exchange of the bound-nucleotide and phosphate decreased and upon relaxation from the contracted state it increased, suggesting that polymerization-deplolymerization of actin is a part of the contraction-relaxation cycle of smooth muscle. Bárány, M. (1996). Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction. Academic Press. Bárány, K. and Bárány, M. (1996a). Myosin light chains. In Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction (M. Bárány , Ed.), pp. 21-35, Academic Press. Bárány, M. and Bárány, K. (1996b). Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate production. In Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction (M. Bárány, Ed.), pp. 269-282, Academic Press. Bárány, M. and Bárány, K. (1996c). Protein phosphorylation during contraction and relaxation. In Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction (M. Bárány, Ed.), pp. 321-339, Academic Press. Bárány, M., Barron, J.T., Gu, L., and Bárány, K. (2001). Exchange of the actin-bound nucleotide in intact arterial smooth muscle. J. Biol. Chem., 276, 48398-48403. Beall, A.C., Kato, K., Goldenring, J.R., Rasmussen, R., and Brophy, C.M. (1997) Cyclic nucleotide-dependent vasorelaxation is associated with the phosphorylation of a small heat shock-related protein. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 11283-11287. Brophy, C.M., Lamb, S., and Graham, A. (1999). The small heat shock-related protein-20 is an actin-associated protein. J. Vasc. Surg. 29, 326-333. Erdödi, F., Rokolya, A., Bárány, M., and Bárány, K. (1988). Phosphorylation of the 20,000 dalton myosin light chain isoforms of arterial smooth muscle by myosin light chain kinase and protein kinase C. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 266, 583-591. Feng, J., Ito, M., Ichikawa, K., Isaka, N., Nishikawa, M., Hartshorne, D.J., and Nakano, T. (1999). Inhibitory phosphorylation site for rho-associated kinase on smooth muscle myosin phosphatase. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 37385-37390. Hartshorne, D.J., Ito, M., and Erdödi, F. (1998). Myosin light chain phosphatase: subunit composition, interactions and regulation. J. Muscle Res. Cell Motil. 19, 325-341. Herrera, A.M., Kuo, K-H., and Seow, C.Y. (2002). Influence of calcium on myosin thick filament formation in intact airway smooth muscle. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol., 282, C310-C316. Hodgkinson, J.L., el-Mezgueldi, M., Craig, R., Vibert, P., Marston, S.B., and Lehman, W. (1997). 3-D image reconstruction of reconstituted smooth muscle thin filaments containing calponin : visulaization of interactions between F-actin and calponin. J. Mol. Biol., 273, 159-159. Jones, K.A., Perkins, W.J., Lorenz, R.R., Prakash, Y.S., Sieck, G.C., Warner, D.O. (1999). F-actin stabilization increases tension cost during contraction of permeabilized airway smooth muscles in dog. J.Physiol., 519, 527-538. Kaibuchi, K., Kuroda, S., and Amano, M. (1999). Regulation of the cytoskeleton and cell adhesion by the rho family GTPases in mammalian cells. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 68, 459-486. Kao, C.Y. and Carsten, M. E. (1997). Cellular Aspects of Smooth Muscle Function. Cambridge University Press. Kitazawa, T., Eto, M., Woodsome, T.P., and Brautigan, D.L. (2000). Agonists trigger G protein-mediated activation of the CPI-17 inhibitor phosphoprotein of myosin light chain phosphatase to enhance vascular smooth muscle contractility. J. Biol. Chem., 275, 9897-9900. Lauzon, A-M., Fagnant, P.M., Warshaw, D.M., and Trybus, K.M. (2001) Coiled-coil unwinding at the smooth muscle myosin head-rod junction is required for optimal mechanical performance. Biophys. J. 80, 1900-1904. Lehman, W., Vibert, P., Craig, R. (1997). Visualization of caldesmon on smooth muscle thin filaments. J. Mol. Biol., 274, 310-317. Li, X-D., Saito, J., Ikebe, R., Mabuchi, K., and Ikebe, M. (2000). The interaction between the regulatory light chain domains on two heads is critical for regulation of smooth muscle myosin. Biochemistry, 39, 2254-2260. Martonosi, A., Gouvea, M.A., and Gergely, J. (1960). Studies on actin. III. G-F transformation of actin and muscular contraction (experiments in vivo). J. Biol. Chem. 235, 1707-1710. Mehta, D. and Gunst, S.J. (1999). Actin polymerization stimulated by contractile activation regulates force development in canine tracheal smooth muscle. J. Physiol., 519, 820-840. Murphy, R.A. (1999). Signal transduction in smooth muscle. Reviews of Physiology Biochemistry and Pharmacology. vol.134 Nagumo, H., Sasaki, Y., Ono, Y., Okamoto, H., Seto, M., and Takuwa, Y. (2000). Rho-kinase inhibitor HA-1077 prevents rho-mediated myosin phosphatase inhibition in smooth muscle cells. Am. J. Physiol., 278, C57-C65. Ohki, S-Y., Eto, M., Kariya, A., Hayano, T., Hayashi, Y., Yazawa, M., Brautigan, D., and Kainosho, M. (2001). Solution NMR structure of the myosin phosphatase inhibitor protein CPI-17 shows phosphorylation-induced conformational changes responsible for activation. J. Mol. Biol. 314, 839-849. Quevillon-Cheruel, S., Foucault, G., Desmadril, M., Lompre, A-M., and Bechet, J-J. (1999). Role of the C-terminal extremities of the smooth muscle myosin heavy chains: implication for assembly properties. FEBS Letters 454, 303-306. Rembold, C.M., Foster, D.B., Strauss, J.D., Wingard, C.J., Van Eyk, J.E. (2000). cGMP-mediated phosphorylation of heat shock protein 20 may cause smooth muscle relaxation without myosin light chain dephosphorylation in swine carotid artery. J. Physiol., 524, 865-878. Rovner, A.S., Fagnant, P.M., Lowey, S, and Trybus, K.M. (2002). The carboxyl-terminal isoforms of smooth muscle myosin heavy chain determine thick filament assembly properties. J. Cell. Biol. 156, 113-124. Rowner, A.S. (1998). A long, weakly charged actin-binding loop is required for phosphorylation dependent regulation of smooth muscle myosin. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 27939-27944. Solaro, R.J. (2000). Myosin light chain phosphatase a cinderella of cellular signaling. Circ. Res. 87, 173-175. Somlyo, A.P. and Somlyo, A.V. (1994). Signal transduction and regulation in smooth muscle. Nature, 372, 231-236. Somlyo, A.P. and Somlyo, A.V. (2000). Signal transduction by G-proteins, Rho-kinase and protein phosphatase to smooth muscle and non-muscle myosin II. J. Physiol., 522, 177-185. Stull, J.T., Krueger, J.K., Kamm, K.E., Gao, Z-H., Zhi, G., and Padre, R. (1996). Myosin light chain kinase. In Biochemistry of Smooth Muscle Contraction (M. Bárány, Ed.), pp. 119-130. Academic Press. Sward, K., Dreja, K., Susnjar, M., Hellstrand, P., Hartshorne, D.J., and Walsh, M.P. (2000). Inhibition of rho-associated kinase blocks agonist induced Ca2+sensitization of myosin phosphorylation and force in guinea pig ileum. J. Physiol. 522, 33-49. Sweeney, H.L., Chen, L-Q., and Trybus, K.M. (2000). Regulation of asymmetric smooth muscle myosin II molecules. J.B iol. Chem. 275, 41273-41277. Trybus, K. (2000). Biochemical studies of myosin. METHODS, 22, 327-335. Back to the Home Back to the Beginning of the Chapter Go to the Next Chapter

