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<Text> :Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on his achievements as a painter, he has also become known for his notebooks, in which he made drawings and notes on a variety of subjects, including anatomy, astronomy, botany, cartography, painting, and paleontology. Leonardo is widely regarded to have been a genius who epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal, and his collective works comprise a contribution to later generations of artists matched only by that of his younger contemporary Michelangelo. Born out of wedlock to a successful notary and a lower-class woman in, or near, Vinci, he was educated in Florence by the Italian painter and sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio. He began his career in the city, but then spent much time in the service of Ludovico Sforza in Milan. Later, he worked in Florence and Milan again, as well as briefly in Rome, all while attracting a large following of imitators and students. Upon the invitation of Francis I, he spent his last three years in France, where he died in 1519. Since his death, there has not been a time where his achievements, diverse interests, personal life, and empirical thinking have failed to incite interest and admiration, making him a frequent namesake and subject in culture. Leonardo is identified as one of the greatest painters in the history of art and is often credited as the founder of the High Renaissance. Despite having many lost works and fewer than 25 attributed major works - including numerous unfinished works - he created some of the most influential paintings in Western art. His magnum opus, the Mona Lisa, is his best known work and often regarded as the world's most famous painting. The Last Supper is the most reproduced religious painting of all time and his Vitruvian Man drawing is also regarded as a cultural icon. In 2017, Salvator Mundi, attributed in whole or part to Leonardo, was sold at auction for US$450.3 million, setting a new record for the most expensive painting ever sold at public auction. Revered for his technological ingenuity, he conceptualized flying machines, a type of armored fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, a ratio machine that could be used in an adding machine, and the double hull. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or were even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, hydrodynamics, geology, optics, and tribology, but he did not publish his findings and they had little to no direct influence on subsequent science. </Text>

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<Text> :There are currently 6,795,130 articles on the English Wikipedia, some of which have been selected as vital articles. They are organized into five levels of vitality. Level 1 contains the ten most vital articles, and each further level expands on the selection of the previous level, as follows: The vital article lists are meant to guide the prioritization of improvements to vital articles and to monitor their quality. They are tailored to the English Wikipedia, unlike the list of articles every Wikipedia should have on Meta-Wiki. They are actively maintained by the dedicated WikiProject Vital Articles. For more on the history, process and purpose behind the vital article lists, please visit the FAQ page. The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present. The British Museum was the first public national museum to cover all fields of knowledge. The museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the Anglo-Irish physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. It first opened to the public in 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. The museum's expansion over the following 250 years was largely a result of British colonisation and resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, or independent spin-offs, the first being the Natural History Museum in 1881. The right to ownership of some of its most well-known acquisitions, notably the Greek Elgin Marbles and the Egyptian Rosetta Stone, is subject to long-term disputes and repatriation claims. In 1973, the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum, but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until 1997. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, and as with all national museums in the UK it charges no admission fee, except for loan exhibitions. Although today principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, the British Museum was founded as a "universal museum". Its foundations lie in the will of the Anglo-Irish physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane , a London-based doctor and scientist from Ulster. During the course of his lifetime, and particularly after he married the widow of a wealthy Jamaican planter, Sloane gathered a large collection of curiosities, and not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for a sum of PS20,000. Rome is the capital city of Italy. It is also the capital of the Lazio region, the centre of the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital, and a special comune named Comune di Roma Capitale. With 2,860,009 residents in 1,285 km2 , Rome is the country's most populated comune and the third most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. The Metropolitan City of Rome, with a population of 4,355,725 residents, is the most populous metropolitan city in Italy. Its metropolitan area is the third-most populous within Italy. Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio , along the shores of the Tiber. Vatican City is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city. Rome is often referred to as the City of Seven Hills due to its geographic location, and also as the "Eternal City". Rome is generally considered to be the cradle of Western civilization and Western Christian culture, and the centre of the Catholic Church. Rome's history spans 28 centuries. While Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it a major human settlement for almost three millennia and one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in Europe. The city's early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines. Eventually, the city successively became the capital of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and is regarded by many as the first-ever Imperial city and metropolis. It was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called "Caput Mundi" . After the fall of the Empire in the west, which marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, Rome slowly fell under the political control of the Papacy, and in the 8th century, it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. Beginning with the Renaissance, almost all popes since Nicholas V pursued a coherent architectural and urban programme over four hundred years, aimed at making the city the artistic and cultural centre of the world. In this way, Rome first became one of the major centres of the Renaissance and then became the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors, and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, creating masterpieces throughout the city. In 1871, Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, which, in 1946, became the Italian Republic. In 2019, Rome was the 14th most visited city in the world, with 8.6 million tourists, the third most visited city in the European Union, and the most popular tourist destination in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The host city for the 1960 Summer Olympics, Rome is also the seat of several specialised agencies of the United Nations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization , the World Food Programme and the International Fund for Agricultural Development . The city also hosts the Secretariat of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Union for the Mediterranean as well as the headquarters of many multinational companies, such as Eni, Enel, TIM, Leonardo, and banks such as BNL. Numerous companies are based within Rome's EUR business district, such as the luxury fashion house Fendi located in the Palazzo della Civilta Italiana. The presence of renowned international brands in the city has made Rome an important centre of fashion and design, and the Cinecitta Studios have been the set of many Academy Award-winning movies. Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 360,930 inhabitants in 2023, and 984,991 in its metropolitan area. Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of that era. It is considered by many academics to have been the birthplace of the Renaissance, becoming a major artistic, cultural, commercial, political, economic and financial center. During this time, Florence rose to a position of enormous influence in Italy, Europe, and beyond. Its turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family and numerous religious and republican revolutions. From 1865 to 1871 the city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. The Florentine dialect forms the base of standard Italian and it became the language of culture throughout Italy due to the prestige of the masterpieces by Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolo Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini. The city attracts millions of tourists each year, and UNESCO declared the Historic Centre of Florence a World Heritage Site in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture and monuments. The city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florence's artistic and architectural heritage, Forbes ranked it as one of the most beautiful cities in the world in 2010. Florence plays an important role in Italian fashion, and is ranked in the top 15 fashion capitals of the world by Global Language Monitor; furthermore, it is a major national economic centre, as well as a tourist and industrial hub. The Palazzo Pitti , in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace, is a vast, mainly Renaissance, palace in Florence, Italy. It is situated on the south side of the River Arno, a short distance from the Ponte Vecchio. The core of the present palazzo dates from 1458 and was originally the town residence of Luca Pitti, an ambitious Florentine banker. The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549 and became the chief residence of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It grew as a great treasure house as later generations amassed paintings, plates, jewelry and luxurious possessions. In the late 18th century, the palazzo was used as a power base by Napoleon and later served for a brief period as the principal royal palace of the newly united Italy. The palace and its contents were donated to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919. The palazzo is now the largest museum complex in Florence. The principal palazzo block, often in a building of this design known as the corps de logis, is 32,000 square metres. It is divided into several principal galleries or museums detailed below. The Uffizi Gallery is a prominent art museum located adjacent to the Piazza della Signoria in the Historic Centre of Florence in the region of Tuscany, Italy. One of the most important Italian museums and the most visited, it is also one of the largest and best-known in the world and holds a collection of priceless works, particularly from the period of the Italian Renaissance. After the ruling House of Medici died out, their art collections were given to the city of Florence under the famous Patto di famiglia negotiated by Anna Maria Luisa, the last Medici heiress. The Uffizi is one of the first modern museums. The gallery had been open to visitors by request since the sixteenth century, and in 1769 it was officially opened to the public, formally becoming a museum in 1865. The building of the Uffizi complex was begun by Giorgio Vasari in 1560 for Cosimo I de' Medici as a means to consolidate his administrative control of the various committees, agencies, and guilds established in Florence's Republican past so as to accommodate them all one place, hence the name uffizi, "offices". The construction was later continued by Alfonso Parigi and Bernardo Buontalenti; it was completed in 1581. The top floor was made into a gallery for the family and their guests and included their collection of Roman sculptures. The cortile is so long, narrow, and open to the Arno at its far end through a Doric screen that articulates the space without blocking it, that architectural historians treat it as the first regularized streetscape of Europe. Vasari, a painter, and architect as well, emphasized its perspective length by adorning it with the matching facades' continuous roof cornices, and unbroken cornices between storeys, as well as the three continuous steps on which the museum fronts stand. The niches in the piers that alternate with columns of the Loggiato are filled with sculptures of famous artists in the 19th century. Milan is a city in northern Italy, regional capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city has 3.22 million residents. The urban area of Milan is the fourth largest in the EU with 5.27 million inhabitants. According to national sources, the population within the wider Milan metropolitan area , is estimated between 4.9 million and 7.4 million making it by far the largest metropolitan area in Italy and one of the largest in the EU. Milan is the economic capital of Italy, one of the economic capitals of Europe and a global financial centre. Milan is a leading alpha global city, with strengths in the fields of art, chemicals, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media , services, research and tourism. Its business district hosts Italy's stock exchange , and the headquarters of national and international banks and companies. In terms of GDP, Milan is the wealthiest city in Italy, has the third-largest economy among EU cities after Paris and Madrid, and is the wealthiest among EU non-capital cities. Milan is viewed along with Turin as the southernmost part of the Blue Banana urban development corridor , and one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is one of the international tourism destinations, appearing among the most visited cities in the world, ranking second in Italy after Rome, fifth in Europe and sixteenth in the world. Milan is a major cultural centre, with museums and art galleries that include some of the most important collections in the world, such as major works by Leonardo da Vinci. It also hosts numerous educational institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total of enrolled students. Founded around 590 BC under the name Medhelanon by a Celtic tribe belonging to the Insubres group and belonging to the Golasecca culture, it was conquered by the ancient Romans in 222 BC, who latinized the name of the city into Mediolanum. The city's role as a major political centre dates back to the late antiquity, when it served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire. From the 12th century until the 16th century, Milan was one of the largest European cities and a major trade and commercial centre; consequently, it became the capital of the Duchy of Milan, one of the greatest political, artistic and fashion forces in the Renaissance. Having become one of the main centres of the Italian Enlightenment during the early modern period, the city subsequently became the industrial and financial capital of modern Italy. Capital of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, after the Restoration it was among the most active centres of the Risorgimento, until its entry into the unified Kingdom of Italy. Milan has been recognized as one of the world's four fashion capitals. Many of the most famous luxury fashion brands in the world have their headquarters in the city, including: Armani, Prada, Versace, Moschino, Valentino and Zegna. It also hosts several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair, which are among the world's biggest in terms of revenue, visitors and growth. The city is served by many luxury hotels and is the fifth-most starred in the world by Michelin Guide. It hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. In the field of sports, Milan is home to two of Europe's most successful football teams, AC Milan and Inter Milan, and one of Europe's main basketball teams, Olimpia Milano. Milan will host the Winter Olympic and Paralympic games for the first time in 2026, together with Cortina d'Ampezzo. Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is built on a group of 126 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are linked by 472 bridges. The islands are in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay lying between the mouths of the Po and the Piave rivers . In 2020, around 258,685 people resided in greater Venice or the Comune di Venezia, of whom around 51,000 live in the historical island city of Venice and the rest on the mainland . Together with the cities of Padua and Treviso, Venice is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area , which is considered a statistical metropolitan area, with a total population of 2.6 million. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC. The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice for almost a millennium, from 810 to 1797. It was a major financial and maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto, as well as an important centre of commerce--especially silk, grain, and spice, and of art from the 13th century to the end of the 17th. The city-state of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial centre, emerging in the 9th century and reaching its greatest prominence in the 14th century. This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. For centuries Venice possessed numerous territories along the Adriatic Sea and within the Italian peninsula, leaving a significant impact on the architecture and culture that can still be seen today. The Venetian Arsenal is considered by several historians to be the first factory in history, and was the base of Venice's naval power. The sovereignty of Venice came to an end in 1797, at the hands of Napoleon. Subsequently, in 1866, the city became part of the Kingdom of Italy. Venice has been known as "La Dominante", "La Serenissima", "Queen of the Adriatic", "City of Water", "City of Masks", "City of Bridges", "The Floating City", and "City of Canals". The lagoon and the historic parts of the city within the lagoon were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, covering an area of 70,176.4 hectares . In view of the fact that Venice and its lagoon are under constant threat in terms of their ecology and the safeguarding of the cultural heritage, Venice's UNESCO listing has been under constant examination by UNESCO. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, and artwork. Venice is known for several important artistic movements - especially during the Renaissance period - and has played an important role in the history of instrumental and operatic music; it is the birthplace of Baroque composers Tomaso Albinoni and Antonio Vivaldi. In the 21st century, Venice remains a very popular tourist destination, a major cultural centre, and has been ranked many times the most beautiful city in the world. It has been described by The Times as one of Europe's most romantic cities and by The New York Times as "undoubtedly the most beautiful city built by man". However, the city faces challenges including an excessive number of tourists, pollution, tide peaks and cruise ships sailing too close to buildings. The Renaissance is a period in history and a cultural movement marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity, covering the 15th and 16th centuries and characterized by an effort to revive and surpass the ideas and achievements of classical antiquity; it was associated with great social change in most fields and disciplines, including art, architecture, politics, literature, exploration and science. It began in the Republic of Florence. The Renaissance's intellectual basis was its version of humanism, derived from the concept of Roman humanitas and the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that "man is the measure of all things". Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the revived knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe: the first traces appear in Italy as early as the late 13th century, in particular with the writings of Dante and the paintings of Giotto. As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual and social scientific pursuits, as well as the introduction of modern banking and the field of accounting, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man". The term rinascita first appeared in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists , the corresponding French word, renaissance, was adopted into English as the term for this period during the 1830s. </Text>

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Salvator Mundi <p> owned by <o> Mohammed bin Salman <s> Salvator Mundi <p> genre <o> religious art <s> Salvator Mundi <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Salvator Mundi <p> instance of <o> painting <s> Salvator Mundi <p> significant event <o> auction <s> Salvator Mundi <p> significant event <o> conservation <s> ambassador <p> properties for this type <o> occupation <s> ambassador <p> properties for this type <o> position held <s> ambassador <p> instance of <o> diplomatic rank <s> ambassador <p> instance of <o> title of authority <s> ambassador <p> described by source <o> Ottův slovník naučný <s> ambassador <p> described by source <o> The Nuttall Encyclopædia <s> ambassador <p> main regulatory text <o> Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations <s> ambassador <p> instance of <o> occupation <s> ambassador <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> ambassador <p> part of <o> embassy <s> ambassador <p> subclass of <o> head of mission <s> ambassador <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/4 <s> ambassador <p> part of <o> diplomatic corps <s> ambassador <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Ambassadors <s> ambassador <p> subclass of <o> plenipotentiary <s> ambassador <p> different from <o> minister plenipotentiary <s> ambassador <p> described by source <o> The New Student's Reference Work <s> ambassador <p> honorific prefix <o> Ambassador <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Rudolf Dvořák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Otakar Hostinský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Arne Novák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Pekař <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Anton Gindely <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Emanuel Miřiovský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> 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contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Brábek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Chodounský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> genre <o> encyclopedia <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Hýbl <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Koželuha <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Melichar <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Preissler <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Kropsbauer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Skočdopole <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Havrda <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Péro <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Hromádko <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Jaroš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 24 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 5 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 17 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 2 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 19 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 1 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 8 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 9 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 12 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 15 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 10 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaromír Jedlička <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Vaclík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaromír Hrubý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaroslav Tebich <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaroslav Vlach <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jiří Stanislav Guth-Jarkovský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Holeček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Martin Hattala <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Wojciech Gerson <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Václav Frič <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Klobouček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Boleška <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jiří Kaván <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Hladík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jindřich Šercl <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jiří Tilšer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Kolář <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jindřich Fialka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jiří Soukup <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Král <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Max Švagrovský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Petr Kheil <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Schwing <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Lukáš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Domalíp <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Ryska <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ladislav Brtnický <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ladislav Hofman <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ladislav Dvořák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Hromas <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaroslav Demel <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Michal Navrátil <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Heller <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Chudoba <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Štěpánek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ladislav Dolanský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Bloman <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Veselík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Thon <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Zdeněk Skuherský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Jireček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Vančura <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Václav Rais <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Đuro Šurmin <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Eduard Fiala <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Spitzner <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Rubeška <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Steffal <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Trümmel <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Šimanko <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Svoboda <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Sixta <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Čeněk Klier <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Petrů <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Šediva <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Starý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Kozel <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Chodounský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Cumpfe <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Klement Borový <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Šimáček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Hermann-Otavský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Kamil Henner <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Jaroslav Maška <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Smolík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Tůma <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Jonáš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Svátek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> instance of <o> version, edition or translation <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Vladivoj Tomek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Bedřich Novák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Hynek Vysoký <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Hynek Kollmann <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Hynek Soldát <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Heřman Šikl <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Novotný <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ignát Herrmann <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Otakar Pražák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Herain <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Heller <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Ježek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Malý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Srb <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Janošík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Hellmann <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Herzer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Ladecký <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> author <o> group of authors <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Eliška Krásnohorská <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jakub Arbes <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alois Jirásek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Krásl <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Antonín Zeman <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vítězslav Janovský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Švambera <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Augustin Urbánek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Alois Hora <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ferdinand Pantůček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Chalupa <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Mareš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Xaver Šalda <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Kameníček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Prušák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef V. Černý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Munzar <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Tumpach <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Reinsberg <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Vycpálek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Černý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Čermák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Pokorný <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Kummer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Miroslav Pražák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Trakal <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Čapek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Lukáš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Sládeček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Stupecký <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Gruber <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Klvaňa <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Scheiner <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Lacina <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Serafínský Procházka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Novotný <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Táborský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alois Jandouš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Schauer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alfred Pulkrábek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ludvík Tošner <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Adolf Holk <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Kramář <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Zdeněk Fibich <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Michał Hórnik <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Adolf Černý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jindřich Vodák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Lepař <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Lier <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Strakatý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Vincenc Diviš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jiří Pražák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Ladislav Sýkora <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Václav Lego <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jindřich Matiegka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Krčmář <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Dědeček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jindřich Vančura <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Lev Winter <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ladislav Hajniš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Leander Čech <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Kristian Petrlík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Leopold Heyrovský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Břetislav Šetlík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Štolc <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Havránek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Břetislav Jelínek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Pavlíček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Arnošt Winter <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alois Jirák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Nosek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Bohumil Mareš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Merz <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Hanuš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Emilie Schmutzerová <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Sládek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Červinka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Strnad <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Vlk <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alois Fischer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alois Thuma <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Adolf Heyduk <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaroslav Vrchlický <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Stjepan Radić <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ladislav František Čelakovský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Sýkora <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Vávra <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Lev Fáček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Schreyer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Červený <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Deyl <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Rank <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Irenej Černý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Veverka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Mareš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Vilhelm <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Hejtman <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Otto <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Johann Horbaczewski <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Konstantin Jireček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Eduard Albert <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alphons Zak <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Rudolf Jedlička <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Bartoš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vilém Kurz <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vincenc Brandl <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vincenc Prasek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Xaver Jiřík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Hellich <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Miloslav Kryštůfek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Plzák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Zdeněk Jahn <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Julius Philipp <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Böhm <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Petr <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vladimír Novák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Pšenička <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alexander Josef Bernard <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Zenker <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Kalousek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Tille <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaroslav Vlček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> August Sedláček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Ladislav Rieger <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Emanuel Fait <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Emanuel Makovička <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Eugen Muška <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Emil Ott <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Cyrill Purkyně <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ferdinand Polenský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Augustin Slavík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ferdinand Heller <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ferdinand Havrda <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Bayer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Bayer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Eduard Šarša <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Bečka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Jaromír Hanel <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Gustav Dörfl <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Karel Hraše <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Gustav Friedrich <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> language of work or name <o> Czech <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Otto's encyclopedia <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Rudolf Krejčí <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Robert Novák <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Miloslav Stieber <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vilém Dokoupil <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ondřej Schrutz <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Otakar Jiráni <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Rudolf Sládeček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vojtěch Jaromír Nováček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Otakar Ježek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Pavel Papáček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Otakar Šulc <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vojtěch Hanačík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vladimír Pech <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Petr Durdík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Hora <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Theodor Monin <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Thomayer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Zikmund Winter <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Emanuel Rádl <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Josef Studnička <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Čuhel <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Řehoř <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Jakubec <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Doubrava <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Emler <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Marie Červinková-Riegrová <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Bohuslav Raýman <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Ladislav Turnovský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Filip Počta <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Fiedler <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Klapálek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Drtina <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Ehrmann <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Dvorský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Müller <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Krejčí <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Ekert <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Xaver Kryštůfek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Stecker <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Zákrejs <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Zubatý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Kuchař <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Matouš Václavek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Martin Kolář <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ludvík Vaněk <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Achille Wolf <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ľudovít Vladimír Rizner <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Adolf Srb <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Levý <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaroslav Fikrle <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ivan Kunšič <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Eduard Homolka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Leopold Maria Zeithammer <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Karásek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Augustin Žalud <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Augustin Pánek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Gottwald <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Arnošt Kraus <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Adolf Wenig <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Albert Vojtěch Velflík <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Truhlář <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Gabriel Pecháček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaroslav Kamper <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jiří Viktor Daneš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jaroslav Haasz <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Teige <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ladislav Burket <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Hynek Pelc <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Vrba <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> publisher <o> Publishing house Jan Otto <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Vavřinec Josef Dušek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Mikenda <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Vejdovsky <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Sitensky <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Václav Lochman <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Balcar <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Saska <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Primus Sobotka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Patrik Blažek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ottokar Feistmantel <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Rudolf Pokorný <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Chytil <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Pavel Julius Vychodil <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Kuffner <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Bohumil Jaroslav Matějka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Bohuslav Jiruš <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Palacký <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Bedřich Bernau <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Jan Evangelista Chadt-Ševětínský <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Alois Strnad <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Bohumil Bauše <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Bartoloměj Navrátil <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Ferdinand Pečírka <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Emanuel Tilsch <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Kučera <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Antonín Randa <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Adolf Patera <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Jaroslav Rypáček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Štefan Kubín <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Julius Stoklasa <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Josef Václav Sládek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Edvard Jelínek <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Karel Kadlec <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Otakar Zich <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Soběslav Pinkas <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> Emanuel Chvála <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> contributor to the creative work or subject <o> František Koláček <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 16 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník naučný/Volume 26 <s> Ottův slovník naučný <p> has part(s) <o> Ottův slovník 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director / manager <o> Klaus Albrecht Schröder </Graph>