http://www.uic.edu/classes/phyb/phyb516/smoothmuscleu3.htm

In the years immediately following 1814, the newly organized state fought repeatedly for its existence. Norway was hit by the worst economic depression it had ever suffered. The common market with Denmark was dissolved and the British market was closed to Norwegian timber. Mines and sawmills lost foreign custom. Many of the wealthier middle class citizens in southeast Norway went bankrupt. The crisis was hard and long. From the 1830s Norway enjoyed a period of economic buoyancy, which fed demands for freer trade and customs regulations. Trading rights were expanded and customs tariffs were given a free trade bias. In other ways too, Norway started to take part in general developments in Europe. The first railway line was laid, between Oslo and Eidsvoll, in 1854. Telegraph lines were erected. New management methods were introduced in agriculture. The foundation for modern industry in Norway was laid in the 1840s, with the establishment of the first textile factories and engineering workshops. Between 1850 and 1880 the size of the Norwegian merchant fleet increased dramatically. Economic development was followed by an intensified class conflict. The calls for democratic reform grew louder. In the Storting antagonism gradually arose between the representatives of the senior officials who attended to administration, and the delegates for the farmers and the radicals. The farmers were in the majority as early as 1833. In 1859 the first attempt to create a party organization was unsuccessful, but ten years later the first liberal block was formed. Norway's first political party, the radical Liberal Party was established in 1884 and its political counterpart, the Conservative Party, was founded some months later. The resentment directed towards the Swedish monarchy soon became apparent within the union, not least because foreign policy was led in its entirety from Stockholm. As early as 1827 the Storting submitted a request to the King that the Norwegian prime minister be allowed to take part in diplomatic issues. Other proposals, such as a special Norwegian merchant flag, were forwarded to promote Norwegian equality in the union. The really major struggle against the Swedish monarchy, however, was linked to the introduction of parliamentarianism, the constitutional principle that a government must have the support of the national assembly if it is to remain in power. As a condition for this, the Storting passed amendments to the Constitution in 1874, 1879 and 1880, giving ministers of the crown access to the sessions of the Storting. On each occasion the King refused to sanction the proposal. This raised the issue of whether constitutional amendments in fact needed the consent of both the King and the Storting. The government and the Conservative representatives asserted that they did. However, the Liberals were determined to bring matters to a head through an impeachment process. After an election campaign in 1882, the Liberals returned 82 representatives to the Storting against the Conservative's 32. The government of Prime Minister Selmer was impeached, and in 1884 sentenced to partial loss of office, primarily for having advised the King not to sanction the constitutional amendments. After a period of interim Conservative government, the King saw no option but to request Liberal leader, Johan Sverdrup to become prime minister. Parliamentarianism had finally won through in Norway. Towards the end of the century clashes on the subject of the union intensified. A Swedish demand that the union's foreign minister must be Swedish, and the Norwegians' demand for their own consulates sparked bitter disagreement. Swedish troops prevented the Norwegians from achieving their desires. In return, the Norwegians spent the final years of the century building up their military power. In the end it was the consulate issue that triggered the final conflict between the two countries. On 11 March 1905, the government of Prime Minister Michelsen was formed to push the consulate issue through as a unilateral Norwegian action. On June 7 the government placed its power in the hands of the Storting. The latter, however, requested the government to continue temporarily, in accordance with the Constitution and current law " with those changes necessitated in light of the fact that the King has ceased to function as the King of Norway, thereby bringing to an end the union between Norway and Sweden under a single monarch." Sweden demanded negotiations on the conditions for a dissolution of the union as well as a plebiscite to clarify whether the nation as a whole was in agreement with this move. The plebiscite took place in August of 1905. A total of 368,392 Norwegians voted to end the union, while only 184 voted nay. Further negotiations with Sweden were held in Karlstad in August and September, and these were successfully concluded with the drawing up of an agreement for a peaceful dissolution of the union.

http://www.emb-norway.or.th/aboutnorway/history/after1814/unionswe/

This is an interesting question, because if the strong nuclear force could confine the electron within the nucleus, atoms would collapse. Many electrons in the atom do venture very close to the nucleus (especially those in s orbitals). The uncertainty principle comes into play twice here: it determines the range of the strong nuclear force, and it determines the size of the smallest possible space an electron can be restricted to. How the strong force works. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are called nucleons. The nucleons are constantly emitting and absorbing little 'messenger' particles called mesons. When one nucleon emits a meson that another nucleon absorbs, a very strong attractive force between the two nucleons results. This is called (strangely enough) the strong nuclear force. Why is the range of the strong force so small? Production and destruction of the messenger mesons violates the law of conservation of mass & energy! However, if the messenger particle has a very short lifetime, and so exists only within a very small space, the particle can exist within the limitations set by the uncertainty principle. Particles like this are called virtual particles. If you believe the uncertainty principle, and you believe that nothing can move faster than the speed of light, you can estimate the range of the strong nuclear force as follows. The uncertainty principle says that you can't exactly determine the position and momentum of a very small particle simultaneously. If x is the uncertainty in the particle's position, and (mv) is the uncertainty in the particle's momentum, the uncertainty principle says that x(mv) = h/2 where m is the particle's mass, v is its velocity, and h is Planck's constant (6.626 × 10-34 Js). The virtual particle must exist within x = h/2(mc) of the nucleon that generated it. Now, given that the mass of messenger mesons is about 2.5 × 10-28 kg, and the uncertainty in the velocity can't be any larger than the speed of light (2.9979 × 108 m/s), the virtual particle can't move any more than x = h/(2(mc)) = 1.4 × 10-15 m from the nucleon that generated it without violating the uncertainty principle or the universal speed limit. That's the range of the strong nuclear force! Why isn't the electron confined to the nucleus? We can repeat the above calculation for the electron to show that the uncertainty principle forbids it from being restricted to a space as small as an atomic nucleus. The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10-31 kg, and it can't move any faster than the speed of light, so the smallest space an electron can be restricted to without violating the uncertainty principle is 4 × 10-13 m; about 270 times farther than a messenger meson can reach. Author: Fred Senese [email protected]

http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/quantum/faq/electron-confinement-to-nucleus.shtml

Aug. 29, 2011 A team of German and Canadian scientists has shown that today's plague pathogen has been around at least 600 years. The Black Death claimed the lives of one-third of Europeans in just five years from 1348 to 1353. Until recently, it was not certain whether the bacterium Yersinia pestis -- known to cause the plague today -- was responsible for that most deadly outbreak of disease ever. Now, the University of Tübingen's Institute of Scientific Archaeology and McMaster University in Canada have been able to confirm that Yersinia pestis was behind the great plague. The results of the research are published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Previous genetic tests indicating that the bacterium was present in medieval samples had previously been dismissed as contaminated by modern DNA or the DNA of bacteria in the soil. Above all, there was doubt because the modern plague pathogen spreads much more slowly and is less deadly than the medieval plague -- even allowing for modern medicine. The international team of researchers has for the first time been able to decode a circular genome important for explaining the virulence of Y. pestis. It is called pPCP1 plasmid and comprises about 10,000 positions in the bacterium's DNA. The sample was taken from skeletons from a London plague cemetery. The working group in Tübingen, led by Dr. Johannes Krause used a new technique of "molecular fishing" -- enriching plague DNA fragments from tooth enamel and sequencing them using the latest technology. In this way, the fragments were connected up into a long genome sequence -- which turned out to be identical to modern-day plague pathogens. "That indicates that at least this part of the genetic information has barely changed in the past 600 years," says Krause. The researchers were also able to show that the plague DNA from the London cemetery was indeed medieval. To do that, they examined damage to the DNA which only occurs in old DNA -- therefore excluding the possibility of modern contamination. "Without a doubt, the plague pathogen known today as Y. pestis was also the cause of the plague in the Middle Ages," says Krause, who is well known for his DNA sequencing of ancient hominin finds, which help trace relationships between types of prehistoric man and modern humans. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - Verena J. Schuenemann, Kirsten Bos, Sharon Dewitte, Sarah Schmedes, Joslyn Jamieson, Alissa Mittnik, Stephen Forrest, Brian K. Coombes, James W. Wood, David J. D. Earn, William White, Johannes Krause, Hendrik N. Poinar. Targeted enrichment of ancient pathogens yielding the pPCP1 plasmid of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2011; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1105107108 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110829173751.htm

The rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil that is directly influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms. Soil which is not part of the rhizosphere is known as bulk soil. The rhizosphere contains many bacteria that feed on sloughed-off plant cells, termed rhizodeposition, and the proteins and sugars released by roots. Protozoa and nematodes that graze on bacteria are also more abundant in the rhizosphere. Thus, much of the nutrient cycling and disease suppression needed by plants occurs immediately adjacent to roots. Plants secrete many compounds into the rhizosphere which serve different functions. Strigolactones, secreted and detected by mycorhizal fungi, stimulate the germination of spores and initiate changes in the mycorhiza that allow it to colonize the root. The parasitic plant, Striga also detects the presence of strigolactones and will germinate when it detects them; they will then move into the root, feeding off the nutrients present. Symbiotic Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as the Rhizobium species, detect an unknown compound secreted by the roots of leguminous plants and then produce nod factors which signal to the plant that they are present and will lead to the formation of root nodules, in which the bacterium, sustained by nutrients from the plant, converts nitrogen gas to a form that can be used by the plant. Non-symbiotic (or "free-living") nitrogen-fixing bacteria may reside in the rhizosphere just outside the roots of certain plants (including many grasses), and similarly "fix" nitrogen gas in the nutrient-rich plant rhizosphere. Even though these organisms are thought to be only loosely associated with plants they inhabit, they may respond very strongly to the status of the plants. For example, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the rhizosphere of the rice plant exhibit diurnal cycles that mimic plant behavior, and tend to supply more fixed nitrogen during growth stages when the plant exhibits a high demand for nitrogen. Some plants secrete allelochemicals from their roots which inhibit the growth of other organisms. For example garlic mustard produces a chemical which is believed to prevent mutualisms forming between the trees and mycorhiza in mesic North American temperate forests. Biological control See also - Giri, B.; Giang, P. H.; Kumari, R.; Prasad, R.; Varma, A. (2005). "Microbial Diversity in Soils". Microorganisms in Soils: Roles in Genesis and Functions. Soil Biology 3. pp. 19–55. doi:10.1007/3-540-26609-7_2. ISBN 3-540-22220-0. - "Microbial Health of the Rhizosphere". Retrieved 5 May 2006.[dead link] - "The Soil Food Web". USDA-NRCS. Retrieved 3 July 2006. - Sims GK, Dunigan EP (1984). "Diurnal and seasonal variations in nitrogenase activity (C2H2 reduction) of rice roots". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 16 (1): 15–18. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(84)90118-4. - Stinson KA, Campbell SA, Powell JR, Wolfe BE, Callaway RM, Thelen GC, Hallett SG, Prati D, Klironomos JN (2006). "Invasive plant suppresses the growth of native tree seedlings by disrupting belowground mutualisms". PLoS Biology 4 (5): e140. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040140. PMC 1440938. PMID 16623597 Further reading - "The Soil Habitat". University of Western Australia. Retrieved 3 July 2006. - Digging in the Dirt: Is the Study of the Rhizosphere Ripe for a Systems Biology Approach? - A review from the Science Creative Quarterly (retrieved 4 December 2006)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizosphere_(ecology)