<Text> :Francesco Melzi, or Francesco de Melzi , was an Italian painter born into a family of the Milanese nobility in Lombardy. He became a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci and remained as his closest professional assistant throughout his career. After da Vinci's death he became the literary executor of all da Vinci's papers, editing them into a manuscript on painting he published as Tratatto della Pittura or a compilation entitled the Codex Urbinas. Francesco's father, Gerolamo Melzi, was an engineer for Francesco II Sforza's military, and a captain in the militia in Milan under Louis XII. Francesco lived with his family in the Villa Melzi in Vaprio d'Adda , which today is still under the ownership of the Dukes Melzi d'Eril. Francesco grew up in the Milanese court, and was raised with proper manners and was granted a good education, which included training in the arts. He was reasonably talented in the arts and worked very hard. As a member of a prominent family of the Milanese court, however, Francesco would have had political and social responsibilities as he got older that would have caused him to discontinue his studies in art had it not been for Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo returned to Milan for some time around 1505 and stayed with the Melzi family. It was there that he met Francesco for the first time, enticed by his good nature and handsomeness. In a biography of Leonardo da Vinci, it is argued that he felt compelled to stay in Milan longer than he had intended after meeting with the young Francesco. Francesco is described in literature as charming and graceful, an adolescent without the awkwardness or lack of manners typical of boys around this age. Francesco and another pupil of Leonardo's - Boltraffo - stood out from the other students as they were capable painters, very bright, and well-learned. Because of his upbringing in the high court, Francesco was gracious and dignified, and had a very good education. Shortly after they met, Francesco began studying and working at Leonardo's workshop and quickly became his master's favorite pupil, and the most devoted as well. Despite this, fairly little is written about the apprentice painter, and what is known about him is almost exclusively within the context of Leonardo. Other than Francesco, none of Leonardo's pupils went on to become respected artists. And although he is not well-known, Francesco is referred to as being the first person responsible for collecting, organizing, and preserving Leonardo da Vinci's notes on painting, and transforming it into a manuscript copy known as the Codex Urbinas. After Leonardo's death in 1519, Francesco returned to Italy and married Angiola di Landriani; with her he fathered eight children. One of his children, Orazio, inherited Leonardo's manuscripts after Francesco's death in 1569~1570. The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings or Visitation of the Wise Men is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having found Jesus by following a star, lay before him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, and worship him. It is related in the Bible by Matthew 2:11: "On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another path". Christian iconography considerably expanded the bare account of the Biblical Magi described in the Gospel of Matthew . By the later Middle Ages this drew from non-canonical sources like the Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine. Artists used the expanded Christian iconography to reinforce the idea that Jesus was recognized, from his earliest infancy, as king of the earth. The adoration scene was often used to represent the Nativity, one of the most indispensable episodes in cycles of the Life of the Virgin as well as the Life of Christ. Stories throughout the Middle Ages started circulating, which speculated who exactly were the three kings who were famous for visiting the Christ child. Many people assumed that they came from somewhere in the east. Eventually it was decided that the three kings would represent the three main continents at the time; Europe, Asia, and Africa. The three names that prevailed over the centuries for the three kings were Gaspar , Melchior, and Balthasar. The prominence of this story, as well as the three kings or magi, is due to the great theological significance that the Biblical story holds, their exotic clothes and looks, as well as their great and expensive gifts. In the church calendar, the event is commemorated in Western Christianity as the Feast of the Epiphany . The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates the Adoration of the Magi on the Feast of the Nativity . The term is anglicized from the Vulgate Latin section title for this passage: A Magis adoratur. Salvator Mundi, Latin for Saviour of the World, is a subject in iconography depicting Christ with his right hand raised in blessing and his left hand holding an orb , known as a globus cruciger. The latter symbolizes the Earth, and the whole composition has strong eschatological undertones. The theme was made popular by Northern painters such as Jan van Eyck, Hans Memling, and Albrecht Durer. There are also several versions of the theme attributed to Titian, notably the one in the Hermitage Museum. One painting of the subject, simply titled Salvator Mundi, was attributed or reattributed to Leonardo da Vinci in 2011. This painting disappeared from 1763 until 1900 when it was acquired from Sir Charles Robinson. It was at the time thought to be a work by Leonardo's follower, Bernardino Luini, and was purchased for the Doughty House in Richmond, London by Sir Francis Cook. By this time Christ's face and hair had been extensively repainted. A photograph taken in 1912 records the work's altered appearance. In 2017, this painting sold at auction for US$450,300,000, the highest price ever paid for a painting. An ambassador is an official envoy, especially a high-ranking diplomat who represents a state and is usually accredited to another sovereign state or to an international organization as the resident representative of their own government or sovereign or appointed for a special and often temporary diplomatic assignment. The word is also used informally for people who are known, without national appointment, to represent certain professions, activities, and fields of endeavor, such as sales. An ambassador is the ranking government representative stationed in a foreign capital or country. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff, and vehicles are generally afforded diplomatic immunity in the host country. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, an ambassador has the highest diplomatic rank. Countries may choose to maintain diplomatic relations at a lower level by appointing a charge d'affaires in place of an ambassador. The foreign government to which an ambassador is assigned must first approve the person. In some cases, the foreign government might reverse its approval by declaring the diplomat a persona non grata, i.e. an unacceptable person. This kind of declaration usually results in recalling the ambassador to their home nation. In accordance with the Congress of Vienna of 1815 and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the ambassador and embassy staff are granted diplomatic immunity and personal safety while living abroad. Due to the advent of modern technologies, today's world is a much smaller place in relative terms. With this in mind, it is considered important that the nations of the world have at least a small staff living in foreign capitals in order to aid travelers and visitors from their home nation. As an officer of the foreign service, an ambassador is expected to protect the citizens of their home country in the host country. Otto's Encyclopedia , published at the turn of the 20th century, is the largest encyclopedia written in Czech. For its scope and the quality of the writing, it is comparable to the greatest world encyclopedias of its time, such as Encyclopaedia Britannica. At the beginning of the 1880s, Jan Otto, a Czech book-seller and publisher, began planning a new general Czech encyclopedia. He was inspired by the first Czech encyclopedia by F. L. Rieger, a fourteen-volume work published between 1860 and 1874, but wanted to go further. For a long time Otto could not find an eligible editor-in-chief until he began to cooperate with Jan Maly, a former co-editor of the Reiger's encyclopedia, who laid down a concept of the new work with a proposed name - Czech national encyclopedia in 1884. After Maly's death the following year, Otto found a new editor-in-chief, Tomas Masaryk later the president of Czechoslovakia, and in 1886 the actual work began . Work on encyclopedia then was slower than Masaryk promised. The next year, Masaryk got involved in a tempestuous dispute over the authenticity of the allegedly historical Zelenohorsky and Kralovedvorsky manuscripts and resigned from the editorship. Otto managed to establish a new editorial group from prominent technicians, theologians and representatives of Czech universities including figures such as Karel Boromejsky Madl. Their intensive work and the work of their collaborators lead to the publication of the first volume of the encyclopedia, under the name Ottuv slovnik naucny , in January 1888. From that point onwards, the work progressed without major problems and volumes were published regularly until the last one appeared in 1908. Otto's Encyclopedia consists of 28 volumes. It contains approximately 150,000 entries printed on 28,912 pages, using an estimated 130 million letters. There are nearly 5,000 images and illustrations and 479 pages of attachments in the encyclopedia. Around 55 main editors and 1,100 external collaborators participated in its creation. Immediately after finishing his encyclopedia, Otto began to plan a second, sixteen-volume revised edition and started to prepare its realization. The preparation was continued by others even after he died and during the World War I but it was never completed due to quickly rising expenses. The Nuttall Encyclopaedia: Being a Concise and Comprehensive Dictionary of General Knowledge is a late 19th-century encyclopedia, edited by Rev. James Wood, first published in London in 1900 by Frederick Warne & Co Ltd. Editions were recorded for 1920, 1930, 1938 and 1956 and was still being sold in 1966. Editors included G. Elgie Christ and A. L. Hayden for 1930, Lawrence Hawkins Dawson for 1938 and C. M. Prior for 1956. The Nuttall Encyclopaedia is named for Dr. Peter Austin Nuttall , whose works, such as Standard Pronouncing Dictionary of the English Language , were eventually acquired by Frederick Warne, and would be published for decades to come. The title page proclaims this encyclopedia to be "a concise and comprehensive dictionary of general knowledge consisting of over 16,000 terse and original articles on nearly all subjects discussed in larger encyclopaedias, and specially dealing with such as come under the categories of history, biography, geography, literature, philosophy, religion, science, and art". The Republic of Florence , known officially as the Florentine Republic , was a medieval and early modern state that was centered on the Italian city of Florence in Tuscany, Italy. The republic originated in 1115, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon the death of Matilda of Tuscany, who controlled vast territories that included Florence. The Florentines formed a commune in her successors' place. The republic was ruled by a council known as the Signoria of Florence. The signoria was chosen by the gonfaloniere , who was elected every two months by Florentine guild members. During the Republic's history, Florence was an important cultural, economic, political and artistic force in Europe. Its coin, the florin, was the dominant trade coin of Western Europe for large scale transactions and became widely imitated throughout the continent. During the Republican period, Florence was also the birthplace of the Renaissance, which is considered a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic "rebirth". The republic had a checkered history of coups and countercoups against various factions. The Medici faction gained governance of the city in 1434 under Cosimo de' Medici. The Medici kept control of Florence until 1494. Giovanni de' Medici, who later became Pope Leo X, reconquered the republic in 1512. Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the War of the League of Cognac. The Medici reassumed their rule in 1531 after an 11-month siege of the city, aided by Emperor Charles V. Pope Clement VII, himself a Medici, appointed his relative Alessandro de' Medici as the first "Duke of the Florentine Republic", thereby transforming the Republic into a hereditary monarchy. A composer is a person who writes music. The term is especially used to indicate composers of Western classical music, or those who are composers by occupation. Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music. The term is descended from Latin, compono; literally "one who puts together". The earliest use of the term in a musical context given by the Oxford English Dictionary is from Thomas Morley's 1597 A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music, where he says "Some wil be good descanters and yet wil be but bad composers". "Composer" is a loose term that generally refers to any person who writes music. More specifically, it is often used to denote people who are composers by occupation, or those who work in the tradition of Western classical music. Writers of exclusively or primarily songs may be called composers, but since the 20th century the terms 'songwriter' or 'singer-songwriter' are more often used, particularly in the tradition of popular music. In other contexts, the term 'composer' can refer to a literary writer, or more rarely and generally, someone who combines pieces into a whole. Across cultures and traditions composers may write and transmit music in a variety of ways. In much popular music, the composer writes a composition, and it is then transmitted via oral tradition. Conversely, in some Western classical traditions music may be composed aurally--i.e. "in the mind of the musician"--and subsequently written and passed through written documents. The Albertina is a museum in the Innere Stadt of Vienna, Austria. It houses one of the largest and most important print rooms in the world with approximately 65,000 drawings and approximately 1 million old master prints, as well as more modern graphic works, photographs and architectural drawings. The museum also houses temporary exhibitions. The museum had 360,073 visitors in 2020, down 64 percent from 2019 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but still ranked 55th in the List of most-visited art museums in the world. The Albertina was erected on one of the last remaining sections of the fortifications of Vienna, the Augustinian Bastion. Originally, the Hofbauamt , which had been built in the second half of the 17th century, stood in that location. In 1744 it was refurbished by the director of the Hofbauamt, Emanuel Teles Count Silva-Tarouca, to become his palace; it was therefore also known as Palais Taroucca. The building was later taken over by Duke Albert of Saxen-Teschen who used it as his residence. Albert later brought his graphics collection there from Brussels, where he had acted as the governor of the Habsburg Netherlands. He had the building extended by Louis Montoyer. Since then, the palace has immediately bordered the Hofburg. The collection was expanded by Albert's successors. When his grandson Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen lived there until his death in 1895 it was called the Palais Erzherzog Albrecht. The collection was created by Duke Albert with the Genoese count Giacomo Durazzo, the Austrian ambassador in Venice. In 1776 the count presented nearly 1,000 pieces of art to the duke and his wife Maria Christina . Count Durazzo, who was the brother of Marcello Durazzo, the Doge of Genoa - "wanted to create a collection for posterity that served higher purposes than all others: education and the power of morality should distinguish his collection...." In the 1820s Archduke Charles, Duke Albert and Maria Christina's foster son, initiated further modifications to the building by Joseph Kornhausel, which affected mostly its interior decoration. After Archduke Charles, his son Archduke Albert then Albrecht's nephew the popular Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen lived in the building. In early 1919, the new socialist government of Austria confiscated, without compensation, both the building and the collection belonging to the Archduke Friedrich and evicted him. In 1920 the collection of prints and drawings was united with the collection of the former Imperial court library. In 1921 the building was renamed The Albertina. </Text>

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<Text> :Philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. Amongst its central questions are the difference between science and non-science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose and meaning of science as a human endeavour. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of scientific practice, and overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, logic, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and the concept of truth. Philosophy of science is both a theoretical and empirical discipline, relying on philosophical theorising as well as meta-studies of scientific practice. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than the philosophy of science. There is little consensus among philosophers about many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science, including whether science can reveal the truth about unobservable things and whether scientific reasoning can be justified at all as leading to definite knowledge. In addition to these general question, philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences . Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself. While philosophical thought pertaining to science dates back at least to the time of Aristotle, general philosophy of science emerged as a distinct discipline only in the 20th century in the wake of the logical positivist movement, which aimed to formulate criteria for ensuring all philosophical statements' meaningfulness and objectively assessing them. Karl Popper criticized logical positivism and helped establish a modern set of standards for scientific methodology. Thomas Kuhn's 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was also formative, challenging the view of scientific progress as the steady, cumulative acquisition of knowledge based on a fixed method of systematic experimentation and instead of arguing that any progress is relative to a "paradigm", the set of questions, concepts, and practices that define a scientific discipline in a particular historical period. Subsequently, the coherentist approach to science, in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole, became prominent due to W. V. Quine and others. Some thinkers such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in axiomatic assumptions, such as the uniformity of nature. A vocal minority of philosophers, and Paul Feyerabend in particular, argue that there is no such thing as the "scientific method", so all approaches to science should be allowed, including explicitly supernatural ones. Another approach to thinking about science involves studying how knowledge is created from a sociological perspective, an approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and Barry Barnes. Finally, a tradition in continental philosophy approaches science from the perspective of a rigorous analysis of human experience. Scientific terminology is the part of the language that is used by scientists in the context of their professional activities. While studying nature, scientists often encounter or create new material or immaterial objects and concepts and are compelled to name them. Many of those names are known only to professionals. However, due to popularization of science, they gradually become part of common languages. Several categories of scientific terminology can be distinguished. The increasing focus of science on technological applications results in extensive search for new materials having unusual or superior properties. Their names can be categorized into new substances and registered trademarks and brand names, such as Teflon. Trademarks and brand names are vast fields on their own and are not covered in this article. Unlike laser and SQUID, many names of the new devices and techniques are commonly used in full spelling, e.g., scanning tunneling microscope, etc. Some devices like transistor, magnetron, etc., have integrated into our life so much that their names are no longer considered terminology and are rather neologisms. SIESTA, SQUID and SHRIMP are acronyms distinguished from siesta, squid and shrimp by capitalization. However, there are pairs of scientific terminology and common words, which can only be distinguished by context. Representative examples come from particle physics where certain properties of particles are called flavour, color, but have no relation to conventional flavor and color. Another famous example is frustration used to describe ground state properties in condensed matter physics, and especially in magnetic systems. The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century. The scientific method involves careful observation coupled with rigorous scepticism, because cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of the observation. Scientific inquiry includes creating a hypothesis through inductive reasoning, testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, the underlying process is frequently the same. The process in the scientific method involves making conjectures , deriving predictions from the hypotheses as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry , and they are not always in the same order. Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research. A researcher is a person engaged in conducting research, possibly recognized as an occupation by a formal job title. In order to be a social researcher or a social scientist, one should have enormous knowledge of subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in order to be a natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge of fields related to natural science . Professional associations provide one pathway to mature in the research profession. The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577. This infobox may be added to an article by copy-pasting the code below at the start of the article, completing it and then grouping those parameters left unused together. Number of children , or list of names, in which case, separate entries using Template:Plainlist or Template:Unbulleted list. For privacy reasons, consider omitting the names of children of living persons, unless the children are independently notable. The HTML markup produced by this template includes an hCard microformat, which makes the person's details parsable by computers, either acting automatically to catalogue articles across Wikipedia or via a browser tool operated by a reader, to add the subject to an address book or database. For more information about the use of microformats on Wikipedia, please see the microformat project. Date-of-birth information will only be included in the microformat if {{birth date}}, or {{birth date and age}} are used in the infobox. . Be cautious about using these if the person is still living, per WP:DOB. An academic conference or scientific conference is an event for researchers to present and discuss their scholarly work. Together with academic or scientific journals and preprint archives, conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers. Further benefits of participating in academic conferences include learning effects in terms of presentation skills and "academic habitus", receiving feedback from peers for one's own research, the possibility to engage in informal communication with peers about work opportunities and collaborations, and getting an overview of current research in one or more disciplines. Conferences usually encompass various presentations. They tend to be short and concise, with a time span of about 10 to 30 minutes; presentations are usually followed by a discussion. The work may be bundled in written form as academic papers and published as the conference proceedings. Usually a conference will include keynote speakers . The keynote lecture is often longer, lasting sometimes up to an hour and a half, particularly if there are several keynote speakers on a panel. In addition to presentations, conferences also feature panel discussions, round tables on various issues, poster sessions and workshops. Some conferences take more interactive formats, such as the participant driven "unconference" or various conversational formats. A scholar is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an academic discipline. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an advanced degree or a terminal degree, such as a master's degree or a doctorate . Independent scholars and public intellectuals work outside the academy yet may publish in academic journals and participate in scholarly public discussion. In contemporary English usage, the term scholar sometimes is equivalent to the term academic, and describes a university-educated individual who has achieved intellectual mastery of an academic discipline, as instructor and as researcher. Moreover, before the establishment of universities, the term scholar identified and described an intellectual person whose primary occupation was professional research. In 1847, minister Emanuel Vogel Gerhart spoke of the role of the scholar in society: scholar whose whole inward intellectual and moral being has been symmetrically unfolded, disciplined and strengthened under the influence of truth... No one faculty should be drawn out to the neglect of others. The whole inner man should be unfolded harmoniously. o be a scholar involves more than mere learning... A genuine scholar possesses something more: he penetrates and understands the principle and laws of the particular department of human knowledge with which he professes acquaintance. He imbibes the life of Science... his mind is transfused and moulded by its energy and spirit.</Text>