- Action Teams - Sign Up - Get Trained - Do Projects - Submit Finished Projects - ACE Alumni - Media Team Climate Science Lesson Plans and Curricula Check out our favorite climate lesson plans below. You can view them either by subject or by key concept. We encourage teachers to use these resources to extend their students’ learning beyond the ACE Assembly. Also check out our Energy Lesson Plans page. Most of these come from the CLEAN database of curricula, so if you’re looking for something specific, start there. Carbon Sequestration in Campus Trees: 1-hour period Climate Change and Arctic Ecosystems: 2 45-min periods Temperature and precipitation as limiting factors in ecosystems: 2 45-min periods Carbon Cycle: 3 45-minute class periods or 1 lab Mountain Pine Beetles: 1 week Automotive Emissions and the Greenhouse Effect: 1 90-min period ACE ocean acidification animation: 2-min video in ACE animation style that breaks down the chemistry of this complicated topic. Off Base - Acidity of oceans: 2 45-min periods Biomass - Investigating Gases: 2-3 50-min periods Understanding Ocean Acidification: varying length How Greenhouse Gases Absorb Heat: 1 45-min period Dendrochronology - Trees: Recorders of Climate Change: 1 hour period Energy and the Poor - Black Carbon in Developing Nations: 3 45-min periods US Historical Climate: Excel Statistical: 2 hour-long periods - Human behavior has an environmental impact. - Carbon is an integral part of the natural world. - By burning fossil fuels, humans are causing climate change. - Scientists use ice cores among other techniques to understand past climate. - The Earth’s climate system has many complex interactions that scientists are constantly discovering more about. - Climate change is already impacting the world and will continue to do so. - Personal environmental impact extends beyond individual behavior to indirect impacts of consumer behavior. - Earth is a closed system – our trash ends up somewhere. - Different countries have different environmental impacts depending on their lifestyle. 2. Carbon is an integral part of the natural world. - Today’s energy source, fossil fuels, is made of carbon and comes from plants and animals that lived millions of years ago and took millions of years to form. - Burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. - Energy from the sun passes through Earth’s atmosphere and warms the surface of the planet. Earth puts out heat, which is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This is the greenhouse effect. - Greenhouse gases are essential for keeping the planet warm enough to support life. - Plants, animals and people have adapted to living in a specific environment and climate. - Earth’s climate is sensitive to small changes in CO2 in the atmosphere. - Carbon constantly cycles through the natural world, moving between the ocean, the biosphere, the atmosphere and the geosphere. This is the carbon cycle. - The carbon cycle is taking up human emissions of carbon, but this is not a sustainable process. - Scientists use information on CO2 and temperature found in ice cores to study past climate. - Climate has changed naturally in the past, in sync with CO2 levels in the atmosphere. - Causes of past climate change include the sun, variations in the Earth’s orbit and volcanoes. These factors are understood by scientists. - Current CO2 levels and rates of increase are well beyond the natural range of variability over the last 800,000 years. - Natural variations alone can’t account for current climate change. 5. The Earth’s climate system has many complex interactions that scientists are constantly discovering more about. - The Earth’s climate system is nonlinear and may contain tipping points. - The Earth’s climate system can take decades to respond to changes in CO2. - Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas, which is also produced by human activity. One source of methane is from livestock. - The 10 hottest years ever recorded have all been in the last 13 years. - The vast majority (97%) of climate scientists agree that humans are causing climate change. 6. Climate change is already impacting the world and will continue to do so. - Climate change affects people’s lives in many ways, including extreme weather events, sea level rise, access to food and water and human health. - Climate change affects our weather by contributing to more intense storms, floods, droughts and heat waves. - Small changes in global temperature have large impacts on the natural world. - Expected temperature rise in the next 100 years is 3-7ºF, similar to the difference between an ice age and a non-ice age (interglacial). - Climate change threatens many plants and animals with extinction. Many species can’t adapt quickly enough. - Climate change affects the U.S. economy as well our national security.

http://www.acespace.org/node/25765

Sea water off the east coast of Greenland looked a bit like marbled paper in October 2012. The shifting swirls of white were sea ice, as observed by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on October 17, 2012. In fact, this ice moved discernibly between October 16 and October 17. Thin, free-drifting ice moves very easily with winds and currents. Each year, Arctic sea ice grows through the winter, reaching its maximum extent around March. It then melts through the summer, reaching its minimum in September. By October, Arctic waters start freezing again. However, the ice in the image above is more likely a remnant of old ice that migrated down to the coast of Greenland. Sea water is unlikely to start freezing this far south in October. Along Greenland’s east coast, the Fram Strait serves as an expressway for sea ice moving out of the Arctic Ocean. The movement of ice through the strait used to be offset by the growth of ice in the Beaufort Gyre. Until the late 1990s, ice would persist in the gyre for years, growing thicker and more resistant to melt. Since the start of the twenty-first century, however, ice has been less likely to survive its trip through the southern part of the Beaufort Gyre. As a result, less Arctic sea ice has been able to pile up and form multi-year ice. With less thick ice there is less Arctic sea ice volume, something the researchers at the Polar Science Center at the University of Washington have modeled from 1979 to 2012. Their results appear in the graph above. The model indicates that ice volume peaks in March through May of each year and reaches its lowest levels from August through October. But while the seasonal timing of the peaks and valleys has remained consistent since 1979, the total sea ice volume has declined. The thick blue line is the 1979–2000 average, and the lighter blue bands surrounding it are one and two standard deviations from the median. The lines below the blue line are the calculated sea ice volumes for the years since 2000. All of them fall below the median, and almost all of them fall below two standard deviations. The drop in sea ice volume is consistent with other observed changes in Arctic sea ice. In terms of sea ice extent, the National Snow and Ice Data Center and NASA reported that Arctic sea ice set a record low in September 2012. - State of the Cryosphere. (2012, October 24) Sea Ice. National Snow and Ice Data Center. Accessed October 25, 2012. - Polar Science Center. Arctic Sea Ice Volume Anomaly, version 2. University of Washington. Accessed October 25, 2012.

http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=79521

Eclipses take place when the Sun is partially or completely blocked from view by some body passing in front of the observer. In a solar eclipse, the Moon passes between the Earth and Sun, and observers in the shadow of the Moon see an annular, partial or total solar eclipse. In a lunar eclipse, the Earth passes between the Moon and Sun, and observers (on the Moon) in the shadow of the Earth see a total or partial solar eclipse, while observers on the Earth see a penumbral, partial, or total lunar eclipse. If the orbit of the Moon around the Earth were in the same plane as the orbit of the Earth and Moon around the Sun, there would be an eclipse of the Sun at every New Moon, and an eclipse of the Moon at every Full Moon; but because the Moon's orbit is tilted (by about 5 degrees) relative to ours, the Moon usually passes above or below the Sun at New Moon, and above or below the shadow of the Earth at Full Moon, and there are no eclipses, even though the Earth, Moon and Sun are more or less "lined up". However, there are two periods, separated by about six months, when the Moon is very close to the Ecliptic, instead of being well above or below it, and we must have eclipses of the Sun at New Moon, and of the Moon at Full Moon (in fact, the origin of the term Ecliptic to describe the Sun's apparent path in the sky is due to the fact that eclipses occur only when the Moon is close to the Ecliptic). Periods when eclipses can (or must) occur are called eclipse seasons, and are about 40 days long. Since this is longer than the cycle of lunar phases (which is 29 1/2 days), there must be at least one New Moon and at least one Full Moon during each eclipse season, which means there must be at least two solar eclipses and two lunar eclipses every single year, for at least four eclipses a year. There are often, in fact, five or six eclipses a year, and on occasion, seven. So eclipses of the Sun and Moon are not particularly "rare". They don't happen every day, or even every month, but they do happen frequently enough to be considered a relatively commonplace occurance. (to be covered later, on this and the corresponding pages about Solar Eclipses and Lunar Eclipses): (1) The geometry of lunar eclipses -- penumbral, partial and total -- and their appearance. How that geometry determines the likelihood of seeing a given eclipse. (2) The geometry of solar eclipses -- partial, annular and total -- and their appearance. How that geometry determines the likelihood of seeing a given eclipse, making solar eclipses seem much rarer than they are. (3) Eclipse Seasons, and their relationship to lunar and solar eclipses. (4) Changes in the orbit of the Moon which change the timing of eclipse seasons. (5) Long-term changes in the orbit of the Moon, which will eventually make total solar eclipses impossible.

http://cseligman.com/text/sky/eclipse.htm

At the time of acute infection with HIV, the body has not yet made antibodies to HIV. Antibodies, proteins produced primarily by certain white blood cells called B lymphocytes, attack substances foreign to the body, including viruses. The fact that symptoms are present even though the blood test to detect antibodies to HIV is negative is not unusual. In most other infections, symptoms precede the body’s production of antibodies, and the symptoms disappear once antibodies are produced. The body usually takes several days or weeks to recognize a foreign substance like a virus, and then produces antibodies to attack it. Six to twelve weeks after HIV has entered the body, antibodies to HIV appear in the blood. Physicians call this appearance of antibodies seroconversion. That is, the result of a test for antibodies in the blood serum converts from negative to positive. Occasionally, seroconversion may take up to a year or longer. The reason for the delay in some people is not known. For some reason, the virus is dormant; that is, it is not actively reproducing, so the immune system is not manufacturing antibodies against it. Antibodies against most viral infections, once they appear, eliminate the virus and then stay in the body to protect against future infections by the same virus. Virtually all people with HIV infection eventually develop antibodies against HIV. These antibodies, for reasons no one yet understands, do not eliminate HIV. As a result, the person with HIV remains infected and capable of transmitting the virus for life.

http://homehealthrx.com/english-hiv-infection-and-its-effects-on-the-body-acute-seroconversion