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<Text> :Scientific terminology is the part of the language that is used by scientists in the context of their professional activities. While studying nature, scientists often encounter or create new material or immaterial objects and concepts and are compelled to name them. Many of those names are known only to professionals. However, due to popularization of science, they gradually become part of common languages. Several categories of scientific terminology can be distinguished. The increasing focus of science on technological applications results in extensive search for new materials having unusual or superior properties. Their names can be categorized into new substances and registered trademarks and brand names, such as Teflon. Trademarks and brand names are vast fields on their own and are not covered in this article. Unlike laser and SQUID, many names of the new devices and techniques are commonly used in full spelling, e.g., scanning tunneling microscope, etc. Some devices like transistor, magnetron, etc., have integrated into our life so much that their names are no longer considered terminology and are rather neologisms. SIESTA, SQUID and SHRIMP are acronyms distinguished from siesta, squid and shrimp by capitalization. However, there are pairs of scientific terminology and common words, which can only be distinguished by context. Representative examples come from particle physics where certain properties of particles are called flavour, color, but have no relation to conventional flavor and color. Another famous example is frustration used to describe ground state properties in condensed matter physics, and especially in magnetic systems. The public domain consists of all the creative work to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have expired, been forfeited, expressly waived, or may be inapplicable. Because no one holds the exclusive rights, anyone can legally use or reference those works without permission. As examples, the works of William Shakespeare, Ludwig van Beethoven, Miguel de Cervantes, Zoroaster, Lao Zi, Confucius, Aristotle, L. Frank Baum, Leonardo da Vinci and Georges Melies are in the public domain either by virtue of their having been created before copyright existed, or by their copyright term having expired. Some works are not covered by a country's copyright laws, and are therefore in the public domain; for example, in the United States, items excluded from copyright include the formulae of Newtonian physics and cooking recipes. Other works are actively dedicated by their authors to the public domain ; examples include reference implementations of cryptographic algorithms, and the image-processing software ImageJ . The term public domain is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, in which case use of the work is referred to as "under license" or "with permission". As rights vary by country and jurisdiction, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a country-by-country basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required, gives rise to public-domain status for a work in that country. The term public domain may also be interchangeably used with other imprecise or undefined terms such as the public sphere or commons, including concepts such as the "commons of the mind", the "intellectual commons", and the "information commons". Although the term domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the concept can be traced back to the ancient Roman law, "as a preset system included in the property right system". The Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined "many things that cannot be privately owned" as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as things not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as "things that could be commonly enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight and ocean." The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, and the term res universitatis meant things that were owned by the municipalities of Rome. When looking at it from a historical perspective, one could say the construction of the idea of "public domain" sprouted from the concepts of res communes, res publicae, and res universitatis in early Roman law. The term includes property damage, such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner. The term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people. The Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with senseless destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths and Vandals were blamed for its destruction. The Vandals may not have been any more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, but they did inspire English poet John Dryden to write, Till Goths, and Vandals, a rude Northern race, Did all the matchless Monuments deface . However, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term Vandalisme was coined in 1794 by Henri Gregoire, bishop of Blois, to describe the destruction of artwork following the French Revolution. The term was quickly adopted across Europe. This new use of the term was important in colouring the perception of the Vandals from later Late Antiquity, popularizing the pre-existing idea that they were a barbaric group with a taste for destruction. Historically, vandalism has been justified by painter Gustave Courbet as destruction of monuments symbolizing "war and conquest". Therefore, it is often done as an expression of contempt, creativity, or both. Courbet's attempt, during the 1871 Paris Commune, to dismantle the Vendome column, a symbol of the past Napoleon III authoritarian Empire, was one of the most celebrated events of vandalism. Nietzsche himself would meditate after the Commune on the "fight against culture", taking as example the intentional burning of the Tuileries Palace on 23 May 1871. "The criminal fight against culture is only the reverse side of a criminal culture" wrote Klossowski after quoting Nietzsche. In a proposal to the International Conference for Unification of Criminal Law held in Madrid in 1933, Raphael Lemkin envisaged the creation of two new international crimes : the crime of barbarity, consisting in the extermination of racial, religious, or social collectivities, and the crime of vandalism, consisting in the destruction of cultural and artistic works of these groups. The proposal was not accepted. A figurative accusation of vandalism was applied towards the theology of Marcion of Sinope. The sky is an unobstructed view upward from the surface of the Earth. It includes the atmosphere and outer space. It may also be considered a place between the ground and outer space, thus distinct from outer space. In the field of astronomy, the sky is also called the celestial sphere. This is an abstract sphere, concentric to the Earth, on which the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars appear to be drifting. The celestial sphere is conventionally divided into designated areas called constellations. Usually, the term sky informally refers to a perspective from the Earth's surface; however, the meaning and usage can vary. An observer on the surface of the Earth can see a small part of the sky, which resembles a dome appearing flatter during the day than at night. In some cases, such as in discussing the weather, the sky refers to only the lower, denser layers of the atmosphere. The daytime sky appears blue because air molecules scatter shorter wavelengths of sunlight more than longer ones . The night sky appears to be a mostly dark surface or region spangled with stars. The Sun and sometimes the Moon are visible in the daytime sky unless obscured by clouds. At night, the Moon, planets, and stars are similarly visible in the sky. The Mona Lisa is a half-length portrait painting by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci. Considered an archetypal masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance, it has been described as "the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, the most parodied work of art in the world". The painting's novel qualities include the subject's enigmatic expression, monumentality of the composition, the subtle modelling of forms, and the atmospheric illusionism. The painting has been traditionally considered to depict the Italian noblewoman Lisa del Giocondo. It is painted in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel. Leonardo never gave the painting to the Giocondo family. It was believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. It was acquired by King Francis I of France and is now the property of the French Republic. It has normally been on display at the Louvre in Paris since 1797. The painting's global fame and popularity partly stem from its 1911 theft by Vincenzo Peruggia, who attributed his actions to Italian patriotism--a belief it should belong to Italy. The theft and subsequent recovery in 1914 generated unprecedented publicity for an art theft, and led to the publication of many cultural depictions such as the 1915 opera Mona Lisa, two early 1930s films and the song "Mona Lisa" recorded by Nat King Cole--one of the most successful songs of the 1950s. The Mona Lisa is one of the most valuable paintings in the world. It holds the Guinness World Record for the highest known painting insurance valuation in history at US$100 million in 1962, equivalent to $1 billion as of 2023. A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle without blocking the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, which is usually something that is otherwise difficult or impossible to cross. There are many different designs of bridges, each serving a particular purpose and applicable to different situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on factors such as the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to build it. The earliest bridges were likely made with fallen trees and stepping stones. The Neolithic people built boardwalk bridges across marshland. The Arkadiko Bridge, dating from the 13th century BC, in the Peloponnese is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence and use. The Oxford English Dictionary also notes that there is some suggestion that the word can be traced directly back to Proto-Indo-European *bhrew-. However, they also note that "this poses semantic problems." Neolithic people also built a form of boardwalk across marshes; examples of such bridges include the Sweet Track and the Post Track in England, approximately 6000 years old. Ancient people would also have used log bridges consisting of logs that fell naturally or were intentionally felled or placed across streams. Some of the first human-made bridges with significant span were probably intentionally felled trees. Among the oldest timber bridges is the Holzbrucke Rapperswil-Hurden bridge that crossed upper Lake Zurich in Switzerland; prehistoric timber pilings discovered to the west of the Seedamm causeway date back to 1523 BC. The first wooden footbridge there led across Lake Zurich; it was reconstructed several times through the late 2nd century AD, when the Roman Empire built a 6-metre-wide wooden bridge to carry transport across the lake. Between 1358 and 1360, Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, built a 'new' wooden bridge across the lake that was used until 1878; it was approximately 1,450 metres long and 4 metres wide. On April 6, 2001, a reconstruction of the original wooden footbridge was opened; it is also the longest wooden bridge in Switzerland. Lisa del Giocondo was an Italian noblewoman and member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany. Her name was given to the Mona Lisa, her portrait commissioned by her husband and painted by Leonardo da Vinci in the Italian Renaissance. Little is known about Lisa's life. Lisa was born in Florence. She married in her teens to a cloth and silk merchant who later became a local official; she was a mother to five children and led what is thought to have been a comfortable and ordinary life. Lisa outlived her husband, who was considerably her senior. In the centuries after Lisa's death, the Mona Lisa became the world's most famous painting. In 2005, Lisa was identified as a subject for a da Vinci portrait around 1503, strongly suggesting her as the model for Mona Lisa. Lisa's Florentine family was old and aristocratic but over time had lost their influence. They were well off but not wealthy, and lived on a farm income in a city where there were great disparities in wealth among its inhabitants. </Text>

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<Text> :A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or human-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context. In common usage however, a landscape refers either to all the visible features of an area of land , often considered in terms of aesthetic appeal, or to a pictorial representation of an area of countryside, specifically within the genre of landscape painting. When people deliberately improve the aesthetic appearance of a piece of land--by changing contours and vegetation, etc.--it is said to have been landscaped, though the result may not constitute a landscape according to some definitions. The word landscape arrived in England--and therefore into the English language--after the fifth century, following the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons; these terms referred to a system of human-made spaces on the land. The term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery. Land may be taken in its sense of something to which people belong . The suffix -scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix -ship. The roots of -ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix -schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that -ship and shape are also etymologically linked. The modern form of the word, with its connotations of scenery, appeared in the late sixteenth century when the term landschap was introduced by Dutch painters who used it to refer to paintings of inland natural or rural scenery. The word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters' term. The popular conception of the landscape that is reflected in dictionaries conveys both a particular and a general meaning, the particular referring to an area of the Earth's surface and the general being that which can be seen by an observer. An example of this second usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer: Painting is a visual art, which is characterized by the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface . The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. In art, the term "painting" describes both the act and the result of the action . The support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may incorporate multiple other materials, including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold leaf, and even whole objects. Painting is an important form of visual art, bringing in elements such as drawing, composition, gesture, narration, and abstraction. Paintings can be naturalistic and representational , photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic , emotive or political in nature . A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by religious art. Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, to scenes from the life of Buddha . A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher than a hill, typically rising at least 300 metres above the surrounding land. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges. Mountains are formed through tectonic forces, erosion, or volcanism, which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years. Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through the action of weathering, through slumping and other forms of mass wasting, as well as through erosion by rivers and glaciers. High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction, such as mining and logging, along with recreation, such as mountain climbing and skiing. The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is 8,850 m above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171 m . </Text>

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<Text> :An armrest is a part of a chair, where a person can rest their arms on. Armrests are built into a large variety of chairs such as automotive chairs, armchairs, airline seats, sofas, and more. Adjustable armrests are commonly found in ergonomic office chairs and gaming chairs. Armrest is also a feature found in most modern automobiles on which the occupants can rest their arms. Armrests are commonly placed between the front car seats on the driver and passenger side of the vehicle. Sometimes one or two armrests may also be attached to each individual seat, a feature commonly found in minivans and some SUVs. Many larger cars also have a broad arm-rest between the back seats, which may be folded out when the central seating place is not required. In some designs where occupant safety is emphasised, including some Volvo models, the armrest doubles as a child seat, complete with specially adjustable seatbelt. Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, commonly linseed oil. The viscosity of the paint may be modified by the addition of a solvent such as turpentine or white spirit, and varnish may be added to increase the glossiness of the dried oil paint film. The addition of oil or alkyd medium can also be used to modify the viscosity and drying time of oil paint. Oil paints were first used in Asia as early as the 7th century AD and can be seen in examples of Buddhist paintings in Afghanistan. Oil-based paints made their way to Europe by the 12th century and were used for simple decoration, but oil painting did not begin to be adopted as an artistic medium there until the early 15th century. Common modern applications of oil paint are in finishing and protection of wood in buildings and exposed metal structures such as ships and bridges. Its hard-wearing properties and luminous colors make it desirable for both interior and exterior use on wood and metal. Due to its slow-drying properties, it has recently been used in paint-on-glass animation. The thickness of the coat has considerable bearing on the time required for drying: thin coats of oil paint dry relatively quickly. The technical history of the introduction and development of oil paint, and the date of introduction of various additives is still--despite intense research since the mid 19th century--not well understood. The literature abounds with incorrect theories and information: in general, anything published before 1952 is suspect. Until 1991 nothing was known about the organic aspect of cave paintings from the Paleolithic era. Many assumptions were made about the chemistry of the binders. Well known Dutch-American artist Willem de Kooning is known for saying "Flesh is the reason oil paint was invented". The oldest known oil paintings are Buddhist murals created c. 650 AD. The works are located in cave-like rooms carved from the cliffs of Afghanistan's Bamiyan Valley, "using walnut and poppy seed oils." Though the ancient Mediterranean civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt used vegetable oils, there is little evidence to indicate their use as media in painting. Indeed, linseed oil was not used as a medium because of its tendency to dry very slowly, darken, and crack, unlike mastic and wax . Vichy France , officially the French State , was the French rump state headed by Marshal Philippe Petain during World War II. It was named after its seat of government, the city of Vichy. Officially independent, but with half of its territory occupied under the harsh terms of the 1940 armistice with Nazi Germany, it adopted a policy of collaboration. Though Paris was nominally its capital, the government established itself in the resort town of Vichy in the unoccupied "free zone" , where it remained responsible for the civil administration of France as well as its colonies. The occupation of France by Nazi Germany at first affected only the northern and western portions of the country, but in November 1942 the Germans and Italians occupied the remainder of Metropolitan France, ending any pretence of independence by the Vichy government. The Third French Republic had begun the war in September 1939 on the side of the Allies. On 10 May 1940, it was invaded by Nazi Germany. The German Army rapidly broke through the Allied lines by bypassing the highly fortified Maginot Line and invading through Belgium, Luxembourg, and as an extension, the Ardennes. By mid-June, the military situation of the French was dire, and it was apparent that it would lose the battle for Metropolitan France. The French government began to discuss the possibility of an armistice. Paul Reynaud resigned as prime minister rather than sign an armistice, and was replaced by Marshal Philippe Petain, a hero of World War I. Shortly thereafter, Petain signed the Armistice of 22 June 1940. At Vichy, Petain established an authoritarian government that reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy. Conservative Catholics became prominent, and Paris lost its avant-garde status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and promoted antisemitism and, after Operation Barbarossa started in June 1941, anti-Sovietism. The terms of the armistice allowed some degree of independence and neutrality to the Vichy government, such as keeping the French Navy and French colonial empire under French control and avoiding full occupation of the country by Germany. Despite heavy pressure, the Vichy government never joined the Axis powers and even remained formally at war with Germany. In practice, however, Vichy France became a collaborationist regime. Germany kept two million French prisoners-of-war and imposed forced labour on young Frenchmen. French soldiers were kept hostage to ensure that Vichy would reduce its military forces and pay a heavy tribute in gold, food, and supplies to Germany. French police were ordered to round up Jews and other "undesirables" such as communists and political refugees, and at least 72,500 French Jews were killed in Nazi concentration camps. A body of water or waterbody is any significant accumulation of water on the surface of Earth or another planet. The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it includes smaller pools of water such as ponds, wetlands, or more rarely, puddles. A body of water does not have to be still or contained; rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water. Most are naturally occurring geographical features, but some are artificial. There are types that can be either. For example, most reservoirs are created by engineering dams, but some natural lakes are used as reservoirs. Similarly, most harbors are naturally occurring bays, but some harbors have been created through construction. Bodies of water are affected by gravity, which is what creates the tidal effects. Moreso, the impact of climate change on water is likely to intensify as observed through the rising sea levels, water acidification and flooding. This means that climate change has pressure on water bodies. Lisa del Giocondo was an Italian noblewoman and member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany. Her name was given to the Mona Lisa, her portrait commissioned by her husband and painted by Leonardo da Vinci in the Italian Renaissance. Little is known about Lisa's life. Lisa was born in Florence. She married in her teens to a cloth and silk merchant who later became a local official; she was a mother to five children and led what is thought to have been a comfortable and ordinary life. Lisa outlived her husband, who was considerably her senior. In the centuries after Lisa's death, the Mona Lisa became the world's most famous painting. In 2005, Lisa was identified as a subject for a da Vinci portrait around 1503, strongly suggesting her as the model for Mona Lisa. Lisa's Florentine family was old and aristocratic but over time had lost their influence. They were well off but not wealthy, and lived on a farm income in a city where there were great disparities in wealth among its inhabitants. The United States of America , commonly known as the United States or America, is a country primarily located in North America, between Canada and Mexico. It is a federation of 50 states, a federal capital district , and 326 Indian reservations. Outside the union of states, it asserts sovereignty over five major unincorporated island territories and various uninhabited islands. The country has the world's third-largest land area, largest maritime exclusive economic zone, and the third-largest population, exceeding 334 million. Paleo-Indians migrated across the Bering land bridge more than 12,000 years ago. British colonization led to the first settlement of the Thirteen Colonies in Virginia in 1607. Clashes with the British Crown over taxation and political representation sparked the American Revolution, with the Second Continental Congress formally declaring independence on July 4, 1776. Following its victory in the Revolutionary War , the country continued to expand across North America. As more states were admitted, sectional division over slavery led to the secession of the Confederate States of America, which fought the remaining states of the Union during the 1861-1865 American Civil War. With the Union's victory and preservation, slavery was abolished nationally. By 1900, the United States had established itself as a great power, becoming the world's largest economy. After Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the U.S. entered World War II. The aftermath of the war left the U.S. and the Soviet Union as the world's two superpowers and led to the Cold War, during which both countries engaged in a struggle for ideological dominance and international influence. Following the Soviet Union's collapse and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the U.S. emerged as the world's sole superpower. The U.S. national government is a presidential constitutional republic and liberal democracy with three separate branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. It has a bicameral national legislature composed of the House of Representatives, a lower house based on population; and the Senate, an upper house based on equal representation for each state. Substantial autonomy is given to states and several territories, with a political culture that emphasizes liberty, equality under the law, individualism, and limited government. One of the world's most developed countries, the United States ranks among the highest in the world in international measures of income, wealth, economic competitiveness, productivity, innovation, human rights, and higher education. It has the highest median income per capita of any non-microstate and possesses by far the largest amount of wealth of any country, with the American economy the largest nominally and accounting for over a quarter of global GDP. The U.S. is a founding member of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, NATO, Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, World Health Organization, and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. The Smithsonian American Art Museum is a museum in Washington, D.C., part of the Smithsonian Institution. Together with its branch museum, the Renwick Gallery, SAAM holds one of the world's largest and most inclusive collections of art, from the colonial period to the present, made in the United States. More than 7,000 artists are represented in the museum's collection. Most exhibitions are held in the museum's main building, the Old Patent Office Building , while craft-focused exhibitions are shown in the Renwick Gallery. The museum provides electronic resources to schools and the public through its national education program. It maintains seven online research databases with more than 500,000 records, including the Inventories of American Painting and Sculpture that document more than 400,000 artworks in public and private collections worldwide. Since 1951, the museum has maintained a traveling exhibition program; as of 2013, more than 2.5 million visitors have seen the exhibitions. The museum's history can be traced to the creation of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846. The act of Congress establishing the Smithsonian called for it to include "a gallery of art". In its early years, however, little effort was put into developing the art collection, as Smithsonian Secretary Joseph Henry preferred to focus on scientific research. The collection was first on display in the original Smithsonian Building . In 1865, a fire destroyed much of the collection. Those art holdings that survived were mostly loaned to the Library of Congress and the Corcoran Gallery of Art in the following decades. In 1896, the artworks were brought back to the Smithsonian, after Congress appropriated money to construct a fireproof room for them. The Smithsonian began to refer to its art collection as the National Gallery of Art in 1906, in connection with efforts to receive Harriet Lane Johnston's art collection, which she had bequeathed to the "national art gallery". The collection grew as the Smithsonian buildings grew, and the collection was housed in one or more Smithsonian buildings on the National Mall. The Cloisters, also known as the Met Cloisters, is a museum in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, New York City. The museum, situated in Fort Tryon Park, specializes in European medieval art and architecture, with a focus on the Romanesque and Gothic periods. Governed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, it contains a large collection of medieval artworks shown in the architectural settings of French monasteries and abbeys. Its buildings are centered around four cloisters--the Cuxa, Saint-Guilhem, Bonnefont and Trie--that were acquired by American sculptor and art dealer George Grey Barnard in France before 1913, and moved to New York. Barnard's collection was bought for the museum by financier and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. Other major sources of objects were the collections of J. P. Morgan and Joseph Brummer. The museum's building was designed by the architect Charles Collens, on a site on a steep hill, with upper and lower levels. It contains medieval gardens and a series of chapels and themed galleries, including the Romanesque, Fuentiduena, Unicorn, Spanish, and Gothic rooms. The design, layout, and ambiance of the building are intended to evoke a sense of medieval European monastic life. It holds about 5,000 works of art and architecture, all European and mostly dating from the Byzantine to the early Renaissance periods, mainly during the 12th through 15th centuries. The objects include stone and wood sculptures, tapestries, illuminated manuscripts and panel paintings, of which the best known include the c. 1422 Early Netherlandish Merode Altarpiece and the c. 1495-1505 Flemish Hunt of the Unicorn tapestries. Rockefeller purchased the museum site in Washington Heights in 1930 and donated it to the Metropolitan in 1931. Upon its opening on May 10, 1938, the Cloisters was described as a collection "shown informally in a picturesque setting, which stimulates imagination and creates a receptive mood for enjoyment". The basis for the museum's architectural structure came from the collection of George Grey Barnard, an American sculptor and collector who almost single-handedly established a medieval art museum near his home in the Fort Washington section of Upper Manhattan. Although he was a successful sculptor who had studied at the Art Institute of Chicago, his income was not enough to support his family. Barnard was a risk taker and led most of his life on the edge of poverty. He moved to Paris in 1883 where he studied at the Academie des Beaux-Arts. He lived in the village of Moret-sur-Loing, near Fontainebleau, between 1905 and 1913, and began to deal in 13th- and 14th-century European objects to supplement his earnings. In the process he built a large personal collection of what he described as "antiques", at first by buying and selling stand-alone objects with French dealers, then by the acquisition of in situ architectural artifacts from local farmers. </Text>

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Mendès <p> exhibition history <o> Legion of Honor <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> exhibition history <o> Duveen Galleries <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> exhibition history <o> Fort Worth Community Arts Center <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> owned by <o> Walter Annenberg <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> commissioned by <o> Catulle Mendès <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> sitting <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> sock <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Met Museum artworks on display <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> described by source <o> Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> dress <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> significant event <o> purchasing <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> exhibition history <o> Los Angeles County Museum of Art <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> white people <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> instance of <o> painting <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> ribbon <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> made from material <o> oil paint <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> owned by <o> M. Knoedler & Co. <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> owned by <o> Alexandre Louis Philippe Marie Berthier, 4th Prince of Wagram <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> owned by <o> Wildenstein & Company <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> standing <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> owned by <o> Maurice de Rothschild <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> made from material <o> canvas <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> Hélyonne Mendès <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> Marie Anne Claudine Mendès <s> The Daughters of Catulle Mendès <p> depicts <o> Jeanne Huguette Olga Mendès <s> Gallery 602, Painting as the Mirror of Nature: 1420–1480, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Gallery 602, Painting as the Mirror of Nature: 1420–1480, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> location <o> The Met Fifth Avenue <s> Gallery 602, Painting as the Mirror of Nature: 1420–1480, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> part of <o> The Met Fifth Avenue <s> Gallery 602, Painting as the Mirror of Nature: 1420–1480, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> has part(s) <o> Portrait of a Young Woman <s> Gallery 463, Mughal South Asia and Later South Asia, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Gallery 463, Mughal South Asia and Later South Asia, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> has part(s) <o> Inkpot of the Emperor Jahangir <s> Gallery 463, Mughal South Asia and Later South Asia, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> location <o> The Met Fifth Avenue <s> Gallery 463, Mughal South Asia and Later South Asia, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> part of <o> The Met Fifth Avenue <s> Gallery 552, Terracotta Models, 1700–1900, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> instance of <o> exhibition space <s> Gallery 552, Terracotta Models, 1700–1900, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> location <o> The Met Fifth Avenue <s> Gallery 552, Terracotta Models, 1700–1900, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> has part(s) <o> Model for a Proposed Monument to Commemorate the Invention of the Balloon <s> Gallery 552, Terracotta Models, 1700–1900, Metropolitan Museum of Art <p> part of <o> The Met Fifth Avenue <s> Met Imaging <p> uses <o> Open Access at The Met <s> Met Imaging <p> instance of <o> department <s> Met Imaging <p> parent organization <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Tilla Durieux <p> main subject <o> Tilla Durieux <s> Tilla Durieux <p> country <o> United States of America <s> Tilla Durieux <p> location of creation <o> Paris <s> Tilla Durieux <p> owned by <o> Tilla Durieux <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> smile <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> rose <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> ring <s> Tilla Durieux <p> movement <o> Impressionism <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> Tilla Durieux <s> Tilla Durieux <p> genre <o> portrait <s> Tilla Durieux <p> commissioned by <o> Paul Cassirer <s> Tilla Durieux <p> owned by <o> Pierre-Auguste Renoir <s> Tilla Durieux <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> dress <s> Tilla Durieux <p> owned by <o> Paul Cassirer <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> portrait <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> woman <s> Tilla Durieux <p> creator <o> Pierre-Auguste Renoir <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Museum of Modern Art <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> 1939 New York World's Fair <s> Tilla Durieux <p> owned by <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Century Association <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Kimbell Art Museum <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Galeries nationales du Grand Palais <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Wildenstein & Company Building <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Bignou Gallery <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Duveen Galleries <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> M. Knoedler & Co. <s> Tilla Durieux <p> owned by <o> Walter Feilchenfeldt <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> Austrians <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Musée de l'Orangerie <s> Tilla Durieux <p> collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> National Gallery of Canada <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Yale University Art Gallery <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Hayward Gallery <s> Tilla Durieux <p> location <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Tilla Durieux <p> described by source <o> Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicted by <o> New York City museums are fighting to keep art stolen by the Nazis <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Art Institute of Chicago <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> sitting <s> Tilla Durieux <p> instance of <o> painting <s> Tilla Durieux <p> owned by <o> Stephen Carlton Clark <s> Tilla Durieux <p> depicts <o> shawl <s> Tilla Durieux <p> made from material <o> canvas <s> Tilla Durieux <p> made from material <o> oil paint <s> Tilla Durieux <p> owned by <o> Bignou Gallery <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Paul Rosenberg <s> Tilla Durieux <p> exhibition history <o> Baltimore Museum of Art </Graph>