Knowing how and where birds migrate and breed is an important part of understanding how and why their numbers increase or decrease over time. However, we don't know much about the exact migratory patterns of most birds. After all, they are one of the most itinerant animals on earth, coming and going from one place to another as regularly as the seasons change. Where are they going? How will they get there? Why do they go? Based on what we currently know about migration, we can assume that they head toward areas where the weather is more conducive to survival and breeding. Now, a new technique to track birds is helping researchers understand an important concept called migratory connectivity. Migratory connectivity is the degree to which breeding and non-breeding populations of birds are linked to one another; it is the relationship that helps us understand how these interactions contribute to the natural ecology of the animals' habitats. Until recently, the mark-recapture method has been the only technique used to do this. This method includes tagging individual birds and recording where they were recaptured, if they were recaptured at all. Unfortunately, this method was not always successful if the bird was not caught again. Researchers recently tried a new method to track gray catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis), in addition to the older mark-recapture technique. The scientists fit 13 male and nine female birds with geolocators, which are special devices that resemble tags on the birds' legs and that can record the estimated latitude and longitude of the wearer based on sunlight levels every 10 minutes. Birds wore these during the breeding and non-breeding seasons from July 2009 through May/June of 2010, when researchers recovered the devices. Only three males and three females were recaptured, so the data from the six geolocators was the only new information that the researchers had to work with. They were able to successfully download this data and use special software to correct and calibrate any errors in the information. They were also aware that the readings were sometimes slightly skewed if the bird had been perching in a shady area rather than in direct sunlight, but despite this, the team was able to get a good impression as to where the birds had been. Next, the data was compared to previously documented mark-recapture records from 1914 to 2009 in order to provide a wide-range view of migratory connectivity. The data from both were similar, indicating a strong connectivity. It also showed that the gray catbirds that bred in Washington D.C. migrated to Florida and the Caribbean during the winters. In addition, long-term mark recapture data from the U.S. Geological Services Bird Banding Lab indicated that gray catbirds from the Midwest migrate down to Central America during the winters. Although the data was consistent from both sources, there are limitations to both. The geolocators require proper light so that data is not misrepresented. The birds wearing these devices may also have trouble getting around, as weight and drag are increased, and a piece protrudes unnaturally. This can ultimately affect their survival. The authors did state however, that statistically the recapture and return rates of birds from both the geolocator study and the historical records were about the same. Data collected via mark-recapture techniques only seems to have meaning when the data is collected over a long period of time. This article summarizes the information in this publication: Ryder, Thomas B., Fox, James W., and Peter P. Marra. 2011. Estimating Migratory Connectivity of Gray Catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis) Using Geolocator and Mark-Recapture Data. The Auk 128(3):448-453. Understanding the connectivity between breeding and nonbreeding populations of migratory birds is fundamental to our knowledge of biological phenomena such as population dynamics and dispersal. Moreover, our ability to quantify migratory connectivity has inevitable consequences for both conservation and management of species that utilize distinct geographic locations. Technology is rapidly advancing our ability to track birds throughout the annual cycle and to collect data on the degree of connectivity among breeding and nonbreeding populations. We combined two direct methods, mark–recapture (n = 17) and geolocation (n = 6), to estimate the migratory connectivity of breeding and nonbreeding populations of Gray Catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis). Data from geolocators show that birds breeding in the Mid-Atlantic overwinter in both Cuba and southern Florida. Mark–recapture data supported our geolocator results but also provided a broader spatial perspective by documenting that Mid-Atlantic and Midwestern populations occupy distinct geographic localities during the nonbreeding period. This research underscores the importance of geolocators, as well as other tools, to advance our understanding of migratory connectivity. Finally, our results highlight the potential value of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Bird Banding Laboratory mark–recapture data, which are often underutilized in ornithological research. Teachers, Standards of Learning, as they apply to these articles, are available for each state.

http://nationalzoo.si.edu/scbi/migratorybirds/science_article/default.cfm?id=137

To get Excel to perform calculations, such as addition or subtraction, we create a formula. Although writing a formula in Excel is similar to the way you would write a formula in math class, there a couple of important differences. One difference is that a formula in Excel begins with the equal sign rather than ending with it. A second difference is that we normally do not put numbers in Excel formulas. Instead of numbers we enter cell references. Each “box” on the Excel screen is a cell, and each cell can be located in a spreadsheet by means of its reference. Sometimes referred to as a cell address, a cell reference consists of the column letter and row number that intersect at the cell's location. For example, the cell in the top left corner of a spreadsheet has a cell reference of A1. When cell references are used in formulas, Excel will calculate the answer using the data located in the referenced cells. If that data should later change, Excel will automatically recalculate the formula and update the answer. Enter the following data into the listed cells: C1: 5Enter the following formula into C3: = C1 + C2 The answer 12 will appear in cell C3. Change the data in the listed cells: The answer in cell C3 will change from 12 to 20.