<Text> :Fifth Avenue is a major and prominent thoroughfare in the borough of Manhattan in New York City, New York, United States. It stretches north from Washington Square Park in Greenwich Village to West 143rd Street in Harlem. It is one of the most expensive shopping streets in the world. Fifth Avenue carries two-way traffic from 142nd to 135th Street and carries one-way traffic southbound for the remainder of its route. The entire street used to carry two-way traffic until 1966. From 124th to 120th Street, Fifth Avenue is cut off by Marcus Garvey Park, with southbound traffic diverted around the park via Mount Morris Park West and northbound to Madison Avenue. Most of the avenue has a bus lane, though not a bike lane. Fifth Avenue is the traditional route for many celebratory parades in New York City, and is closed on several Sundays per year. Fifth Avenue was originally only a narrower thoroughfare but the section south of Central Park was widened in 1908. The midtown blocks between 34th and 59th Streets were largely a residential area until the turn of the 20th century, when they were developed as commercial areas. The section of Fifth Avenue in the 50s is consistently ranked among the most expensive shopping streets in the world, and the section between 59th and 96th Streets across Central Park was nicknamed "Millionaire's Row" in the early 20th century due to the high concentration of mansions there. A section of Fifth Avenue running from 82nd to 110th Streets, also alongside Central Park, is also nicknamed Museum Mile due to the large number of museums there. Fifth Avenue between 42nd Street and Central Park South was relatively undeveloped through the late 19th century.: 2 The surrounding area was once part of the common lands of the city of New York, which was allocated "all the waste, vacant, unpatented, and unappropriated lands" as a result of the 1686 Dongan Charter. The city's Common Council came to own a large amount of land, primarily in the middle of the island away from the Hudson and East Rivers, as a result of grants by the Dutch provincial government to the colony of New Amsterdam. Although originally more extensive, by 1785 the council held approximately 1,300 acres , or about 9 percent of the island. The Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych consists of two small painted panels attributed to the Early Netherlandish artist Jan van Eyck, with areas finished by unidentified followers or members of his workshop. This diptych is one of the early Northern Renaissance oil-on-panel masterpieces, renowned for its unusually complex and highly detailed iconography, and for the technical skill evident in its completion. It was executed in a miniature format; the panels are just 56.5 cm high by 19.7 cm wide. The diptych was probably commissioned for private devotion. The left-hand wing depicts the Crucifixion. It shows Christ's followers grieving in the foreground, soldiers and spectators milling about in the mid-ground and a portrayal of three crucified bodies in the upper-ground. The scene is framed against an expansive and foreboding sky with a view of Jerusalem in the distance. The right-hand wing portrays scenes associated with the Last Judgement: a hellscape at its base, the resurrected awaiting judgement in the centre-ground, and a representation of Christ in Majesty flanked by a Great Deesis of saints, apostles, clergy, virgins and nobility in the upper section. Portions of the work contain Greek, Latin and Hebrew inscriptions. The original gilt frames contain Biblical passages in Latin drawn from the books of Isaiah, Deuteronomy and Revelation. According to a date written in Russian on their reverse, the panels were transferred to canvas supports in 1867. The earliest surviving mention of the work appears in 1841, when scholars believed the two panels were wings of a lost triptych. The Metropolitan Museum of Art acquired the diptych in 1933. At that time, the work was attributed to Jan's brother Hubert because key areas formally resembled pages of the Turin-Milan Hours, which were then believed to be of Hubert's hand. On the evidence of technique and the style of dress of the figures, the majority of scholars believe the panels are late works by Jan van Eyck, executed in the early 1430s and finished after his death. Other art historians hold that van Eyck painted the panels around the early 1420s and attribute the weaker passages to a younger van Eyck's relative inexperience. Along with Robert Campin and later Rogier van der Weyden, Van Eyck revolutionised the approach towards naturalism and realism in Northern European painting during the early to mid 15th century. He was the first to manipulate oils to give the close detailing that infused his figures with the high degree of realism and complexity of emotion seen in this diptych. He coupled this with a mastery of glaze to create luminous surfaces with a deep perspective--most noticeable in the upper portion of the Crucifixion panel--which had not been achieved before. Born Ottilie Helene Angela Godeffroy on 18 August 1880 in Vienna, she was the daughter of the Austrian chemist Richard Max Victor Godeffroy and his wife, the Hungarian pianist Adelheid Ottilie Augustine Godeffroy , who was born in Romania. After graduating from elementary school, she switched to the public school in Alsergrund, Vienna. She was baptized in the evangelical parish Augsburg Confession in Vienna. On 31 May 1928 she converted to Catholicism She adopted "Durieux" as a stage name because her mother disapproved of her acting career. She trained as an actress in Vienna and made her debut at the Moravian Theatre in Olmutz in 1902. She then moved to Berin where she worked with Max Reinhardt and with a group of expressionist artists around Kurt Hiller and Jakob van Hoddis. In 1903, she performed as Salome in Oscar Wilde's play of the same name. The role brought Durieux great recognition, drawing the attention of well-known artists, including Auguste Renoir, Max Slevogt, Lovis Corinth, and Franz von Stuck, all of whom painted her portrait. In 1911 Durieux entered the stage of the Lessing Theater where, on 1 November 1913, she became the second actress to perform the role Eliza Doolittle in a German language production of George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion, half a year before its English premiere on 11 April 1914. From 1915 she performed at the Royal Schauspielhaus Berlin. In 1923, Durieux appeared on Broadway in Dario Niccodemi's play The Shadow at the 39th Street Theatre. In 1904, Durieux married the Berlin Secession painter Eugen Spiro, whose younger sister was Baladine Klossowska. They divorced consensually in 1905, after she had fallen in love with Paul Cassirer. She started dating the successful art dealer and editor and they got married in 1910. The marriage lasted 16 years, however Cassirer was very affected when Durieux wanted to divorce him. When their divorce was declared in 1926, Cassirer committed suicide in a room next to the court room where their hearing had taken place. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> country <o> United States of America <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> depicts <o> Virgin Mary <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> depicts <o> woman <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> religion or worldview <o> Christianity <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> New York <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> depicts <o> boy <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> made from material <o> tempera <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> depicts <o> mother <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> made from material <o> gold <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> owned by <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> depicts <o> angel <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> depicts <o> scroll <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> location <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> creator <o> Gentile da Fabriano <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> depicts <o> Christ Child <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> movement <o> International Gothic <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> depicts <o> Madonna and Child <s> Madonna and Child with Angels <p> owned by <o> Theodore M. 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<o> genre art <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> standing <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> guéridon <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> chess table <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> play <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> carafe <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> sitting <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> Ave Caesar Morituri te Salutant <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> vitrine <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> chess player <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> console <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> white hair <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> parlour <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> fireplace mantel <s> The Chess Players <p> instance of <o> painting <s> The Chess Players <p> depicts <o> interior <s> The Harvesters <p> depicts <o> sea <s> The Harvesters <p> depicts <o> woman <s> The Harvesters <p> depicts <o> sky <s> The Harvesters <p> depicts <o> summer <s> The Harvesters <p> made from material <o> wood <s> The Harvesters <p> made from 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<Text> :The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. The Monteleone chariot is an Etruscan chariot dated to c. 530 BC, considered one of the world's great archaeological finds. It was originally uncovered at Monteleone di Spoleto, Umbria, Italy, and is currently a major attraction in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Though about 300 ancient chariots are known to still exist, only six are reasonably complete, and the Monteleone chariot is the best-preserved and most complete of all known surviving examples. Carlos Picon, curator of the museum's Greek and Roman department, has called it "the grandest piece of sixth-century Etruscan bronze anywhere in the world". The Monteleone chariot was part of a chariot burial, containing the remains of two human corpses, along with two drinking cups. Measuring 131 cm in height and designed to be drawn by two horses, the chariot itself is constructed of wood covered with hammered bronze plates and carved ivory decoration. It is thought to be a "parade chariot" rather than one actually used in warfare. The bronze plates are decorated with Homeric iconography in relief; the main panel depicts Achilles being handed his replacement armor by his mother, Thetis, after his first set had been fatally lent to Patroklos. Below the helmet is a shield decorated with a Gorgon head. The left side panel shows two warriors in combat, thought to be Achilles and the Trojan Memnon. The right panel shows the apotheosis of Achilles, as he ascends in a chariot pulled by winged horses. The chariot's shaft emerges from the mouth of a boar; the dead deer below the shield may be meant to be shown carried by the boar. Rows of smaller scenes run along the base of the chariot platform. These are thought to show "Achilles as a youth in the care of the centaur Chiron and Achilles as a lion felling his foes, in this case a stag and a bull". Two nude male figues flank the central scene. Max Hollein is an Austrian art historian and the current CEO and Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. He served as Director and CEO of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco from July 2016, until April 2018, the Metropolitan Museum of Art announced that Hollein would become its 10th director. Hollein oversaw both the de Young and the Legion of Honor museums, which together are the seventh most-visited art institutions in the United States, with 1.4 million visitors in 2016. Hollein joined the Fine Arts Museums in July 2016 from his position as the director of Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt, Stadel Museum and the Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung. Hollein was born in Vienna in 1969 to architect Hans Hollein and Helene Hollein. He studied art history at the University of Vienna and business administration at the Vienna University of Economics. During this period, he also free-lanced for the business section of the national daily newspaper "Der Standard". In 1995, following the successful completion of his studies with two master's degrees, one in art history and the other in business administration, he moved to New York City to take on the position of project director of exhibitions at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York. From 1996 until the end of 2000, he worked closely with Guggenheim director Thomas Krens, initially as "Executive Assistant to the Director" and, from 1998 onward, as "Chief of Staff and Manager of European Relations" responsible for key projects such as the establishment of the exhibition halls "Deutsche Guggenheim Berlin" and "Guggenheim Las Vegas". He was also involved in fundraising, travelling exhibitions, the inauguration activities at Guggenheim Bilbao as well as liaising with European cultural institutions, collectors, media, curators and sponsors. The Metropolitan Opera House is an historic opera house and current pop concert venue located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It has been used for many different purposes over its history. Now known as The Met, the theatre reopened in December 2018, after a complete renovation, as a concert venue. It is managed by Live Nation Philadelphia. Built over the course of just a few months in 1908, it was the ninth opera house built by impresario Oscar Hammerstein I. It was initially the home of Hammerstein's Philadelphia Opera Company, and called the "Philadelphia Opera House". Hammerstein sold the house to the Metropolitan Opera of New York City in 1910, when it was renamed. The Met used the theatre through 1920, after which various opera companies used the house through 1934. For over five more decades it remained in constant use in turn as a movie theater, a ballroom, a sports venue, mechanic training center, and a church. The building then fell into serious disrepair and was unused and vacant from 1988 until 1995, when it became the "Holy Ghost Headquarters Revival Center at the Met". The church stabilized much of the building, eventually paving the way for the latest renovation of the opera house in 2017-2018. The Metropolitan Opera House was built by Hammerstein to be the home of his then new opera company, the Philadelphia Opera Company . Hammerstein hired architect William H. McElfatrick of the firm J.B. McElfatrick & Son to design the opera house in 1907, and construction began the following year. When it opened as the Philadelphia Opera House in 1908, it was the largest theater of its kind in the world, seating more than 4,000 people. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Manhattan <p> country <o> United States of America <s> Manhattan <p> located in time zone <o> UTC−05:00 <s> Manhattan <p> category for maps <o> Category:Maps of Manhattan, New York City <s> Manhattan <p> category for the view from the item <o> Category:Views from Manhattan, New York City <s> Manhattan <p> category for the view from the item <o> Category:Views from automobiles in Manhattan, New York City <s> Manhattan <p> demographics of topic <o> demographics of Manhattan <s> Manhattan <p> located in time zone <o> UTC−04:00 <s> Manhattan <p> has part(s) <o> Liberty Island <s> Manhattan <p> different from <o> New York County <s> Manhattan <p> significant event <o> September 11 attacks <s> Manhattan <p> different from <o> Manhattan <s> Manhattan <p> coextensive with <o> New York County <s> Manhattan <p> has part(s) <o> U Thant Island <s> Manhattan <p> shares border with <o> Brooklyn <s> Manhattan <p> shares border with <o> Hoboken <s> Manhattan <p> shares border with <o> 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<Text> :Manhattan is the most densely populated and geographically smallest of the five boroughs of New York City. The borough is coextensive with New York County, the smallest county by geographical area in the U.S. state of New York. Located almost entirely on Manhattan Island near the southern tip of the state, Manhattan constitutes the geographical and demographic center of the Northeast megalopolis and the urban core of the New York metropolitan area. Manhattan serves as New York City's economic and administrative center and has been described as the cultural, financial, media, and entertainment capital of the world. Present-day Manhattan was originally part of Lenape territory. European settlement began with the establishment of a trading post by Dutch colonists in 1624 on lower Manhattan Island; the post was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The territory and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. New York, based in present-day Manhattan, served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor greeted millions of arriving immigrants in the late 19th century and is a world symbol of the United States and its ideals. Manhattan became a borough during the consolidation of New York City in 1898, and houses New York City Hall, the seat of the city's government. The Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, part of the Stonewall National Monument, is considered the birthplace of the modern gay rights movement, cementing Manhattan's central role in LGBT culture. It was also the site of the World Trade Center, which was destroyed during the September 11 terrorist attacks. Situated on one of the world's largest natural harbors, the borough is bounded by the Hudson, East, and Harlem rivers and includes several small adjacent islands, including Roosevelt, U Thant, and Randalls and Wards Islands. It also includes the small neighborhood of Marble Hill now on the U.S. mainland. Manhattan Island is divided into three informally bounded components, each cutting across the borough's long axis: Lower, Midtown, and Upper Manhattan. Manhattan is one of the most densely populated locations in the world, with a 2020 census population of 1,694,250 living in a land area of 22.66 square miles , or 72,918 residents per square mile , and its residential property has the highest sale price per square foot in the United States. Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere. Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial and fintech center of the world,and Manhattan is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization, the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in Manhattan, as are numerous colleges and universities, such as Columbia University and New York University; the headquarters of the United Nations is also located in the borough. Manhattan hosts three of the world's most-visited tourist attractions in 2013: Times Square, Central Park, and Grand Central Terminal. Penn Station is the busiest transportation hub in the Western Hemisphere. The borough hosts many prominent bridges and tunnels, and skyscrapers including the Empire State Building, Chrysler Building, and One World Trade Center. It is also home to the National Basketball Association's New York Knicks and the National Hockey League's New York Rangers. Calvert Vaux FAIA was an English-American architect and landscape designer, best known as the co-designer, along with his protege and junior partner Frederick Law Olmsted, of what would become New York City's Central Park. Vaux, on his own and in various partnerships, designed and created dozens of parks across the northeastern United States, most famously in New York City, Brooklyn, and Buffalo. He introduced new ideas about the significance of public parks in America during a hectic time of urbanization. This industrialization of the cityscape inspired Vaux to focus on an integration of buildings, bridges, and other forms of architecture into their natural surroundings. He favored naturalistic and curvilinear lines in his designs. In addition to landscape architecture, Vaux was a highly-sought after architect until the 1870s, when his modes of design could not endure the country's return to classical forms. His partnership with Andrew Jackson Downing, a major figure in horticulture, landscape design, and domestic architecture, brought him from London to Newburgh, New York, in 1850. There, Downing's praise of Gothic Revival and Italianate architecture contributed to Vaux's personal growth as a designer of homes and landscapes. After Downing's sudden death in 1852, Vaux was left with their assistant Frederick Clarke Withers to continue Downing's legacy. He left Newburgh in 1856 to grow his practice in New York City, where he began, received, and completed commissions with Olmsted, Withers, and Jacob Wrey Mould. As a result, Vaux's name was frequently overshadowed by other designers, such as Olmsted, yet the contemporary American public still recognized his talents. Born in London to a physician, Vaux was baptized at St Benet Gracechurch on February 9, 1825. He trained as an apprentice under the architect Lewis Nockalls Cottingham, a leader of the Gothic Revival movement interested in Tudor architecture. Vaux trained under Cottingham until the age of twenty-six, also befriending George Godwin and George Truefitt during his studies. Jacob Wrey Mould was a British architect, illustrator, linguist and musician, noted for his contributions to the design and construction of New York City's Central Park. He was "instrumental" in bringing the British High Victorian style of architecture to the United States, and was a founding member of the American Institute of Architects. Born in Chislehurst, Kent in 1825, Mould attended King's College School in 1842. For two years, he studied the Alhambra in Spain under Owen Jones, the "master of polychromy," with whom he later co-designed the "Turkish Chamber" of Buckingham Palace. Mould's subsequent designs were often influenced by his appreciation of the Moorish style of architecture. Mould designed decorations for The Great Exhibition in London in 1851. He moved to the United States in 1852, and worked on the Crystal Palace Exhibition in Manhattan. He was invited by Moses H. Grinnell in 1853 to design and build Unitarian Church of All Souls, and then was brought in on early plans for the great urban park in the heart of the city, Central Park. Working closely with creators Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted, he designed many of the park's notable landmarks, including the "graceful" and "richly decorated" old Bandstand, Belvedere Castle, a great number of bridges, and the carvings on the Bethesda Terrace. Though described as eccentric and ill-mannered, Mould was hired full-time as an assistant city architect in 1857, and from 1870 to 1871 was architect-in-chief for the Department of Public Works. In the 1860s, he had also built two notable country homes in Long Island on Hempstead Bay, both of which were lavish and ornate buildings for rich clients from New York. Mould also collaborated with Vaux on the design of the original Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Museum of Natural History, and designed the fountain at City Hall Park . The Anna Wintour Costume Center is a wing of the Metropolitan Museum of Art main building in Manhattan that houses the collection of the Costume Institute, a curatorial department of the museum focused on fashion and costume design. The center is named after Anna Wintour, the longtime editor-in-chief of Vogue, Chief Content Officer of Conde Nast, and chair of the museum's annual Met Gala since 1995. It was endowed by Lizzie and Jonathan Tisch. As of August 2017, the chief curator is Andrew Bolton. The center was formally opened by the First Lady of the United States Michelle Obama on May 5, 2014. Guests included Sarah Jessica Parker, Diane Von Furstenberg, Tory Burch, Zac Posen, Ralph Lauren, and Donatella Versace. In 1902, wealthy philanthropists Irene and Alice Lewisohn began to volunteer at the Henry Street Settlement House in New York, a community center that provided social services and healthcare to immigrant families. Alice, who acted in plays herself, began working as a drama teacher, while Irene devoted herself to dance productions. In 1914, the sisters bought a lot on the corner of Grand and Pitt Streets and donated it to the Settlement for building a new theater. The Neighborhood Playhouse opened in 1915. By 1920, the theater employed professional actors, and it was known for its experimental productions and its revue "The Grand Street Follies." Theater designer Aline Bernstein served her apprenticeship there from 1915 to 1924 designing costumes and stage sets. The Playhouse closed in 1927, but the company continued to produce plays on Broadway under the management of Helen F. Ingersoll. In 1928, with Rita Wallach Morganthau, the Lewisohns established the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre at East 54th Street, where it became an actor training school and students were offered a two-year program formal drama and dance training to become professionals. A production company, production house, production studio, or a production team is a studio that creates works in the fields of performing arts, new media art, film, television, radio, comics, interactive arts, video games, websites, music, and video. These groups consist of technical staff to produce the media, and are often incorporated as a commercial publisher. Generally the term refers to all individuals responsible for the technical aspects of creating a particular product, regardless of where in the process their expertise is required, or how long they are involved in the project. For example, in a theatrical performance, the production team has not only the running crew, but also the theatrical producer, designers, and theatrical direction. The production company may be directly responsible for fundraising the production or may accomplish this through a parent company, partner, or private investor. It handles budgeting, scheduling, scripting, the supply with talent and resources, the organization of staff, the production itself, post-production, distribution, and marketing. Production companies are often either owned or under contract with a media conglomerate, film studio, record label, video game publisher, or entertainment company, due to the concentration of media ownership, who act as the production company's partner or parent company. This has become known as the "studio system". Independent studios usually prefer production house , production studio , or production team . In the case of television, a production company would serve under a television network. Production companies can work together in co-productions. In music, the term production team typically refers to a group of individuals filling the role of "record producer" usually reserved for one individual. Some examples of musical production teams include Matmos and D-Influence. A 501 organization is a United States corporation, trust, unincorporated association or other type of organization exempt from federal income tax under section 501 of Title 26 of the United States Code. It is one of the 29 types of 501 nonprofit organizations in the US. 501 tax-exemptions apply to entities that are organized and operated exclusively for religious, charitable, scientific, literary or educational purposes, for testing for public safety, to foster national or international amateur sports competition, or for the prevention of cruelty to children or animals. 501 exemption applies also for any non-incorporated community chest, fund, cooperating association or foundation organized and operated exclusively for those purposes. There are also supporting organizations--often referred to in shorthand form as "Friends of" organizations. 26 U.S.C. SS 170 provides a deduction for federal income tax purposes, for some donors who make charitable contributions to most types of 501 organizations, among others. Regulations specify which such deductions must be verifiable to be allowed . Due to the tax deductions associated with donations, loss of 501 status can be highly challenging if not fatal to a charity's continued operation, as many foundations and corporate matching funds do not grant funds to a charity without such status, and individual donors often do not donate to such a charity due to the unavailability of tax deduction for contributions. The American Alliance of Museums , formerly the American Association of Museums, is a non-profit association whose goal is to bring museums together. Founded in 1906, the organization advocates for museums and provides "museum professionals with the resources, knowledge, inspiration, and connections they need to move the field forward." AAM represents the scope of museums, professionals, and nonpaid staff who work for and with museums. AAM represents more than 25,000 individual museum professionals and volunteers, 4,000 institutions, and 150 corporate members. Individual members include directors, curators, registrars, educators, exhibit designers, public relations officers, development officers, security managers, trustees, and volunteers. Museums represented by the members include art, history, science, military, maritime, and youth museums, as well as public aquariums, zoos, botanical gardens, arboretums, historic sites, and science and technology centers. An informal meeting was held at the National Museum in Washington, D.C., on December 21, 1905, for the "purpose of discussing the advisability of endeavoring to establish an association of the museums of America." Major events in the history of the Alliance include: </Text>

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<Text> :New York, often called New York City or simply NYC, is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each of which is coextensive with a respective county. It is a global city and a cultural, financial, high-tech, entertainment, and media center with a significant influence on commerce, health care, scientific output, life sciences, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, dining, art, fashion, and sports. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy, and is sometimes described as the world's most important city and the capital of the world. With an estimated population in 2022 of 8,335,897 distributed over 300.46 square miles , the city is the most densely populated major city in the United States. New York has more than double the population of Los Angeles, the nation's second-most populous city. New York is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area. With more than 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City is one of the world's most populous megacities. The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. In 2021, the city was home to nearly 3.1 million residents born outside the U.S., the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world. New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on the southern tip of Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists in approximately 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. The city was temporarily regained by the Dutch in July 1673 and was renamed New Orange; however, the city has been named New York since November 1674. New York City was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx, and Staten Island, and has been the largest U.S. city ever since. Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the world's premier financial and fintech center and the most economically powerful city in the world. As of 2022, the New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world with a gross metropolitan product of over US$2.16 trillion. If the New York metropolitan area were its own country, it would have the tenth-largest economy in the world. The city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. New York City is an established safe haven for global investors. As of 2023, New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates to live. New York City is home to the highest number of billionaires, individuals of ultra-high net worth , and millionaires of any city in the world. John Taylor Johnston was an American businessman and patron of the arts. He served as president of the Central Railroad of New Jersey and was one of the founders of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Johnston was born on April 8, 1820, in New York City. He was the eldest child of John Johnston and Margaret Howard Johnston, a widow of Rhesa Howard Jr. who was the nephew of William Few, Signer of the U.S. Constitution from Georgia whose brother-in-law was U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin. His younger brother was James Boorman Johnston, who commissioned the Tenth Street Studio Building at 51 West 10th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. His sister, Margaret Taylor Johnston, was married to John Bard and together were founders of Bard College. Both of his parents were of Scottish ancestry, and his father was a prominent businessman with Boorman, Johnston, & Co. and was a co-founder of Washington Square North. His mother had four siblings who, likewise, married two grandchildren, a great-granddaughter, and a nephew of founding father Roger Sherman, Signer of the U.S. Constitution and the U.S. Declaration of Independence from Connecticut. Johnston grew up in Greenwich Village, where he was born, and was educated at Edinburgh High School in Edinburgh, Scotland. He graduated from the University of the City of New York, an institution founded by his father and several other civic-minded New Yorkers, in 1839. He later studied at Yale Law School, where his classmates included Charles Astor Bristed, Daniel D. Lord, and Henry G. DeForest. Publishing is the activity of making information, literature, music, software, and other content available to the public for sale or for free. Traditionally, the term refers to the creation and distribution of printed works, such as books, comic books, newspapers, and magazines. With the advent of digital information systems, the scope has expanded to include digital publishing such as ebooks, digital magazines, websites, social media, music, and video game publishing. The commercial publishing industry ranges from large multinational conglomerates such as News Corp, Pearson, Penguin Random House, and Thomson Reuters, to major retail brands and thousands of small independent publishers. It has various divisions such as trade/retail publishing of fiction and non-fiction, educational publishing, and academic and scientific publishing.. Publishing is also undertaken by governments, civil society, and private companies for administrative or compliance requirements, business, research, advocacy, or public interest objectives. This can include annual reports, research reports, market research, policy briefings, and technical reports. Self-publishing has become very common. Newspapers or news websites are publications of current reports, articles, and features written by journalists and are available for free, sometimes available with a premium edition, or paid for, either individually or through a subscription. They are filled with photographs or other media and are normally subsidized with advertising. Typically they cover local, national, and international news or feature a particular industry. Some organizations charge premium fees if they have the expertise and exclusive knowledge. The news industry is meant to serve the public interest, hold people and businesses to account, and promote freedom of information and expression. Editors manage the tone of voice of their publication; for example, negative versus positive articles can affect the reader's perspective. A journal is an academic or technical publication also available in digital and/or print format, containing articles written by researchers, professors, and individuals with professional expertise. These publications are specific to a particular field and often push the boundaries established in these fields. They normally have peer review processes before publishing to test the validity and quality of the content. A musical instrument is a device created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be considered a musical instrument--it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. A person who plays a musical instrument is known as an instrumentalist. The history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have been used for rituals, such as a horn to signal success on the hunt, or a drum in a religious ceremony. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment. Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications and technologies. The exact date and specific origin of the first device considered a musical instrument, is widely disputed. The oldest object identified by scholars as a musical instrument, is a simple flute, dated back 50,000-60,000 years. Many scholars date early flutes to about 40,000 years ago. Many historians believe that determining the specific date of musical instrument invention is impossible, as the majority of early musical instruments were constructed of animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable, bio-degradable materials. Additionally, some have proposed that lithophones, or stones used to make musical sounds--like those found at Sankarjang in India--are examples of prehistoric musical instruments. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world. However, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the post-classical era, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, and Europeans played instruments originating from North Africa. Development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in many areas and was dominated by the Occident. During the Classical and Romantic periods of music, lasting from roughly 1750 to 1900, many new musical instruments were developed. While the evolution of traditional musical instruments slowed beginning in the 20th century, the proliferation of electricity led to the invention of new electric and electronic instruments, such as electric guitars, synthesizers and the theremin. The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, with over 1000 years of art in Europe, and at certain periods in Western Asia and Northern Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the artists' crafts, and the artists themselves. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, often with some difficulty. A generally accepted scheme includes the later phases of Early Christian art, Migration Period art, Byzantine art, Insular art, Pre-Romanesque, Romanesque art, and Gothic art, as well as many other periods within these central styles. In addition, each region, mostly during the period in the process of becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Viking art. Medieval art was produced in many media, and works survive in large numbers in sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, metalwork and mosaics, all of which have had a higher survival rate than other media such as fresco wall-paintings, work in precious metals or textiles, including tapestry. Especially in the early part of the period, works in the so-called "minor arts" or decorative arts, such as metalwork, ivory carving, vitreous enamel and embroidery using precious metals, were probably more highly valued than paintings or monumental sculpture. Medieval art in Europe grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic traditions of the early Christian church. These sources were mixed with the vigorous "barbarian" artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce a remarkable artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of medieval art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian and "barbarian" art. Apart from the formal aspects of classicism, there was a continuous tradition of realistic depiction of objects that survived in Byzantine art throughout the period, while in the West it appears intermittently, combining and sometimes competing with new expressionist possibilities developed in Western Europe and the Northern legacy of energetic decorative elements. The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values of classical art, and the artistic legacy of the Middle Ages was then disparaged for some centuries. Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has been seen as a period of enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art. </Text>

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<Text> :In 2022, the museum welcomed 3,208,832 visitors, making it the third-most visited museum in the United States and the eighth-most visited art museum in the world. In 2000, its permanent collection was said to have over two million works; it currently lists a total of 1.5 million objects. The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe. The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 with its mission to bring art and art education to the American people. The museum's permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes paintings, sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries. The Met's permanent collection is curated by seventeen separate departments, each with a specialized staff of curators and scholars, as well as six dedicated conservation departments and a Department of Scientific Research. The permanent collection includes works of art from classical antiquity and ancient Egypt; paintings and sculptures from nearly all the European masters; and an extensive collection of American and modern art. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A great number of period rooms, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Met's galleries. Since the late 1800s, the Museum has been collecting diverse materials from all over the world. It reaches out to "exhibition designers, architects, graphic designers, lighting designers, and production designers" that enables the museum to maintain its collection in good conditions. Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started acquiring ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few cuneiform tablets and seals, the museum's collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. Representing a history of the region beginning in the Neolithic Period and encompassing the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the end of Late Antiquity, the collection includes works from the Sumerian, Hittite, Sasanian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Elamite cultures , as well as an extensive collection of unique Bronze Age objects. The highlights of the collection include the Sumerian Stele of Ushumgal, the Elamite silver Kneeling Bull with Vessel, the Pratt Ivories, and a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures, from the Northwest Palace of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II. Islamic art is a part of Islamic culture and encompasses the visual arts produced since the 7th century CE by people who lived within territories inhabited or ruled by Muslim populations. Referring to characteristic traditions across a wide range of lands, periods, and genres, Islamic art is a concept used first by Western art historians in the late 19th century. Public Islamic art is traditionally non-representational, except for the widespread use of plant forms, usually in varieties of the spiralling arabesque. These are often combined with Islamic calligraphy, geometric patterns in styles that are typically found in a wide variety of media, from small objects in ceramic or metalwork to large decorative schemes in tiling on the outside and inside of large buildings, including mosques. Other forms of Islamic art include Islamic miniature painting, artefacts like Islamic glass or pottery, and textile arts, such as carpets and embroidery. The early developments of Islamic art were influenced by Roman art, Early Christian art , and Sassanian art, with later influences from Central Asian nomadic traditions. Chinese art had a significant influence on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles. From its beginnings, Islamic art has been based on the written version of the Quran and other seminal religious works, which is reflected by the important role of calligraphy, representing the word as the medium of divine revelation. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns. In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of human and animal forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, living beings in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs. Both religious and secular art objects often exhibit the same references, styles and forms. These include calligraphy, architecture, textiles and furnishings, such as carpets and woodwork. Secular arts and crafts include the production of textiles, such as clothing, carpets or tents, as well as household objects, made from metal, wood or other materials. Further, figurative miniature paintings have a rich tradition, especially in Persian, Mughal and Ottoman painting. These pictures were often meant to illustrate well-known historical or poetic stories. Some interpretations of Islam, however, include a ban of depiction of animate beings, also known as aniconism. Islamic aniconism stems in part from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the belief that creation of living forms is God's prerogative. In 2022, the museum welcomed 3,208,832 visitors, making it the third-most visited museum in the United States and the eighth-most visited art museum in the world. In 2000, its permanent collection was said to have over two million works; it currently lists a total of 1.5 million objects. The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe. The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 with its mission to bring art and art education to the American people. The museum's permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes paintings, sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries. The Met's permanent collection is curated by seventeen separate departments, each with a specialized staff of curators and scholars, as well as six dedicated conservation departments and a Department of Scientific Research. The permanent collection includes works of art from classical antiquity and ancient Egypt; paintings and sculptures from nearly all the European masters; and an extensive collection of American and modern art. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A great number of period rooms, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Met's galleries. Since the late 1800s, the Museum has been collecting diverse materials from all over the world. It reaches out to "exhibition designers, architects, graphic designers, lighting designers, and production designers" that enables the museum to maintain its collection in good conditions. Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started acquiring ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few cuneiform tablets and seals, the museum's collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. Representing a history of the region beginning in the Neolithic Period and encompassing the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the end of Late Antiquity, the collection includes works from the Sumerian, Hittite, Sasanian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Elamite cultures , as well as an extensive collection of unique Bronze Age objects. The highlights of the collection include the Sumerian Stele of Ushumgal, the Elamite silver Kneeling Bull with Vessel, the Pratt Ivories, and a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures, from the Northwest Palace of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II. The history of Asian art includes a vast range of arts from various cultures, regions, and religions across the continent of Asia. The major regions of Asia include Central, East, South, Southeast, and West Asia. Central Asian art primarily consists of works by the Turkic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe, while East Asian art includes works from China, Japan, and Korea. South Asian art encompasses the arts of the Indian subcontinent, while Southeast Asian art includes the arts of Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar , the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. West Asian art encompasses the arts of the Near East, including the ancient art of Mesopotamia, and more recently becoming dominated by Islamic art. In many ways, the history of art in Asia parallels the development of Western art. The art histories of Asia and Europe are greatly intertwined, with Asian art greatly influencing European art, and vice versa; the cultures mixed through methods such as the Silk Road transmission of art, the cultural exchange of the Age of Discovery and colonization, and through the internet and modern globalization. The first modern human occupation in the difficult climates of Northeast Asia is dated to circa 40,000 ago, with the early Yana culture of northern Siberia dated to circa 31,000 BCE. By around 21,000 BCE, two main cultures developed: the Mal'ta culture and slightly later the Afontova Gora-Oshurkovo culture. </Text>

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McKendry <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> depicts <o> man <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> depicts <o> nude <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> owned by <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> genre <o> portrait miniature <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> owned by <o> John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> owned by <o> Robert Lehman <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> depicts <o> putto <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> described by source <o> Theatrum pictorium <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> creator <o> David Teniers the Younger <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> instance of <o> painting <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> location <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Old Age in Search of Youth <p> made from material <o> oil paint <s> Adam and Eve in Paradise <p> 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paint <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> country of origin <o> Mexico <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> instance of <o> lip plate <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> owned by <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> instance of <o> mechanism <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> culture <o> Aztec <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> made from material <o> gold <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> location <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> instance of <o> goldwork <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> instance of <o> labret <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> main subject <o> serpent <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> instance of <o> sculpture <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> exhibition history <o> Golden Kingdoms <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> main subject <o> Xiuhcoatl <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> depicts <o> serpent <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> depicts <o> Xiuhcoatl <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> fabrication method <o> lost-wax casting <s> Serpent Labret with Articulated Tongue <p> described by source <o> Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Met Museum artworks on display <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> depicts <o> happiness <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> depicts <o> woman <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> depicts <o> dog <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> location of creation <o> Haarlem <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> depicts <o> man <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> depicts <o> hat <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> owned by <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> genre <o> portrait <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> depicts <o> feather <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> creator <o> Frans Hals <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> made from material <o> oil paint <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> location <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> instance of <o> painting <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> made from material <o> canvas <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> owned by <o> Benjamin Altman <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> described by source <o> Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> owned by <o> Duveen Galleries <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> owned by <o> Cornelia Elisabeth Anna de Lange <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> donated by <o> Benjamin Altman <s> Yonker Ramp and his Sweetheart <p> 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instance of <o> painting <s> Portrait of Petrus Scriverius <p> owned by <o> John Waterloo Wilson <s> Portrait of Petrus Scriverius <p> made from material <o> panel <s> Portrait of Petrus Scriverius <p> owned by <o> Eugène Secrétan <s> Portrait of Petrus Scriverius <p> owned by <o> Henry Osborne Havemeyer <s> Portrait of Petrus Scriverius <p> exhibition history <o> Secretan sale 1889 <s> Portrait of Petrus Scriverius <p> described by source <o> Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History <s> Portrait of Petrus Scriverius <p> pendant of <o> Portrait of Anna van der Aar <s> Portrait of Petrus Scriverius <p> depicted format <o> painted oval <s> Portrait of Anna van der Aar <p> location of creation <o> Haarlem <s> Portrait of Anna van der Aar <p> depicts <o> woman <s> Portrait of Anna van der Aar <p> owned by <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Portrait of Anna van der Aar <p> copyright status <o> public domain <s> Portrait of Anna van der Aar <p> collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Portrait 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Morgan <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Philip William, Elector Palatine <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Philip Louis, Count Palatine of Neuburg <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> made from material <o> canvas <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> location <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> instance of <o> painting <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> depicts <o> portrait <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> genre <o> portrait <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> made from material <o> oil paint <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Louis de Talleyrand-Périgord <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Thomas Agnew & Sons <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> owned by <o> Lawrie & Co <s> Portrait of a Man, Said to be Christopher Columbus (born about 1446, died 1506) <p> creator <o> Sebastiano del Piombo </Graph>

<Text> :Portrait of Anna van der Aar is an oil-on-panel painting by the Dutch Golden Age painter Frans Hals, painted in 1626 and now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York. It is considered a pendant portrait to that of her husband, the writer Petrus Scriverius. 225. ANNA VAN DER AAR , wife of Petrus Scriverius. B. 66; M. 73. Half-length; in a painted oval. She is turned three-quarters left. Her right hand is on her bosom. She wears a black dress embroidered with gold, a white cap, and a large ruff. Inscribed in the right centre, "Ao AETAT 50," and below on the painted frame signed with the monogram and the date 1626; panel, 8 1/2 inches by 6 inches. Mentioned by Paul Eudel , L'Hotel Drouot en 1881, p. 72; and see Moes, Iconographia Batava, No. 7. Engraved by Adrien Didier in the Wilson catalogue. The Visit to the Nursery is an oil-on-canvas painting by French artist Jean-Honore Fragonard, created c. 1775, now held in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., which it entered in 1946 as part of the Samuel H. Kress collection. It was previously identified with a work auctioned in a 1780 sale of Fragonard's major client Jean Francois Leroy de Senneville , a fermier general, and then re-auctioned four years later, but a work more closely matching that work's description was rediscovered around 2009 in a collection in Estonia. </Text>

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Volume Vа, 1892 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume VIII, 1892 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume VII, 1892 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume VI, 1892 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IVа, 1891 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume VIIIа, 1893 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume VIIа, 1892 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume IV, 1891 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume VIа, 1892 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXVIIIа, 1903 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XLIа, 1904 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXIX, 1903 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XLI, 1904 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXIXа, 1903 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XLа, 1904 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XL, 1904 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXIV, 1902 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXVа, 1902 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXV, 1902 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXVI, 1902 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXIVа, 1902 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXVIIа, 1903 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXVIа, 1902 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXIIIа, 1901 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXVIII, 1903 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXXVII, 1903 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> author <o> various authors <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> editor <o> Konstantin Arsenyev <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> genre <o> encyclopedic dictionary <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XVIIа, 1896 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXIа, 1897 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXа, 1897 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XVII, 1896 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXI, 1897 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIX, 1896 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XVIIIа, 1896 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XXII, 1897 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XVIII, 1896 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XX, 1897 <s> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <p> has part(s) <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XIXа, 1896 <s> portrait <p> depicts <o> person <s> portrait <p> subclass of <o> image <s> portrait <p> subclass of <o> work <s> portrait <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> portrait <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> portrait <p> instance of <o> art genre <s> portrait <p> described by source <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art Tagging Vocabulary <s> portrait <p> described by source <o> Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia <s> portrait <p> facet of <o> figurative art <s> portrait <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Portraits <s> portrait <p> described by source <o> Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> portrait <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Portrait <s> portrait <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> portrait <p> described by source <o> Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition (1885–1890) <s> portrait <p> practiced by <o> portraitist <s> astronomer <p> category for eponymous categories <o> Category:Wikipedia categories named after astronomers <s> astronomer <p> subclass of <o> scientist <s> astronomer <p> field of this occupation <o> astronomy <s> astronomer <p> instance of <o> profession <s> astronomer <p> described by source <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art Tagging Vocabulary <s> astronomer <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Astronomers <s> astronomer <p> opposite of <o> pseudoastronomer <s> astronomer <p> described by source <o> Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language <s> astronomer <p> described by source <o> Ottův slovník naučný <s> mathematician <p> instance of <o> profession <s> mathematician <p> instance of <o> occupation <s> mathematician <p> properties for this type <o> notable work <s> mathematician <p> properties for this type <o> educated at <s> mathematician <p> properties for this type <o> list of works <s> mathematician <p> field of this occupation <o> mathematics <s> mathematician <p> instance of <o> occupation group according to ISCO-08 <s> mathematician <p> Wikidata property <o> zbMATH author ID <s> mathematician <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/4 <s> mathematician <p> uses <o> mathematical terminology <s> mathematician <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Mathematicians <s> mathematician <p> subclass of <o> scientist <s> mathematician <p> category for eponymous categories <o> Category:Wikipedia categories named after mathematicians <s> mathematician <p> maintained by WikiProject <o> WikiProject Mathematics <s> mathematician <p> has list <o> lists of mathematicians </Graph>