http://spreadsheets.about.com/od/exceltips/qt/cell_ref.htm

Stars form from dense clumps of molecular gas deep inside a cloud. The clumps shrink down until their centers become hot enough (around 10 million degrees) for hydrogen to fuse together. At that point, the energy generated by fusion pushes their outer layers outwards and halts the contraction. The delicate balance between gravity and gas pressure continues as long as there is hydrogen to fuse in the core. During this long, hydrogen-burning phase of their lives, stars fall on the main sequence of an HR diagram. It all sounds good so far .... but several questions immediately arise: We can make a pretty decent estimate to this question by looking at the Sun. Suppose we make a couple of simplifying assumptions: You can figure out how long the hydrogen will last like this: Seems like a long time, doesn't it? How does it compare to the age of the Solar System? Are we in danger of waking up tomorrow to find out that the Sun has stopped shining? Our estimate involves several simplifications. To do the job right, one needs to build a model of a star mathematically. Most models break the star up into a series of thin spherical shells. Within each shell, the computer keeps track of a number of variables, among which are The goal is to come up with just the right combination of quantities in each shell; in order for the star to be in equilibrium, each shell must satisfy Back in the old days, astronomers had to work through all the equations in all the different shells by hand; it took a LONG time, and was extremely boring. Fortunately, we can now just write a computer program to do all the dirty work, and look at the results. Some astronomers have even made it possible for you to run their programs via the Web! We can use the Stellar Interior Construction Site to generate a model of a star just like the Sun at the time it starts to fuse hydrogen. The model lets us look at the temperature of each shell: Q: Is the temperature at the center of the Sun high enough to run the CNO cycle? (Need a hint? Click me)Or the density of each shell: Hey -- check out the density of the shell about halfway out to the edge of the Sun. Q: If you could scoop out a blob of gas from that deep inside the Sun, and throw that blob into the ocean ... would it float or sink? Okay, so one can make a model which shows the structure of a star when it starts to fuse hydrogen in its core. That's good. But you can also use stellar models to watch the star's properties evolve with time. As time goes by, the innermost regions of a star's core change from mostly hydrogen to mostly helium, which changes the rate at which energy is produced. A whole series of changes ripple outwards through the stellar model as the interior becomes more and more helium rich. We can't see these changes within the interior of other stars directly, but we can observe the photosphere's temperature and the overall luminosity. If you go to Siess's Computation of Isochrones web site and Additional information Mass Tc roc etac Menv Renv/R Tenv flag 0.100 4.396E+06 5.321E+02 3.78 0.0000 0.00000 4.396E+06 0 0.130 5.490E+06 3.372E+02 1.96 0.0000 0.00000 5.490E+06 0 0.160 6.120E+06 2.484E+02 1.15 0.0000 0.00000 6.119E+06 0 0.200 6.678E+06 1.826E+02 0.49 0.0000 0.00000 6.677E+06 0 0.250 7.370E+06 1.422E+02 -0.02 0.0000 0.00000 7.369E+06 0 0.300 7.807E+06 1.133E+02 -0.41 0.0000 0.00000 7.808E+06 0 0.400 8.479E+06 7.813E+01 -0.98 0.0237 0.08784 7.851E+06 0 0.500 8.901E+06 7.153E+01 -1.16 0.2883 0.54073 4.593E+06 0 0.600 9.537E+06 7.302E+01 -1.25 0.4558 0.61232 3.803E+06 0 0.700 1.030E+07 7.523E+01 -1.35 0.6057 0.65363 3.222E+06 0 0.800 1.126E+07 7.835E+01 -1.46 0.7371 0.67965 2.835E+06 0 0.900 1.232E+07 8.219E+01 -1.56 0.8547 0.69772 2.627E+06 0 1.000 1.345E+07 8.659E+01 -1.66 0.9722 0.72340 2.302E+06 0 1.100 1.455E+07 8.963E+01 -1.75 1.0864 0.75981 1.855E+06 0 1.200 1.603E+07 9.832E+01 -1.85 1.1965 0.81750 1.246E+06 0 1.300 1.745E+07 1.026E+02 -1.96 1.2995 0.87643 7.524E+05 0 1.400 1.877E+07 1.027E+02 -2.09 1.4000 0.92522 4.121E+05 0 1.500 1.974E+07 9.869E+01 -2.23 1.5000 0.96242 1.984E+05 0 1.600 2.058E+07 9.373E+01 -2.39 1.6000 0.98761 7.253E+04 0 1.700 2.141E+07 8.955E+01 -2.55 1.7000 0.99140 5.515E+04 0 1.800 2.232E+07 8.822E+01 -2.70 1.8000 0.99068 5.390E+04 0 1.900 2.369E+07 9.350E+01 -2.84 1.9000 0.99004 5.362E+04 0 2.000 2.476E+07 5.130E+02 -1.27 2.0000 0.98780 5.242E+04 1 2.200 2.523E+07 4.656E+02 -1.41 2.2000 0.98660 5.216E+04 1 2.500 2.625E+07 3.782E+02 -1.69 2.5000 0.98610 5.109E+04 1 2.700 2.739E+07 3.086E+02 -1.97 2.7000 0.98580 5.085E+04 1 3.000 2.692E+07 4.346E+02 -1.58 3.0000 0.98420 5.056E+04 1 3.500 2.867E+07 4.214E+02 -1.72 3.5000 0.98300 5.029E+04 1 4.000 2.972E+07 2.322E+02 -2.40 4.0000 0.98460 4.947E+04 1 5.000 3.483E+07 3.636E+01 -4.50 5.0000 0.99460 1.705E+04 1 6.000 3.464E+07 2.000E+02 -2.79 6.0000 0.94480 1.825E+05 1 7.000 3.822E+07 1.860E+02 -3.01 7.0000 0.94200 1.971E+05 1The final column in this table contains a flag: Q: What is the maximum mass of a star which can continue to fuse hydrogen for at least one billion years? Using stellar models, one can predict the lifetime on the main sequence for stars of various masses; in other words, the length of time during which they can continue to fuse hydrogen into helium. The results may surprise you -- the most massive stars live the shortest lives: initial mass (solar) lifetime (Myr) ------------------------------------------- 0.5 56000 1.0 12000 2.0 900 5.0 90 One can fit a very rough formula to this relationship: -2.5 lifetime ( mass ) --------------- = ( ------------ ) solar lifetime ( solar mass ) You can use this formula to estimate the length of time that a star will remain on the main sequence. Q: Roughly how long will a star of 10 solar masses remain on the main sequence? Why do the most massive star die so soon? Because they use up their fuel much more rapidly than their low-mass cousins. This movie compares the evolution of a high-mass star (15 solar masses) to a low-mass (3 solar masses) star. Q: How much more fuel does the high-mass star have at the start of its life? Q: What is the luminosity of the high-mass star? What is the luminosity of the low-mass star? Q: How much more energy does the high-mass star generate each second? Now, if you go back to look at the HR diagram of stars in our local stellar neighborhood, you'll see that there really aren't many stars at the high-mass end. Aha! And that's just what the stellar models predict: the high-mass stars burn through their hydrogen very quickly, so they don't stick around for long. Now, if you look at the low-mass end of the main sequence, you also see relatively few points. Astronomers believe that low-mass stars are actually formed more frequently than stars like the Sun, and (as you've just seen) they should last a long, long time. So why are there so few observed low-mass stars? Copyright © Michael Richmond. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License.

http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys230/lectures/star_age/star_age.html