<Text> :The Fuhrermuseum or Fuhrer-Museum , also referred to as the Linz art gallery, was an unrealized art museum within a cultural complex planned by Adolf Hitler for his hometown, the Austrian city of Linz, near his birthplace of Braunau. Its purpose was to display a selection of the art bought, confiscated or stolen by the Nazis from throughout Europe during World War II. The cultural district was to be part of an overall plan to recreate Linz, turning it into a cultural capital of Nazi Germany and one of the greatest art centers of Europe, overshadowing Vienna, for which Hitler had a personal distaste. He wanted to make the city more beautiful than Budapest, so it would be the most beautiful on the Danube River, as well as an industrial powerhouse and a hub of trade; the museum was planned to be one of the greatest in Europe. The expected completion date for the project was 1950, but neither the Fuhrermuseum nor the cultural centre it was to anchor were ever built. The only part of the elaborate plan which was constructed was the Nibelungen Bridge, which is still extant. As early as 1925, Hitler had conceived of a "German National Gallery" to be built in Berlin with himself as director. His plan, drawn out in a sketchbook, may have been influenced by the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum, and consisted of a building with two sections, one with 28 rooms and the other with 32. Hitler denoted which of his favorite 19th-century German artists were to be collected, and in what rooms their work would hang. Among his favorite painters were Hans Makart, Franz Defregger, Eduard Grutzner, Franz von Stuck, Franz von Lenbach, Anselm Feuerbach, Heinrich Zugel and Carl Spitzweg, and he had extolled "Aryan art" by Moritz von Schwind and Arnold Bocklin in Mein Kampf. At one time in his planning he dedicated five of the rooms in the museum to the work of Adolph von Menzel and three rooms to both Schwind and Bocklin. Carl Rottmann, Edouard von Engerth, and Anton von Werner were to share a single room, as were Makart and Karl von Piloty; Wilhelm Trubner and Fritz von Uhde; Grutzner and Defregger; and the artists of the Nazarene movement. Other painters who would enjoy their own room in Hitler's original plans were Peter von Cornelius, Hans von Marees, Bonaventura Genelli, Anselm Feuerbach and Wilhelm Leibl. These choices reflected Hitler's taste at the time, which was a preference for sentimental 19th-century Germanic romantic painters, including "both 'schmaltzy' genre pictures ... heroic, idyllic, allegorical. historical-patriotic themes, the visual equivalent of Wagner, without the genius." It was after the Anschluss with Austria, with the House of German Art in Munich already completed, that Hitler conceived of having his dream museum not in any of the premiere cities in Germany, where it could be overshadowed, but in his "hometown" of Linz in Austria, and discussed his plans with the director of the local Provincial Museum, Theodor Kerschner, while visiting there. The Gallerie dell'Accademia is a museum gallery of pre-19th-century art in Venice, northern Italy. It is housed in the Scuola della Carita on the south bank of the Grand Canal, within the sestiere of Dorsoduro. It was originally the gallery of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia, the art academy of Venice, from which it became independent in 1879, and for which the Ponte dell'Accademia and the Accademia boat landing station for the vaporetto water bus are named. The two institutions remained in the same building until 2004, when the art school moved to the Ospedale degli Incurabili. The Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia was founded on 24 September 1750; the statute dates from 1756. The first director was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta; Gianbattista Tiepolo became the first president after his return from Wurzburg. In 1807 the academy was re-founded by Napoleonic decree. The name was changed from Veneta Academia di Pittura, Scultura e Architettura to Accademia Reale di Belle Arti, "royal academy of fine arts", and the academy was moved to the Palladian complex of the Scuola della Carita, where the Gallerie dell'Accademia are still housed. The collections of the Accademia were first opened to the public on 10 August 1817. The Gallerie dell'Accademia became independent from the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia in 1879. Like other state museums in Italy, it falls under the Ministero per i Beni e le Attivita Culturali, the Italian Ministry of Culture and Heritage. The Palazzo Vecchio is the town hall of Florence, Italy. It overlooks the Piazza della Signoria, which holds a copy of Michelangelo's David statue, and the gallery of statues in the adjacent Loggia dei Lanzi. Originally called the Palazzo della Signoria, after the Signoria of Florence, the ruling body of the Republic of Florence, this building was also known by several other names: Palazzo del Popolo, Palazzo dei Priori, and Palazzo Ducale, in accordance with the varying use of the palace during its long history. The building acquired its current name when the Medici duke's residence was moved across the Arno River to the Palazzo Pitti. In 1299, the commune and people of Florence decided to build a palace that would be worthy of the city's importance, and that would be more secure and defensible in times of turbulence for the magistrates of the commune. Arnolfo di Cambio, the architect of the Duomo and the Santa Croce church, began construction upon the ruins of Palazzo dei Fanti and Palazzo dell'Esecutore di Giustizia, once owned by the Uberti family. Giovanni Villani wrote in his Nuova Cronica that the Uberti were "rebels of Florence and Ghibellines", stating that the palazzo was built to ensure that the Uberti family homes would never be rebuilt on the same location. The cubical building is made of solid rusticated stonework, with two rows of two-lighted Gothic windows, each with a trefoil arch. In the 15th century, Michelozzo di Bartolomeo Michelozzi added decorative bas-reliefs of the cross and the Florentine lily in the spandrels between the trefoils. The building is crowned with projecting crenellated battlements, supported by small arches and corbels. Under the arches are a repeated series of nine painted coats of arms of the Florentine republic. Some of these arches can be used as embrasures for dropping heated liquids or rocks on invaders. The Princes Czartoryski Museum - often abbreviated to Czartoryski Museum - is a historic museum in Krakow, Poland, and one of the country's oldest museums. The initial collection was formed in 1796 in Pulawy by Princess Izabela Czartoryska. The Museum officially opened in 1878. The Pulawy collection was partly destroyed after the November 1830 Uprising and the confiscation of the Czartoryski properties. Most of the Museum holdings, however, were saved and moved to Paris, where they reposed at the Hotel Lambert. In 1870 Prince Wladyslaw Czartoryski decided to move the collections to Krakow, where they arrived in 1876. The most renowned painting at the Museum is one of Leonardo da Vinci's best-known works, the Lady with an Ermine. Other highlights include two works by Rembrandt; several antiquities, including sculptures; Renaissance tapestries and decorative arts; and paintings by Hans Holbein the Younger, Jacob Jordaens, Luca Giordano, Pieter Brueghel the Younger, Dieric Bouts, Joos van Cleve, Lorenzo Lotto, Lucas Cranach the Younger, Lorenzo Monaco, Andrea Mantegna, Alessandro Magnasco, and the Master of the Female Half-Lengths. Princess Izabela Czartoryska founded the museum in Pulawy to preserve Polish heritage in keeping with her motto, "The Past to the Future." The first objects in her "Temple of Memory" of 1796 were trophies commemorating the victory against the Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. The NGV houses an encyclopedic art collection across two sites: NGV International, located on St Kilda Road in the Melbourne Arts Precinct of Southbank, and the Ian Potter Centre: NGV Australia, located nearby at Federation Square. The NGV International building, designed by Sir Roy Grounds, opened in 1968, and was redeveloped by Mario Bellini before reopening in 2003. It houses the gallery's international art collection and is on the Victorian Heritage Register. In 1850, the Port Phillip District of New South Wales was granted separation, officially becoming the colony of Victoria on 1 July 1851. In the wake of a gold rush the following month, Victoria emerged as Australia's richest colony, and Melbourne, its capital, Australia's largest and wealthiest city. With Melbourne's rapid growth came calls for the establishment of a public art gallery, and in 1859, the Government of Victoria pledged PS2000 for the acquisition of plaster casts of sculpture. These works were displayed in the Museum of Art, opened by Governor Sir Henry Barkly in May 1861 on the lower floor of the south wing of the public Library on Swanston Street. Further money was set aside in the early 1860s for the purchase of original paintings by British and Victorian artists. These works were first displayed in December 1864 in the newly opened Picture Gallery, which remained under the curatorial administration of the Public Library until 1882. Grand designs for a building fronting Lonsdale and Swanston streets were drawn by Nicholas Chevalier in 1860 and Frederick Grosse in 1865, featuring an enormous and elaborate library and gallery, but these visions were never realised. On 24 May 1874, the first purpose-built gallery, known as the McArthur Gallery, opened in the McArthur room of the State Library, and the following year, the Museum of Art was renamed the National Gallery of Victoria. The McArthur Gallery was only ever intended as a temporary home until the much grander vision was to be realised. However such an edifice did not eventuate and the complex was instead developed incrementally over several decades. The National Gallery of Victoria Art School, associated with the gallery, was founded in 1867 and remained the leading centre for academic art training in Australia until about 1910. The School's graduates went on to become some of Australia's most significant artists. This later became the VCA , which was bought by The University of Melbourne in 2007 after it went bankrupt. The Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopaedic Dictionary is a comprehensive multi-volume encyclopaedia in Russian. It contains 121,240 articles, 7,800 images, and 235 maps. It was published in the Russian Empire in 1890-1907, as a joint venture of Leipzig and St Petersburg publishers. The articles were written by the prominent Russian scholars of the period, such as Dmitri Mendeleev and Vladimir Solovyov. Reprints have appeared following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In 1889, the owner of one of the St. Petersburg printing houses, Ilya Abramovich Efron, at the initiative of Semyon Afanasyevich Vengerov, entered into an agreement with the German publishing house F. A. Brockhaus for the translation into Russian of the large German encyclopaedic dictionary into Russian as Entsiklopedicheskii slovar' Brokgauza i Efrona, published by the same publishing house. Initially, it was supposed to be limited to the translation of this publication, but only with a more detailed presentation of issues related to Russia. It was supposed to release only 16-18 volumes. The first eight volumes , published under the general editorship of Professor Ivan Efimovich Andreevsky, were almost literal translation with a slight adaptation for the Russian reader. These volumes caused a lot of complaints about the quality of the translation, and the overall management of the publication also left much to be desired. So, the journal "Northern Herald" noted: "There are too many significant shortcomings. There is too little effort, love, and, what is stranger, not enough impressive edition, both literary and purely scholarly!" , and the journal "Historical Bulletin" added to this that the Encyclopaedic Dictionary was "carelessly and unsatisfactorily compiled. The very language of the articles is heavy and in places wrong. The translation is immediately visible, and it is far from a professorial one, but a gymnasium, awkward, literal" . After the death of Professor Ivan Andreevsky, the editorial office was headed by Academician Konstantin Konstantinovich Arseniev and Professor of St. Petersburg University Fyodor Fomich Petrushevsky, which marked a new period in the encyclopaedia's history. Starting from the 9th volume, the translated material fades into the background, there is much more factual and statistical material. Particular attention is paid to geographical articles, the editorial states: "Russian cities are located absolutely everything, with the addition of more townships, villages and villages with over 3 thousand inhabitants or deserving attention." A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expressions are predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person. For this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, to most successfully engage the subject with the viewer. Plastered human skulls were reconstructed human skulls that were made in the ancient Levant between 9000 and 6000 BC in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period. They represent some of the oldest forms of art in the Middle East and demonstrate that the prehistoric population took great care in burying their ancestors below their homes. The skulls denote some of the earliest sculptural examples of portraiture in the history of art. Most early representations that are clearly intended to show an individual are of rulers, and tend to follow idealizing artistic conventions, rather than the individual features of the subject's body, though when there is no other evidence as to the ruler's appearance the degree of idealization can be hard to assess. Nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumer between c. 2144-2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality, although it is sometimes disputed that these count as portraits. Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypt's Faiyum district. These are almost the only paintings from the classical world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures and portraits on coins have fared better. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, and all show relatively young people, making it uncertain whether they were painted from life. An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies - in either observational or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole. Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The American Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond. A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change. One of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus ; he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales's theorem. The number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean school, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was "All is number". It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term "mathematics", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins. The first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria . She succeeded her father as librarian at the Great Library and wrote many works on applied mathematics. Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells . </Text>

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MET 64.101.1409 <p> owned by <o> Irwin Untermyer <s> Mandora (ca.1420) from Milan?, Italy. MET 64.101.1409 <p> owned by <o> Oscar Bondy <s> Mandora (ca.1420) from Milan?, Italy. MET 64.101.1409 <p> owned by <o> Albert Figdor <s> Mandora (ca.1420) from Milan?, Italy. MET 64.101.1409 <p> owned by <o> E. de Miller-Aichholz <s> Mandora (ca.1420) from Milan?, Italy. MET 64.101.1409 <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Met Museum artworks on display <s> Mandora (ca.1420) from Milan?, Italy. 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<Text> :Alexander Hamilton was an American military officer, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795 during George Washington's presidency. Born out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis, Hamilton was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. He pursued his education in New York City where, despite his young age, he was a prolific and widely read pamphleteer advocating for the American revolutionary cause, though an anonymous one. He then served as an artillery officer in the American Revolutionary War, where he saw military action against the British in the New York and New Jersey campaign, served for years as an aide to General George Washington, and helped secure American victory at the climactic Siege of Yorktown. After the Revolutionary War, Hamilton served as a delegate from New York to the Congress of the Confederation in Philadelphia. He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York. In 1786, Hamilton led the Annapolis Convention to replace the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States, which he helped ratify by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers. As a trusted member of President Washington's first cabinet, Hamilton served as the first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury. He envisioned a central government led by an energetic president, a strong national defense, and an industrial economy. He successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, assume the states' debts, and create the First Bank of the United States, which was funded by a tariff on imports and a whiskey tax. He opposed American entanglement with the succession of unstable French Revolutionary governments and advocated in support of the Jay Treaty under which the U.S. resumed friendly trade relations with the British Empire. He also persuaded Congress to establish the Revenue Cutter Service. Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party, which was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton and other Federalists supported the Haitian Revolution, and Hamilton helped draft the constitution of Haiti. After resigning as Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton resumed his legal and business activities. He was a leader in the abolition of the international slave trade. In the Quasi-War, Hamilton called for mobilization against France, and President John Adams appointed him major general. The army, however, did not see combat. Outraged by Adams' response to the crisis, Hamilton opposed his reelection campaign. Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college and, despite philosophical differences, Hamilton endorsed Jefferson over Burr, whom he found unprincipled. When Burr ran for governor of New York in 1804, Hamilton again campaigned against him, arguing that he was unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. In the July 11, 1804, duel in Weehawken, New Jersey, Burr shot Hamilton in the stomach. Hamilton was immediately transported to the home of William Bayard Jr. in Greenwich Village for medical attention, but succumbed to his wounds the following day. The Portrait of a Lady is a novel by Henry James, first published as a serial in The Atlantic Monthly and Macmillan's Magazine in 1880-81 and then as a book in 1881. It is one of James's most popular novels and is regarded by critics as one of his finest. The Portrait of a Lady is the story of a spirited young American woman, Isabel Archer, who, "affronting her destiny," finds it overwhelming. She inherits a large amount of money and subsequently becomes the victim of Machiavellian scheming by two American expatriates. Like many of James's novels, it is set in Europe, mostly England and Italy. Generally regarded as the masterpiece of James's early period, this novel reflects James's continuing interest in the differences between the New World and the Old, often to the detriment of the former. It also treats in a profound way the themes of personal freedom, responsibility, and betrayal. Isabel Archer, from Albany, New York, is invited by her maternal aunt, Lydia Touchett, to visit Lydia's rich husband, Daniel, at his estate near London, following the death of Isabel's father. There, Isabel meets her uncle, her friendly invalid cousin Ralph Touchett, and the Touchetts' robust neighbor, Lord Warburton. Isabel later declines Warburton's sudden proposal of marriage. She also rejects the hand of Caspar Goodwood, the charismatic son and heir of a wealthy Boston mill owner. Although Isabel is drawn to Caspar, her commitment to her independence precludes such a marriage, which she feels would demand the sacrifice of her freedom. </Text>

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<Text> :In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture. In 2017, it was named as the European Capital of Gastronomy, included in the Eastern Lombardy District . In 2008, Mantua's centro storico and Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site. Mantua's historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family has made it one of the main artistic, cultural, and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy and the country as a whole. Having one of the most splendid courts of Europe of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and early seventeenth centuries. Mantua is noted for its significant role in the history of opera; the city is also known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces, and the medieval and Renaissance cityscape. It is the city where the composer Monteverdi premiered his opera L'Orfeo and to where Romeo was banished in Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. It is the nearest town to the birthplace of the Roman poet Virgil, who is commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park "Piazza Virgiliana". Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes, created during the 12th century as the city's defence system. These lakes receive water from the River Mincio, a tributary of the River Po which descends from Lake Garda. The three lakes are called Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore . A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which once served as a defensive water ring around the city, dried up at the end of the 18th century. The area and its environs are important not only in naturalistic terms, but also anthropologically and historically; research has highlighted a number of human settlements scattered between Barche di Solferino and Bande di Cavriana, Castellaro and Isolone del Mincio. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times to the Bronze Age and the Gallic phases , and ended with Roman residential settlements, which could be traced to the 3rd century AD. The Armor of Emperor Ferdinand I is a suit of plate armor created by the Nuremberg armorer Kunz Lochner in 1549 for the future Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor. One of several suits of armor made for the Emperor Ferdinand during the wars of Reformation and conflict with the Ottomans, the etched but functional armor is thought by scholars to symbolize and document the role of the Habsburg Catholic monarchs as warriors on Europe's literal and ideological battlefields. The armor is dominated by etched symbolism of the Madonna and Child as Woman of the Apocalypse atop a crescent moon on the breastplate, echoing the design on an armor of his brother Charles V at the Royal Armoury of Madrid. On the backplate, a fire-steel , a Burgundian emblem originated by Philip the Good, sits at a saltire of crossed branches under Saints Peter and Paul in architectural settings. In function, it is a working piece of field armor intended for military use, rather than parade armor, and the etching technique allowed elaboration and complexity in its design, without diminishing the defensive capabilities of the piece. Ferdinand's then-status as King of the Romans is symbolized by a crowned doubled-headed Reichsadler eagle on the toe caps of the sabatons covering his feet. Richard Morris Hunt was an American architect of the nineteenth century and an eminent figure in the history of architecture of the United States. He helped shape New York City with his designs for the 1902 entrance facade and Great Hall of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty , and many Fifth Avenue mansions since destroyed. Hunt is also renowned for his Biltmore Estate, America's largest private house, near Asheville, North Carolina, and for his elaborate summer cottages in Newport, Rhode Island, which set a new standard of ostentation for the social elite and the newly minted millionaires of the Gilded Age. Hunt was born at Brattleboro, Vermont into the prominent Hunt family. His father, Jonathan Hunt, was a lawyer and U.S. congressman, whose own father, Jonathan Hunt, senior, was lieutenant governor of Vermont. Hunt's mother, Jane Maria Leavitt, was the daughter of Thaddeus Leavitt, Jr., a merchant, and a member of the influential Leavitt family of Suffield, Connecticut. Richard Morris Hunt was named for Lieut. Richard Morris, an officer in the U.S. Navy, a son of Hunt's aunt, whose husband Lewis Richard Morris was a U.S. Congressman from Vermont and the nephew of Gouverneur Morris, author of large parts of the U.S. Constitution. Hunt was the brother of the Boston painter William Morris Hunt, and the photographer and lawyer Leavitt Hunt. McKim, Mead & White was an American architectural firm based in New York City. The firm came to define architectural practice, urbanism, and the ideals of the American Renaissance in fin de siecle New York City. The firm's founding partners, Charles Follen McKim , William Rutherford Mead , and Stanford White , were giants in the architecture of their time, and remain important as innovators and leaders in the development of modern architecture worldwide. They formed a school of classically trained, technologically skilled designers who practiced well into the mid-20th century. According to Robert A. M. Stern, only Frank Lloyd Wright was more important to the identity and character of modern American architecture. Elsewhere in New York state and New England, the firm designed college, library, school and other buildings such as the Boston Public Library, Walker Art Building at Bowdoin College, the Garden City campus of Adelphi University, and the Rhode Island State House. In Washington, D.C., the firm renovated the West and East Wings of the White House, and designed Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair and the National Museum of American History. Across the United States, the firm designed buildings in Illinois, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, and Wisconsin. Outside of the United States, the firm developed buildings in Canada, Cuba, and Italy. The scope and breadth of their achievement is notable, considering that many of the technologies and strategies they employed were nascent or non-existent when they began working in the 1880s. </Text>

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<Text> :The Met Fifth Avenue is the primary museum building for the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The building is located at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park in Manhattan's Upper East Side. After negotiations with the City of New York in 1871, the Met was granted the land between the East Park Drive, Fifth Avenue, and the 79th and 85th Street transverse roads in Central Park. A red-brick and stone building was designed by American architect Calvert Vaux and his collaborator Jacob Wrey Mould. Vaux's ambitious building was not well received; the building was dubbed by critics as a "mausoleum", its High Victorian Gothic style was already considered dated prior to completion, and the president of the Met termed the project "a mistake". Within 20 years, a new architectural plan engulfing the Vaux building was already being executed. Since that time, many additions have been made, including the distinctive Beaux-Arts Fifth Avenue facade, Great Hall, and Grand Stairway. These were designed by architect and Met trustee Richard Morris Hunt, but completed by his son, Richard Howland Hunt in 1902 after his father's death. The architectural sculpture on the facade is by Karl Bitter. The wings that completed the Fifth Avenue facade in the 1910s were designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. The modernistic glass sides and rear of the museum are the work of Roche-Dinkeloo. Kevin Roche was the architect for the master plan and expansion of the museum for over 40 years. He was responsible for designing all of its new wings and renovations including but not limited to the American Wing, Greek and Roman Court, and recently opened Islamic Wing. This template's initial visibility currently defaults to autocollapse, meaning that if there is another collapsible item on the page , it is hidden apart from its title bar; if not, it is fully visible. The Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art is the director of the museum. The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the United States. With 6,953,927 visitors to its three locations in 2018, it was the third most visited art museum in the world. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The director, currently Max Hollein, is responsible for acting as a "curator, lawyer and diplomat", according to The Wall Street Journal. They produce around 40 exhibits at the museum a year, manage the museums' approximately 2,200 employees, and oversee the collection and curatorial departments. The Director currently reports to Daniel H. Weiss, President and CEO of the Museum. The director typically has had a large degree of autonomy in operation, with Philippe de Montebello refusing to report to then president and CEO William Macomber in 1977. It has generally been the highest-ranking official in the museum's leadership, with the director serving as president. On June 13, 2017, the Met announced the reestablishment of a separate museum president, higher than the director. Past directors have historically been prominent figures in the art world. Past directors include: United States consul at Larnaca in Cyprus and Medal of Honor recipient Luigi Palma di Cesnola, Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke, secretary of the Art Commission of Boston and director of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts Edward Robinson, Parks Commissioner of New York City Thomas Hoving, and director of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco Max Hollein. </Text>