Ghostly Ripples in Space A simulated map of the hot and cold spots in the cosmic microwave background. The top image assumes the standard cosmological model. The bottom image shows the contribution from neutrino ripples to the above fluctuations. CREDIT: Roberto Trotta. Neutrinos are tiny particles that can plow through the center of the Earth without even a hint of a whisper. Every second, billions of them rain down--and up--from outer space. Some of these cosmic ghosts were witnesses to the first seconds of the universe. Now, for the first time, density fluctuations have been observed in these oldest of neutrinos. "We know there is an ocean of neutrinos out there, but what we have shown is that there are ripples on it," Roberto Trotta of the University of Oxford told SPACE.com in a telephone interview. The detection provides additional confirmation of the standard cosmological picture, as well as the fundamental theory of particle physics. Neutrinos are subatomic particles with no electric charge and very little mass. They are extremely hard to study because they have a very low probability of interacting with the rest of the world. According to the standard theory, neutrinos arose in large numbers out of the fires of the Big Bang. These so-called "background" neutrinos still exist: with 2,500 of them inhabiting every cubic inch of the universe. Trotta and Alessandro Melchiorri of La Sapienza University in Rome have found evidence in the universe's distant past for wrinkles in this neutrino background. "It has been one of the holy grails of cosmology to find the neutrinos that were made in the Big Bang," said Scott Dodelson from Theoretical Astrophysics Group at Fermilab. "This is another piece of indirect evidence." Besides supporting the Big Bang theory, the ripples also provide a unique test of neutrino physics. To detect individual neutrinos, scientists use huge detectors--sometimes made of water or ice. Billions and billions of neutrinos pass through these particle traps unfazed, but every so often one of the elusive quarry gets snagged. However, these detected neutrinos--coming from the Sun, or from cosmic rays, or occasionally from distant explosions--have millions of times more energy than the background neutrinos. Having lost much of their energy as the universe expanded and cooled, the background neutrinos are impossible to see in any current--or even proposed--detector, so Trotta and Melchiorri looked at the effect that neutrinos would have on another relic from the early universe--the cosmic microwave background. Ripples and clumps The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is a snapshot of the universe as it looked 380,000 years after the Big Bang. Back then it was a fairly boring place, with no galaxies or stars--just minor fluctuations (one part in 100,000) in the density of matter. This clumpiness left its imprint in temperature variations in the CMB. Light emitted from a dense clump would appear--after traveling billions of light years to reach us--as a hot spot in the microwave sky. Astronomers made a detailed map of these CMB spots with the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) in 2003. Although the matter clumps were small in the beginning, gravity has congealed them over time to form galaxy clusters, planets, and everything in between. Neutrinos are a relatively small player in this part of the story because they rarely interact with the structure-forming material. But collectively, the gravitational pull of the ripples can influence the clumps. "Neutrinos can't talk to the matter and photons directly, but they can affect the CMB through their gravity," Dodelson said. Trotta and Melchiorri showed that there is evidence for neutrino ripples in the WMAP data. Basically, the neutrino density tends toward being smooth, so fluctuations do not to last very long. As "neutrino wrinkles are ironed out," said Trotta, they drag on the matter--effectively reducing the number of small-sized clumps. Very big down to very small The ripple detection conflicts with theories that predict certain neutrino interactions, which are not part of the standard model of particle physics. These now-disfavored theories would have expected a smoother neutrino density due to these extra interactions. Remarkably, the ripples--which at the time of the CMB were around 100,000 light years wide--tell us something about the physics at scales smaller than the atom. "We are using the whole universe as a particle physics experiment," Trotta said. Measuring neutrino ripples is currently the best way to probe this area of neutrino physics. The research will be published in the journal Physical Review Letters. - Telescope Proves Mettle in Hunt for Cosmic Neutrinos - First Map of Cosmic Neutrinos Unveiled - New Telescope is Upside-Down at the Bottom of the Sea MORE FROM SPACE.com

http://www.space.com/1217-ghostly-ripples-space.html

It's never too early to start talking to your kids about recognizing inappropriate, hurtful behaviors and to how to promote kindness and respect for all. It's not all about the name-calling, teasing, or taunting. Learn what bullying is and how you can teach your child to be a tolerant, inclusive, friendly companion to others. Sadly, there have been many reports in the news recently about bullying and how hurtful, dangerous, and at times even tragic it can be. While most of the stories are about older kids or college students, bullying is prevalent in young children's lives as well. In fact teasing and bullying occur frequently in grades kindergarten through 3. One thing we do know for sure is that bullying, teasing, and excluding are not harmless behaviors and can negatively affect a child's health, learning at school, and emotional well-being. So that leads us to the question: What exactly is bullying? Bullying is intentionally hurtful behavior that can take place over time or in short bursts and can manifest itself in many forms. It can be physical (hitting, pushing, shoving), or verbal (making fun of someone, name-calling) or exclusionary (saying "no" you can't play)--all things that make children feel bad. Although boys are three times more likely to be bullies than girls, bullies tend to consider both boys and girls as equal opportunity targets. However, boys, when bullied, will frequently respond physically. Girls, on the other hand, tend to fall back on name-calling, taunting or teasing. The good news is that there's a great deal parents can do to help. You are your child's first teacher. How you behave toward others matters because your children take their cues from you. You can help children develop empathy and learn to treat others fairly and kindly. You can help them learn not to tease and bully, and to stand up for themselves and their friends in safe ways. In other words, you can stop hurtful behavior before it starts. Here are some ways how: advertisement Teach your child to be kind, courteous, and generous with our possessions--and lead by example. advertisement During the day make a list of all the ways your child has been kind: Did she ask a friend to play or share a toy? Did he take turns in the park or feed your pet? Talk about your child's acts of kindness and generosity at bedtime. Write them down, using pictures and words, and put them up on the refrigerator. advertisement Talk about feelings--what makes your child feel happy, sad, angry? Help your child draw pictures about the way she or he feels. advertisement Use stuffed animals or puppets to help your child express feelings or to talk about something that is bothering her or him. advertisement Help your child understand the difference between telling and tattling. Tattling is getting someone in trouble, oftentimes for doing nothing wrong at all. Tattling is generally perceived to be unacceptable behavior and the child who does tattle may be labeled a tattletale and become unpopular with his peers. Telling can best be described as conveying information to protect or defend a child who is hurt physically (or about to be) or upset emotionally because of bullying, taunting, teasing, or other humiliating situations. Telling an adult or teacher about hurtful behaviors is appropriate. advertisement Celebrate difference--make a book about everyone in your family and talk about all the ways you are alike and different.

http://www.nickjr.com/all-together-now/teaching-kindness_ap.html