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<Text> :The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday. The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as "Holy Communion" or "The Lord's Supper". The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday. During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him. The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying "This is my body given to you". The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles, giving the new commandment "to love one another as I have loved you", and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings "friends and not servants", as he prepares them for his departure. Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions. Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday. The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as "Holy Communion" or "The Lord's Supper". The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday. During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him. The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying "This is my body given to you". The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles, giving the new commandment "to love one another as I have loved you", and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings "friends and not servants", as he prepares them for his departure. Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions. Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday. The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as "Holy Communion" or "The Lord's Supper". The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday. During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him. The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying "This is my body given to you". The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles, giving the new commandment "to love one another as I have loved you", and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings "friends and not servants", as he prepares them for his departure. Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions. Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday. The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as "Holy Communion" or "The Lord's Supper". The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday. During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him. The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying "This is my body given to you". The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles, giving the new commandment "to love one another as I have loved you", and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings "friends and not servants", as he prepares them for his departure. Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions. Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. Jesus , also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many other names and titles, was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the central figure of Christianity, the world's largest religion. Most Christians believe Jesus to be the incarnation of God the Son and the awaited messiah, the Christ that is prophesied in the Old Testament. Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically. Accounts of Jesus' life are contained in the Gospels, especially the four canonical Gospels in the New Testament. Academic research has yielded various views on the historical reliability of the Gospels and how closely they reflect the historical Jesus. Jesus was circumcised at eight days old, was baptized by John the Baptist as a young adult, and after 40 days and nights of fasting in the wilderness, began his own ministry. Being an itinerant teacher, he was often referred to as "rabbi". Jesus often debated with fellow Jews on how to best follow God, engaged in healings, taught in parables, and gathered followers, among whom twelve were his primary disciples. He was arrested in Jerusalem and tried by the Jewish authorities, turned over to the Roman government, and crucified on the order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judea. After his death, his followers became convinced that he rose from the dead, and following his ascension, the community they formed eventually became the early Christian Church that expanded as a worldwide movement. Accounts of his teachings and life were initially conserved by oral transmission, which was the source of the written Gospels. Christian theology includes the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, founded the Christian Church, died by crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement for sin, rose from the dead, and ascended into Heaven, from where he will return. Commonly, Christians believe Jesus enables people to be reconciled to God. The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the living and the dead, either before or after their bodily resurrection, an event tied to the Second Coming of Jesus in Christian eschatology. The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three prosopons of the Trinity. The birth of Jesus is celebrated annually, generally on 25 December, as Christmas. His crucifixion is honoured on Good Friday and his resurrection on Easter Sunday. The world's most widely used calendar era--in which the current year is AD 2024 --is based on the approximate birthdate of Jesus. Jesus is also revered in Islam, the Baha'i Faith, and the Druze Faith. In Islam, Jesus is considered the penultimate prophet of God and the messiah, who will return before the Day of Judgement. Muslims believe Jesus was born of the virgin Mary but was neither God nor a son of God. Most Muslims do not believe that he was killed or crucified but that God raised him into Heaven while he was still alive. In contrast, Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill messianic prophecies, was not lawfully anointed and was neither divine nor resurrected. Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit. Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruits and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Though wine can be made from a variety of fruit crops such as plum, cherry, pomegranate, blueberry, currant and elderberry, it is most often made from grapes, and the term "wine" generally refers to grape wine when used without a qualifier. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the grape's growing environment , and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the present-day Georgia , Persia , Italy and Armenia . New World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by the indigenous peoples of the Americas, but is mainly connected to later Spanish traditions in New Spain. Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions. Today, based on statistics gathered by the International Organisation of Vine and Wine in 2022 the top five wine producing countries are Italy, France, Spain, the United States and Australia. Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia; Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush, and Christianity in the Eucharist. Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, Spain, and France have heritages in connection to sacramental wine, likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced wines in New Mexico and California. Fresco-secco is a wall painting technique where pigments mixed with an organic binder and/or lime are applied onto dry plaster. The paints used can e.g. be casein paint, tempera, oil paint, silicate mineral paint. If the pigments are mixed with lime water or lime milk and applied to a dry plaster the technique is called lime secco painting. The secco technique contrasts with the fresco technique, where the painting is executed on a layer of wet plaster. Because the pigments do not become part of the wall, as in buon fresco, fresco-secco paintings are less durable. The colors may flake off the painting as time goes by, but this technique has the advantages of a longer working time and retouchability. In Italy, the fresco technique was reintroduced around 1300 and led to an increase in the general quality of mural painting. This technological change coincided with the realistic turn in Western art and the changing liturgical use of murals. The treatise Silparatna by Kumaradeva gives an account of the fresco-secco painting technology in detail. According to this text, a picture should be painted with appropriate colours, along with proper forms and sentiments , and moods and actions . White, yellow, red, black and terre verte are pointed out in the text as pure colors. Different shades were also prepared from these original colors. Five types of brushes with various shapes and sizes made of animal hair and grass fibre are also recommended. Specialist painters and decorators still use this technique to great effect in the world of interior design e.g. faux marble. Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diet. It is one of the oldest human-made foods, having been of significance since the dawn of agriculture, and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture. Bread may be leavened by naturally occurring microbes , chemicals , industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration, which creates the gas bubbles that fluff up bread. In many countries, commercial bread often contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, nutrition, and ease of production. Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe and Australia revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked into a primitive form of flatbread. The oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in a 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally. An early leavened bread was baked as early as 6000 BC in southern Mesopotamia, cradle of the Sumerian civilization, who may have passed on the knowledge to the Egyptians around 3000 BC. The Egyptians refined the process and started adding yeast to the flour. The Sumerians were already using ash to supplement the dough as it was baked. Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.4 billion followers, comprising around 31.2% of the world population. Its adherents, known as Christians, are estimated to make up a majority of the population in 157 countries and territories. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible and chronicled in the New Testament. Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, and doctrinally diverse concerning justification and the nature of salvation, ecclesiology, ordination, and Christology. The creeds of various Christian denominations generally hold in common Jesus as the Son of God--the Logos incarnated--who ministered, suffered, and died on a cross, but rose from the dead for the salvation of humankind; and referred to as the gospel, meaning the "good news". The four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John describe Jesus's life and teachings, with the Old Testament as the gospels' respected background. Christianity began in the 1st century after the birth of Jesus as a Judaic sect with Hellenistic influence, in the Roman province of Judea. The disciples of Jesus spread their faith around the Eastern Mediterranean area, despite significant persecution. The inclusion of Gentiles led Christianity to slowly separate from Judaism . Emperor Constantine I decriminalized Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan , later convening the Council of Nicaea where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the state religion of the Roman Empire . The Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy both split over differences in Christology , while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East-West Schism . Protestantism split into numerous denominations from the Catholic Church in the Reformation era . Following the Age of Discovery , Christianity expanded throughout the world via missionary work, extensive trade and colonialism. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization, particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages. The six major branches of Christianity are Roman Catholicism , Protestantism , Eastern Orthodoxy , Oriental Orthodoxy , Restorationism , and the Church of the East . Smaller church communities number in the thousands despite efforts toward unity . In the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a decline in adherence, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. Christianity is growing in Africa and Asia, the world's most populous continents. Christians remain greatly persecuted in many regions of the world, particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, East Asia, and South Asia. </Text>

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<Text> :Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromosome from the father. Sex differentiation of the male fetus is governed by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, thus exhibiting greater differences between the sexes. These include greater muscle mass, the growth of facial hair and a lower body fat composition. Male anatomy is distinguished from female anatomy by the male reproductive system, which includes the penis, scrotum, testicles, sperm duct, prostate gland and the epididymis, and by secondary sex characteristics, including a narrower pelvis, narrower hips, and smaller breasts. Throughout human history, traditional gender roles have often defined and limited men's activities and opportunities. Men often face conscription into military service or are directed into professions with high mortality rates. Many religious doctrines stipulate certain rules for men, such as religious circumcision. Men are over-represented as both perpetrators and victims of violence. The English term "man" is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *man- . More directly, the word derives from Old English mann. The Old English form primarily meant "person" or "human being" and referred to men, women, and children alike. The Old English word for "man" as distinct from "woman" or "child" was wer. Mann only came to mean "man" in Middle English, replacing wer, which survives today only in the compounds "werewolf" , and "wergild", literally "man-payment". In humans, sperm cells carry either an X or a Y sex chromosome. If a sperm cell carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes the female ovum, the offspring will have a male karyotype . The SRY gene is typically found on the Y chromosome and causes the development of the testes, which in turn govern other aspects of male sex differentiation. Sex differentiation in males proceeds in a testes-dependent way while female differentiation is not gonad dependent. Simon the Zealot or Simon the Canaanite or Simon the Canaanean was one of the most obscure among the apostles of Jesus. A few pseudepigraphical writings were connected to him, but Jerome does not include him in De viris illustribus written between 392 and 393 AD. Simon, and Andrew his brother, James and John, Philip and Bartholomew, Matthew and Thomas, James the son of Alphaeus, and Simon called Zelotes, And Judas the brother of James, and Judas Iscariot, which also was the traitor. To distinguish him from Simon Peter, he is given a surname in all three of the Synoptic Gospels where he is mentioned. Simon is called "Zelotes" in Luke and Acts . For this reason, it is generally assumed that Simon was a former member of the political party, the Zealots. In Matthew and Mark, however, he is called "Kananites" in the Byzantine majority and "Kananaios" in the Alexandrian manuscripts and the Textus Receptus . Both Kananaios and Kananites derive from the Hebrew word qnAy qanai, meaning zealous, so most scholars today generally translate the two words to mean "Zealot". However, Jerome and others, such as Bede, suggested that the word "Kananaios" or "Kananite" should be translated as "Canaanean" or "Canaanite", meaning that Simon was from the town of qnh Cana in Galilee. If this is the case, his epithet would have been "Kanaios". Robert Eisenman has argued that contemporary talmudic references to Zealots refer to them as kanna'im "but not really as a group--rather as avenging priests in the Temple". Eisenman's broader conclusions, that the zealot element in the original apostle group was disguised and overwritten to make it support the assimilative Pauline Christianity of the Gentiles, are more controversial. John P. Meier argues that the term "Zealot" is a mistranslation and in the context of the Gospels means "zealous" or "religious" , as the Zealot movement apparently did not exist until 30 to 40 years after the events of the Gospels. However, neither Brandon nor Hengel support this view. A knife is a tool or weapon with a cutting edge or blade, usually attached to a handle or hilt. One of the earliest tools used by humanity, knives appeared at least 2.5 million years ago, as evidenced by the Oldowan tools. Originally made of wood, bone, and stone , over the centuries, in step with improvements in both metallurgy and manufacturing, knife blades have been made from copper, bronze, iron, steel, ceramic, and titanium. Most modern knives have either fixed or folding blades; blade patterns and styles vary by maker and country of origin. Knives can serve various purposes. Hunters use a hunting knife, soldiers use the combat knife, scouts, campers, and hikers carry a pocketknife; there are kitchen knives for preparing foods , table knife , weapons , knives for throwing or juggling, and knives for religious ceremony or display . The blade edge can be plain or serrated, or a combination of both. Single-edged knives may have a reverse edge or false edge occupying a section of the spine. These edges are usually serrated and are used to further enhance function. The handle, used to grip and manipulate the blade safely, may include a tang, a portion of the blade that extends into the handle. Knives are made with partial tangs or full tangs . There is also the entercado construction method present in antique knives from Brazil, such as the Sorocaban Knife, which consists in riveting a repurposed blade to the ricasso of a bladeless handle. The handle may include a bolster, a piece of heavy material situated at the front or rear of the handle. The bolster, as its name suggests, is used to mechanically strengthen the knife. Matthew the Apostle is named in the New Testament as one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. According to Christian traditions, he was also one of the four Evangelists as author of the Gospel of Matthew, and thus is also known as Matthew the Evangelist. The claim of his gospel authorship is rejected by most biblical scholars, though the "traditional authorship still has its defenders." The New Testament records that as a disciple, he followed Jesus. Church Fathers such as Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria claim that Matthew preached the gospel to the Jewish community in Judea, before going to other countries. Matthew is mentioned in Matthew 9:9 and Matthew 10:3 as a tax collector who, while sitting at the "receipt of custom" in Capernaum, was called to follow Jesus. He is also listed among the Twelve Disciples, but without identification of his background, in Mark 3:18, Luke 6:15 and Acts 1:13. In passages parallel to Matthew 9:9, both Mark 2:14 and Luke 5:27 describe Jesus's calling of the tax collector Levi, the son of Alphaeus. However, they do not explicitly associate it with the name Matthew. The New Testament records that as a disciple, Matthew followed Jesus. Afterward, the disciples withdrew to an upper room in Jerusalem. The disciples remained in and about Jerusalem and proclaimed that Jesus was the promised Messiah. Jude was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. He is generally identified as Thaddeus and is also variously called Judas Thaddaeus, Jude Thaddaeus, Jude of James, or Lebbaeus. He is sometimes identified with Jude, the brother of Jesus, but is clearly distinguished from Judas Iscariot, the disciple who betrayed Jesus prior to his crucifixion. Catholic writer Michal Hunt suggests that Judas Thaddaeus became known as Jude after early translators of the New Testament from Greek into English sought to distinguish him from Judas Iscariot and subsequently abbreviated his forename. Most versions of the New Testament in languages other than English and French refer to Judas and Jude by the same name. Jude is commonly depicted with a club. He is also often shown in icons with a flame around his head. This represents his presence at Pentecost, when he received the Holy Spirit with the other apostles. Another common attribute is Jude holding an image of Jesus, known as the Image of Edessa. In some instances, he may be shown with a scroll or a book or holding a carpenter's rule. Jude is clearly distinguished from Judas Iscariot, another apostle and later the betrayer of Jesus. Both Jude and Judas are translations of the name Ioudas in the Koine Greek original text of the New Testament, which in turn is a Greek variant of Judah , a name which was common among Jews at the time. In most Bibles in languages other than English and French, Jude and Judas are referred to by the same name. Translations into English from the original Greek of the New Testament vary in their rendering of Luke 6:16 and Acts 1:13. A literal translation of the references to Jude in these passages gives "Jude of James" , as in Young's Literal Translation of the Bible, but scholars differ on whether this means "Jude, brother of James" or "Jude, son of James". The King James and the Douay-Rheims versions call him "Judas the brother of James", making him the same person as the writer of the Epistle of Jude, who identifies himself as "Jude, the servant of Jesus Christ, and brother of James" . A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof, or vehicle that allows the exchange of light and may also allow the passage of sound and sometimes air. Modern windows are usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent material, a sash set in a frame in the opening; the sash and frame are also referred to as a window. Many glazed windows may be opened, to allow ventilation, or closed, to exclude inclement weather. Windows may have a latch or similar mechanism to lock the window shut or to hold it open by various amounts. In addition to this, many modern day windows may have a window screen or mesh, often made of aluminum or fibreglass, to keep bugs out when the window is opened. Windows are primarily designed to facilitate a vital connection with the outdoors, offering those within the confines of the building visual access to the everchanging events occurring outside. The provision of this connection serves as an integral safeguard for the health and well-being of those inhabiting buildings, lest they experience the detrimental effects of enclosed buildings devoid of windows. Among the myriad criteria for the design of windows, several pivotal criteria have emerged in daylight standards: location, time, weather, nature, and people. Of these criteria, windows that are designed to provide views of nature are considered to be the most important by people. Types include the eyebrow window, fixed windows, hexagonal windows, single-hung, and double-hung sash windows, horizontal sliding sash windows, casement windows, awning windows, hopper windows, tilt, and slide windows , tilt and turn windows, transom windows, sidelight windows, jalousie or louvered windows, clerestory windows, lancet windows, skylights, roof windows, roof lanterns, bay windows, oriel windows, thermal, or Diocletian, windows, picture windows, Rose windows, emergency exit windows, stained glass windows, French windows, panel windows, double/triple-paned windows, and witch windows. The Romans were the first known to use glass for windows, a technology likely first produced in Roman Egypt, in Alexandria c. 100 AD. Presentations of windows can be seen in ancient Egyptian wall art and sculptures from Assyria. Paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient China, Korea, and Japan. In England, glass became common in the windows of ordinary homes only in the early 17th century whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century. In the 19th century American west, greased paper windows came to be used by pioneering settlers. Modern-style floor-to-ceiling windows became possible only after the industrial plate glass making processes were fully perfected. Andrew the Apostle , also called Saint Andrew, was an apostle of Jesus. According to the New Testament, he was a fisherman and one of the Twelve Apostles chosen by Jesus. The title First-Called stems from the Gospel of John, where Andrew, initially a disciple of John the Baptist, follows Jesus and, recognizing him as the Messiah, introduces his brother Simon Peter to him. The name "Andrew" , like other Greek names, appears to have been common among the Jews and other Hellenized people since the second or third century B.C. No Hebrew or Aramaic name is recorded for him. Andrew the Apostle was born between 5 and 10 AD in Bethsaida, in Galilee. The New Testament states that Andrew was the brother of Simon Peter, and likewise a son of Jonah. "The first striking characteristic of Andrew is his name: it is not Hebrew, as might have been expected, but Greek, indicative of a certain cultural openness in his family that cannot be ignored. We are in Galilee, where the Greek language and culture are quite present." Both he and his brother Peter were fishermen by trade and also Simon Peter who became a "fisher of men", hence the tradition that Jesus called them to be his disciples by saying that he will make them "fishers of men" . According to Mark 1:29, at the beginning of Jesus' public life, they occupied the same house at Capernaum. Philip the Apostle was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Later Christian traditions describe Philip as the apostle who preached in Greece, Syria, and Asia-Minor. In the Roman Rite, the feast day of Philip, along with that of James the Less, was traditionally observed on 1 May, the anniversary of the dedication of the church dedicated to them in Rome . In the short-lived calendar reform of 1960, it was transferred to 11 May, but since 1969 it has been assigned to 3 May. The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Philip's feast day on 14 November. The Synoptic Gospels list Philip as one of the apostles. The Gospel of John recounts Philip's calling as a disciple of Jesus. Philip is described as a disciple from the city of Bethsaida, and the evangelist connects him with Andrew and Peter, who were from the same town. He also was among those surrounding John the Baptist when the latter first pointed out Jesus as the Lamb of God. It was Philip who first introduced Nathanael to Jesus. According to Butler, Philip was among those attending the wedding at Cana. Of the four Gospels, Philip figures most prominently in the Gospel of John. Jesus tests Philip when he asks him how to feed the 5,000 people. Later he appears as a link to the Greek community. Philip bore a Greek name, could likely speak Greek, and may have been known to the Greek pilgrims in Jerusalem. He advises Andrew that certain Greeks wish to meet Jesus, and together they inform Jesus of this . During the Last Supper, when Philip asked Jesus to show them the Father, he provides Jesus the opportunity to teach his disciples about the unity of the Father and the Son. Thomas the Apostle , also known as Didymus , was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Thomas is commonly known as "Doubting Thomas" because he initially doubted the resurrection of Jesus Christ when he was told of it ; he later confessed his faith on seeing the wounds left over from the crucifixion. According to traditional accounts of the Saint Thomas Christians of modern-day states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in India, Saint Thomas travelled outside the Roman Empire to preach the Gospel, travelling as far as the Mylapore in South India and reached Muziris in AD 52. In 1258, some of the relics were brought to Ortona, in Abruzzo, Italy, where they have been held in the Church of Saint Thomas the Apostle. He is regarded as the patron saint of India among its Christian adherents, and the Feast of Saint Thomas on July 3 is celebrated as Indian Christians' Day. The name Thomas remains quite popular among the Saint Thomas Christians of the Indian subcontinent. Many churches in the Middle East and southern Asia, besides India, also mention Apostle Thomas in their historical traditions as being the first evangelist to establish those churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, the early church of Sri Lanka. Protestant denominations Andhra Evangelical Lutheran, Assemblies Jehovah Shammah, Christian Revival Church, Church of North India, Church of South India, Garo Baptist, Indian Brethren, Indian Pentecostal Church of God, Church of God , North Bank Baptist Christian, Northern Evangelical Lutheran, Methodist Church, Presbyterian, The Pentecostal Mission, Seventh-day Adventist, United Evangelical Lutheran </Text>

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<Text> :Bartholomew was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Most scholars today identify Bartholomew as Nathanael or Nathaniel, who appears in the Gospel of John . The name Bartholomew comes from the Imperial Aramaic: br-tvlmy bar-Tolmay "son of Talmai" or "son of the furrows". Bartholomew is listed in the New Testament among the Twelve Apostles of Jesus in the three Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke, and in Acts of the Apostles. Eusebius of Caesarea's Ecclesiastical History states that after the Ascension, Bartholomew went on a missionary tour to India, where he left behind a copy of the Gospel of Matthew. Tradition narrates that he served as a missionary in Mesopotamia and Parthia, as well as Lycaonia and Ethiopia in other accounts. Popular traditions say that Bartholomew preached the Gospel in India and then went to Greater Armenia. Two ancient testimonies exist about the mission of Saint Bartholomew in India. These are by Eusebius of Caesarea and by Saint Jerome . Both of these refer to this tradition while speaking of the reported visit of Saint Pantaenus to India in the 2nd century. The studies of Fr A.C. Perumalil SJ and Moraes hold that the Bombay region on the Konkan coast, a region which may have been known as the ancient city Kalyan, was the field of Saint Bartholomew's missionary activities. Previously the consensus among scholars was at least skeptical about an apostolate of Saint Bartholomew in India. Stallings , Neander , Hunter , Rae , Zaleski supported it, while scholars such as Sollerius , Carpentier , Harnack , Medlycott , Mingana , Thurston , Attwater , etc. do not. The main argument is that the India that Eusebius and Jerome refer to should be identified as Ethiopia or Arabia Felix. John the Apostle , also known as Saint John the Beloved and, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Saint John the Theologian, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother James was another of the Twelve Apostles. The Church Fathers identify him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple, and testify that he outlived the remaining apostles and was the only one to die of natural causes, although modern scholars are divided on the veracity of these claims. John the Apostle is traditionally held to be the author of the Gospel of John, and many Christian denominations believe that he authored several other books of the New Testament , depending on whether he is distinguished from, or identified with, John the Evangelist, John the Elder, and John of Patmos. Although the authorship of the Johannine works has traditionally been attributed to John the Apostle, only a minority of contemporary scholars believe he wrote the gospel, and most conclude that he wrote none of them. Regardless of whether or not John the Apostle wrote any of the Johannine works, most scholars agree that all three epistles were written by the same author and that the epistles did not have the same author as the Book of Revelation, although there is widespread disagreement among scholars as to whether the author of the epistles was different from that of the gospel. John the Apostle was the son of Zebedee and the younger brother of James the Great. According to church tradition, their mother was Salome. Also according to some traditions, Salome was the sister of Mary, Jesus' mother, making Salome Jesus' aunt, and her sons John the Apostle and James were Jesus' cousins. Judas Iscariot was--according to Christianity's four canonical gospels--a disciple and one of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ. Judas betrayed Jesus to the Sanhedrin in the Garden of Gethsemane by kissing him on the cheek and addressing him as "master" to reveal his identity in the darkness to the crowd who had come to arrest him. Like Brutus, his name is often used synonymously with betrayal or treason. The Gospel of Mark gives no motive for Judas' betrayal but does present Jesus predicting it at the Last Supper, an event also described in all the other gospels. The Gospel of Matthew 26:15 states that Judas committed the betrayal in exchange for thirty pieces of silver. The Gospel of Luke 22:3 and the Gospel of John 13:27 suggest that he was possessed by Satan. According to Matthew 27:1-10, after learning that Jesus was to be crucified, Judas attempted to return the money he had been paid for his betrayal to the chief priests and hanged himself. The priests used the money to buy a field to bury strangers in, which was called the "Field of Blood" because it had been bought with blood money. The Book of Acts 1:18 quotes Peter as saying that Judas used the money to buy the field himself and, he " headlong... burst asunder in the midst, and all his bowels gushed out." His place among the Twelve Apostles was later filled by Matthias. Due to his notorious role in all the gospel narratives, Judas remains a controversial figure in Christian history. His betrayal is seen as setting in motion the events that led to Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection, which, according to traditional Christian theology brought salvation to humanity. The Gnostic Gospel of Judas--rejected by the proto-orthodox Church as heretical--portrays Judas' actions as done in obedience to instructions given to him by Jesus, and that he alone amongst the disciples knew Jesus' true teachings. Since the Middle Ages, Judas has sometimes been portrayed as a personification of the Jewish people, and his betrayal has been used to justify Christian antisemitism. Although Judas Iscariot's historical existence is generally widely accepted among secular historians, this relative consensus has not gone entirely unchallenged. The earliest possible allusion to Judas comes from the First Epistle to the Corinthians 11:23-24, in which Paul the Apostle does not mention Judas by name but uses the passive voice of the Greek word paradidomi , which most Bible translations render as "was betrayed": "...the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took a loaf of bread..." Nonetheless, some biblical scholars argue that the word paradidomi should be translated as "was handed over". This translation could still refer to Judas, but it could also instead refer to God metaphorically "handing Jesus over" to the Romans. A cup is an open-top container used to hold liquids for pouring or drinking. Although mainly used for drinking, it also can be used to store solids for pouring . Cups may be made of glass, metal, china, clay, wood, stone, bone, polystyrene, plastic, aluminium or other materials, and are usually fixed with stem, handles, or other adornments. Cups are used for quenching thirst across a wide range of cultures and social classes, and different styles of cups may be used for different liquids or in different situations. Cups of different styles may be used for different types of liquids or other foodstuffs , in different situations , or for decoration. Cups have almost certainly been used since before recorded history, and indeed, they have been found at archaeological sites throughout the world. Prehistoric cups were sometimes fashioned from shells and hollowed out stones. There is evidence that the Roman Empire used cups throughout Europe, with notable examples including silver cups in Wales and a color-changing glass cup in ancient Thrace. In England, cups have been discovered which date back to several thousand years, including the Rillaton Gold Cup, about 3,700 years old. Cups were used in the Americas several centuries prior to the European arrivals. Around the Gulf of Mexico, Native American societies used the Horse conch for drinking cups, among other purposes. Historically, monarchs have been concerned about assassination via poisoning. To avoid this fate, they often used dedicated cups, with cup-bearers to guard them. A "divining cup" was supposed to be able to detect poison. In the Bible, Joseph interpreted a dream for Pharaoh's cup-bearer, and a silver divining cup played a key role in his reconciliation with his brothers. A tunic is a garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the knees. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the basic garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered wearers' waists. The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BCE. It was often worn by Roman citizens and by non-citizens alike. However, citizens might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions. The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, would indicate the wearer's status in Roman society. Roman senators, for example, used the laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee; those in more sedentary occupations to about the ankle . The tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by all genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck and ending above the knee. A woman's garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts. James, son of Alphaeus was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus, appearing under this name in all three of the Synoptic Gospels' lists of the apostles. He is generally identified with James the Less and commonly known by that name in church tradition. He is also labelled "the Minor", "the Little", "the Lesser", or "the Younger", according to translation. He is distinct from James, son of Zebedee and in some interpretations also from James, brother of Jesus . He appears only four times in the New Testament, each time in a list of the twelve apostles. James, son of Alphaeus is often identified with James the Less, who is only mentioned four times in the Bible, each time in connection with his mother. refers to "Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joses", while and refer to "Mary the mother of James". Since there was already another James among the twelve apostles, equating James son of Alphaeus with "James the Less" made sense. . Do you intend the comparatively unknown James the Less, who is called in Scripture the son of Mary, not however of Mary the mother of our Lord, to be an apostle, or not? If he is an apostle, he must be the son of Alphaeus and a believer in Jesus, "For neither did his brethren believe in him."Tempera , also known as egg tempera, is a permanent, fast-drying painting medium consisting of pigments mixed with a water-soluble binder medium, usually glutinous material such as egg yolk. Tempera also refers to the paintings done in this medium. Tempera paintings are very long-lasting, and examples from the first century AD still exist. Egg tempera was a primary method of painting until after 1500 when it was superseded by oil painting. A paint consisting of pigment and binder commonly used in the United States as poster paint is also often referred to as "tempera paint", although the binders in this paint are different from traditional tempera paint. Tempera painting has been found on early Egyptian sarcophagus decorations. Many of the Fayum mummy portraits use tempera, sometimes in combination with encaustic painting with melted wax, the alternative painting technique in the ancient world. It was also used for the murals of the 3rd century Dura-Europos synagogue. A related technique has been used also in ancient and early medieval paintings found in several caves and rock-cut temples of India. High-quality art with the help of tempera was created in Bagh Caves between the late 4th and 10th centuries and in the 7th century in Ravan Chhaya rock shelter, Odisha. The art technique was known from the classical world, where it appears to have taken over from encaustic painting and was the main medium used for panel painting and illuminated manuscripts in the Byzantine world and Medieval and Early Renaissance Europe. Tempera painting was the primary panel painting medium for nearly every painter in the European Medieval and Early renaissance period up to 1500. For example, most surviving panel paintings attributed to Michelangelo are executed in egg tempera, an exception being his Doni Tondo which uses both tempera and oil paint. </Text>

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<Text> :A tablecloth is a cloth used to cover a table. Some are mainly ornamental coverings, which may also help protect the table from scratches and stains. Other tablecloths are designed to be spread on a dining table before laying out tableware and food. Some tablecloths are designed as part of an overall table setting, with coordinating napkins, placemats, or other decorative pieces. Special kinds of tablecloth include "runners" which overhang the table at two ends only and "table protectors" which provide a padded layer under a normal tablecloth. The most common shapes for tablecloths are round, square, oval, and oblong, or rectangular, corresponding to the most common table shapes. Tablecloths usually have an overhang, referred to as the "drop." The drop is generally 6 to 15 inches on each side of the table, with a shorter drop for casual dining and a longer drop for more formal occasions. Sometimes a floor-length cloth is used. Custom-made tablecloths are also available, and some people choose to make their own. Today, dining tablecloths are typically made of cotton, a poly-cotton blend, or a PVC-coated material that can be wiped clean, but they can be made of almost any material, including delicate fabrics like embroidered silk. Ease of laundering is an important consideration for tablecloths used for dining, as they are easily soiled. In many European cultures a white, or mainly white, tablecloth used to be the standard covering for a dinner table. In the later medieval period, spreading a high quality white linen or cotton cloth on the table was an important part of preparing for a feast in a wealthy household. Over time, the custom of arranging tableware on a cloth became common for most social classes except the very poorest. As eating habits changed in the 20th century, a much greater range of table-setting styles developed. Some formal dinners still use white tablecloths, often with a damask weave, but other colours and patterns are also common. Gesso , also known as "glue gesso" or "Italian gesso", is a white paint mixture used to coat rigid surfaces such as wooden painting panels or masonite as a permanent absorbent primer substrate for painting. It consists of a binder mixed with chalk, gypsum, pigment, or any combination of these. Mixing and applying it is a craft in itself, as it is usually applied in ten or more extremely thin layers. The hide glue mixture used to make the traditional gesso is rather brittle and susceptible to cracking, thus making it suitable for rigid surfaces only. When painting, there are several advantages to using gesso. It provides a strong foundation for the paint to adhere to, prevents the paint from soaking into the surface, and can also be used to achieve a desired texture or surface finish. Furthermore, Gesso can help to extend the life of a painting by acting as a barrier to protect it from moisture, dust, and UV rays. Acrylic gesso is a mixture of white pigment and some kind of filler and acrylic resin dispersed in water. It produces a soft, flexible non-absorbent surface that is technically not gesso . It can contain calcium carbonate to increase the absorbency of the primer coat as well as titanium dioxide or "titanium white" as a whitening agent. It is sold premixed for both sizing and priming panels and flexible canvas for painting. Art supply manufacturers market canvases pre-primed with acrylic gesso. Acrylic gesso can be colored, either commercially by replacing the titanium white with another pigment, such as carbon black, or by the artist directly, with the addition of an acrylic paint. Acrylic gesso can be odorous, due to the presence of ammonia and/or formaldehyde, which are added in small amounts as preservatives. Acrylic gesso's non-absorbent acrylic polymer base makes it incompatible with media that require an absorbent substrate, such as egg tempera. The Painter's Handbook notes a problem with using oil paints over an acrylic gesso ground instead of a traditional oil ground, citing a mismatch in flexibility that over time could cause the oil paint to delaminate. The word mural is a Spanish adjective that is used to refer to what is attached to a wall. The term mural later became a noun. In art, the word mural began to be used at the beginning of the 20th century. In ancient Roman times, a mural crown was given to the fighter who was first to scale the wall of a besieged town. "Mural" comes from the Latin muralis, meaning "wall painting". This word is related to murus, meaning "wall". Murals of sorts date to Upper Paleolithic times such as the cave paintings in the Lubang Jeriji Saleh cave in Borneo , Chauvet Cave in Ardeche department of southern France . Many ancient murals have been found within ancient Egyptian tombs , the Minoan palaces , the Oxtotitlan cave and Juxtlahuaca in Mexico and in Pompeii . During the Middle Ages murals were usually executed on dry plaster . The huge collection of Kerala mural painting dating from the 14th century are examples of fresco secco. In Italy, c. 1300, the technique of painting of frescos on wet plaster was reintroduced and led to a significant increase in the quality of mural painting. John 13 is the thirteenth chapter of the Gospel of John in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The "latter half", "second book", or "closing part" of John's Gospel commences with this chapter. The nineteenth-century biblical commentator Alexander Maclaren calls it "the Holy of Holies of the New Testament" and the "most sacred part of the New Testament", as it begins John's record of the events on the last night before the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, emphasising Jesus' love for His disciples, demonstrated in the service of washing their feet, and His commandment that they love one another in the same way. The author of the book containing this chapter is anonymous, but early Christian tradition uniformly affirmed that John composed this Gospel. All the events recorded in this chapter and the succeeding chapters up to John 17 took place in Jerusalem. The precise location is not specified, but John 18:1 states that afterwards, "Jesus left with his disciples and crossed the Kidron Valley". From the Greek syntax and theme perspective, evangelical scholar D. A. Carson regards verse 1 as an introduction to the whole 'Farewell Discourse', whereas verses 2-3 show the first demonstration of the full extent of Christ's love. The narrative begins before the Feast of the Passover, when Jesus knew that His hour had come that He should depart from this world to the Father, having loved His own who were in the world, He loved them to the end. The appointed hour, anticipated earlier in the gospel , had now arrived. Jesus had announced publicly in John 12:23 that "the hour when the Son of Man should be glorified" had now arrived, and He had declined in John 12:23 to ask His Father to "save from this hour" . The project seeks to create new encyclopedia entries and improve existing coverage of notable LGBT events, people, and places, and edit-a-thons have been organized to facilitate collaboration by interested editors. In addition to content creation, participants have worked to translate articles into other languages and photograph pride parades and other events. The "celebration of pride" is focused around June and October, "traditionally the months when lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities around the world celebrate LGBT culture and history." Wikipedia editors organized the campaign beginning in 2014 with events registered in at least a dozen cities in the United States as well as Bangalore and New Delhi in India. The founder of the LGBT organization Queerala hosted an edit-a-thon in Kochi in 2015, with support from the Wikimedia chapter for India; attendees created more than a dozen new entries for Malayalam Wikipedia. By 2019, 80 events had been organized in 18 countries; a dozen of the Wiki Loves Pride event were hosted at libraries, mostly within the U.S and including Bucknell University's library and the Minneapolis Central Library. Host librarians "helped to set up the space, locate resources to improve Wikipedia articles, helped with citations, and sometimes just came to edit themselves and mentor newbies". An edit-a-thon is an event where some editors of online communities such as Wikipedia, OpenStreetMap , and LocalWiki edit and improve a specific topic or type of content. The events typically include basic editing training for new editors and may be combined with a more general social meetup. The word is a portmanteau of "edit" and "marathon". An edit-a-thon can either be "in-person" or online or a blended version of both. If it is not in-person, it is usually called a "virtual edit-a-thon" or "online edit-a-thon". Wikipedia edit-a-thons have taken place at Wikimedia chapter headquarters; accredited educational institutions, including Sonoma State University, Arizona State University, Middlebury College, and the University of Victoria; scientific research institutions such as the Salk Institute for Biological Sciences; and cultural institutions, such as museums or archives. Several Wikipedia edit-a-thons have been held during the COVID-19 pandemic adhering to social distancing measures. These events have been held online using synchronous voice and video chat as well as through asynchronous message boards and forums. Women, African Americans, and members of the LGBT community are using edit-a-thons to bridge the gap in Wikipedia's sexual and racial makeup and to challenge the under-representation of Africa-related topics. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. </Text>

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<Text> :Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have correspondingly high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. </Text>

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<Text> :Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction. The commune is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are analogous to civil townships and incorporated municipalities in the United States and Canada, Gemeinden in Germany, comuni in Italy, or municipios in Spain. The UK equivalent are civil parishes. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and are vested with significant powers to manage the populations and land of the geographic area covered. The communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France. Communes vary widely in size and area, from large sprawling cities with millions of inhabitants like Paris, to small hamlets with only a handful of inhabitants. Communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes , the difference residing in the lack of administrative powers. Except for the municipal arrondissements of its largest cities, the communes are the lowest level of administrative division in France and are governed by elected officials including a mayor and a municipal council . They have extensive autonomous powers to implement national policy. A commune is the smallest and oldest administrative division in France. "Commune" in English has a historical association with socialist and collectivist political movements and philosophies. This association arises in part from the rising of the Paris Commune which could have more felicitously been called, in English, "the rising of the City of Paris". There is nothing intrinsically different between "town" in English and commune in French. As of January 2021, there were 35,083 communes in France, of which 34,836 were in metropolitan France, 129 in the overseas departments and 83 in the overseas collectivities and New Caledonia. This is a considerably higher total than that of any other European country, because French communes still largely reflect the division of France into villages or parishes at the time of the French Revolution. The Loire is the longest river in France and the 171st longest in the world. With a length of 1,006 kilometres , it drains 117,054 km2 , more than a fifth of France's land, while its average discharge is only half that of the Rhone. It rises in the southeastern quarter of the French Massif Central in the Cevennes range at 1,350 m near Mont Gerbier de Jonc; it flows north through Nevers to Orleans, then west through Tours and Nantes until it reaches the Bay of Biscay at Saint-Nazaire. Its main tributaries include the rivers Nievre, Maine and the Erdre on its right bank, and the rivers Allier, Cher, Indre, Vienne, and the Sevre Nantaise on the left bank. The Loire gives its name to six departments: Loire, Haute-Loire, Loire-Atlantique, Indre-et-Loire, Maine-et-Loire, and Saone-et-Loire. The lower-central swathe of its valley straddling the Pays de la Loire and Centre-Val de Loire regions was added to the World Heritage Sites list of UNESCO on December 2, 2000. Vineyards and chateaux are found along the banks of the river throughout this section and are a major tourist attraction. The human history of the Loire river valley is thought by some to begin with the Middle Palaeolithic period of 90-40 kya , followed by modern humans , succeeded by the Neolithic period , all of the recent Stone Age in Europe. Then came the Gauls, the local tribes during the Iron Age period of 1500 to 500 BC. They used the Loire as a key trading route by 600 BC, using pack horses to link its trade, such as the metals of the Armorican Massif, with Phoenicia and Ancient Greece via Lyon on the Rhone. Gallic rule ended in the valley in 56 BC when Julius Caesar conquered the adjacent provinces for Rome. Christianity was introduced into this valley from the 3rd century AD, as missionaries , converted the pagans. In this period, settlers established vineyards and began producing wines. Boppard , formerly also spelled Boppart, is a town and municipality in the Rhein-Hunsruck-Kreis in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, lying in the Rhine Gorge, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The town is also a state-recognized tourism resort and is a winegrowing centre. Boppard lies on the upper Middle Rhine, often known as the Rhine Gorge. This characteristic narrow form of valley arose from downward erosion of the Rhine's riverbed. Since 2002, the Gorge has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A 17 km stretch of the Rhine forms the town's eastern limit. Along this part of the river lie the outlying centres of Hirzenach and Bad Salzig, as well as the town's main centre, also called Boppard. Directly north of Boppard, the Rhine takes its greatest bend. This bow is called the Bopparder Hamm, although this name is more commonly applied to the winegrowing area found along it. The best known lookout point over this bow in the Rhine is the Vierseenblick, or "Four-Lake View". This vista gets its name from the way in which the Rhine can be seen from here, or rather the way in which it cannot be seen: hills block out most of the view of the river itself so that visitors can only see four apparently separate patches of water, rather like four lakes. These are all actually parts of the Rhine; there are no lakes to be seen. The Vierseenblick can be reached by chairlift. Since 1969, the town of Boppard has belonged to the Rhein-Hunsruck-Kreis, and is the district's northernmost municipality. Boppard is a middle centre; the nearest upper centre is Koblenz, some 22 kilometres away. </Text>

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<Text> :Indre-et-Loire is a department in west-central France named after the Indre River and Loire River. In 2019, it had a population of 610,079. Sometimes referred to as Touraine, the name of the historic region, it nowadays is part of the Centre-Val de Loire region. Its prefecture is Tours and subprefectures are Chinon and Loches. Indre-et-Loire is a touristic destination for its numerous monuments that are part of the Chateaux of the Loire Valley. Indre-et-Loire is one of the original 83 departments established during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was created from the former province of Touraine and of small portions of Orleanais, Anjou and Poitou. Its prefecture, Tours, was a centre of learning in the Early Middle Ages, having been a key focus of Christian evangelisation since St Martin became its first bishop around 375. From the mid-15th century, the royal court repaired to the Loire Valley, with Tours as its capital; the confluence of the Loire River and Cher River became a centre of silk manufacturing and other luxury goods, including the wine trade, creating a prosperous bourgeoisie. After the creation of the department it remained politically conservative, as Honore de Balzac recorded in several of his novels. Conservative Tours refused to welcome the railways which instead were obliged to route their lines by way of Saint-Pierre-des-Corps on the city's eastern edge. The moderate temper of the department's politics remained apparent after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870: sentiments remained predominantly pro-royalist during the early years of the Third Republic. For most of the nineteenth century, Indre-et-Loire was a rural department, but pockets of heavy-duty industrialisation began to appear towards the century's end, accompanied by left-wing politics. 1920 saw the birth of the French Communist Party at the Congress of Tours. By 1920, Saint-Pierre-des-Corps had become a major railway hub and a centre of railway workshops: it had also acquired a reputation as a bastion of working class solidarity. Indre-et-Loire is part of the region of Centre-Val de Loire; the neighbouring departments are Loir-et-Cher, Indre, Vienne, Maine-et-Loire and Sarthe. The commune of Descartes is famous as the birthplace of French philosopher and mathematician, Rene Descartes. </Text>

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<Text> :The Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology on Beaumont Street, Oxford, England, is Britain's first public museum. Its first building was erected in 1678-1683 to house the cabinet of curiosities that Elias Ashmole gave to the University of Oxford in 1677. It is also the world's second university museum, after the establishment of the Kunstmuseum Basel in 1661 by the University of Basel. The present building was built between 1841 and 1845. The museum reopened in 2009 after a major redevelopment, and in November 2011, new galleries focusing on Egypt and Nubia were unveiled. In May 2016, the museum also opened redisplayed galleries of 19th-century art. The museum opened on 24 May 1683, with naturalist Robert Plot as the first keeper. The building on Broad Street is sometimes attributed to Sir Christopher Wren or Thomas Wood. Elias Ashmole had acquired the collection from the gardeners, travellers, and collectors John Tradescant the Elder and his son, John Tradescant the Younger. It included antique coins, books, engravings, geological specimens, and zoological specimens--one of which was the stuffed body of the last dodo ever seen in Europe; but by 1755 the stuffed dodo was so moth-eaten that it was destroyed, except for its head and one claw. The present building dates from 1841 to 1845. It was designed as the University Galleries by Charles Cockerell in a classical style and stands on Beaumont Street. One wing of the building is occupied by the Taylor Institution, the modern languages faculty of the university, standing on the corner of Beaumont Street and St Giles' Street. This wing of the building was also designed by Charles Cockerell, using the Ionic order of Greek architecture. Municipal Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen is an art museum in Rotterdam in the Netherlands. The name of the museum is derived from the two most important collectors of Frans Jacob Otto Boijmans and Daniel George van Beuningen. It is located at the Museumpark in the district Rotterdam Centrum, close to the Kunsthal and the Natural History Museum. The museum opened in 1849. It houses the collections of Frans Jacob Otto Boijmans and Daniel George van Beuningen . The museum has become the house of over 151,000 artworks over 170 years. In the collection, ranging from medieval to contemporary art, are works of Rembrandt, Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, and Salvador Dali and other famous collections that includes the masterpieces of the 'Achilles series' by Peter Paul Rubens and 'A Cornfield, in the Background the Zuiderzee' by Jacob van Ruisdael. The museum was established in 1849 as Museum Boijmans with the collection of Frans Jacob Otto Boijmans . After the agreement between the Rotterdam City Council and Boijmans, the Schielandshuis was bought by City Council to house the collections. The painter and art dealer, Arie Johannes Lamme, was named the museum's first director. Much of the museum's original collection was destroyed in a fire in 1864. After the devastating fire breakout, the Schielandshuis became small to fit the growing collections and visitors of Museum Boijmans. Then the new museum was built in 1929 and opened in Museumpark in 1935. The building was designed by the city architect Adriaan van der Steur . Then the exhibition building was built which was designed by the architect Alexander Bodon with the purpose of exhibition. "In 2003 the Flemish architects Robbrecht en Daem added new galleries to the exhibition building, siting them like a girdle around Bodon's large rooms. In their galleries they used clear and frosted glass, concrete and parts of the original brick wall. This and the library on the street side are the most recent extensions of the museum until now." The Getty Center is located in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles and features pre-20th-century European paintings, drawings, illuminated manuscripts, sculpture, decorative arts, and photographs from the inception of photography through present day from all over the world. The original Getty museum, the Getty Villa, is located in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles and displays art from Ancient Greece, Rome, and Etruria. In 1974, J. Paul Getty opened a museum in a re-creation of the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum on his property in Malibu, California. In 1982, the museum became the richest in the world when it inherited US$1.2 billion. In 1983, after an economic downturn in West Germany, the Getty Museum acquired 144 illuminated medieval manuscripts from the financially struggling Ludwig Collection in Aachen. In 1996, John Russell, writing in The New York Times, said of the collection, "One of the finest holdings of its kind ever assembled, it is quite certainly the most important that was in private hands." In 1997, the museum moved to its current location in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles. The Malibu museum, renamed the "Getty Villa", was renovated and reopened in 2006. A suite of interactive multimedia tools called GettyGuide allows visitors to access information about exhibitions. Within the museum, the GettyGuide multimedia player provides commentary from curators and conservators on many works of art. A diplomat is a person appointed by a state, intergovernmental, or nongovernmental institution to conduct diplomacy with one or more other states or international organizations. The main functions of diplomats are: representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state; initiation and facilitation of strategic agreements; treaties and conventions; promotion of information; trade and commerce; technology; and friendly relations. Seasoned diplomats of international repute are used in international organizations as well as multinational companies for their experience in management and negotiating skills. Diplomats are members of foreign services and diplomatic corps of various nations of the world. The sending state is required to get the consent of the receiving state for a person proposed to serve in key diplomatic positions such as an ambassador, also referred to as the head of the mission. The receiving state of the proposed diplomat may accept the diplomat or refuse to accept the diplomat without having to provide reasons for its refusal or acceptance of the person. While the head of the mission or any member of the diplomatic staff is already on duty in the receiving state, the receiving state may still decide at anytime that the person is no longer wanted in the state and is considered persona non grata. When this happens, the sending state may discharge the person. Diplomats are the oldest form of any of the foreign policy institutions of a state, predating by centuries foreign ministers and ministerial offices. They usually have diplomatic immunity, and in their official travels they usually use a diplomatic passport or, for UN officials, a United Nations laissez-passer. A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe. Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. They work across a wide range of research fields, spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic and particle physics, through biological physics, to cosmological length scales encompassing the universe as a whole. The field generally includes two types of physicists: experimental physicists who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and theoretical physicists who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. The study and practice of physics is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers, the Greek philosophers of science and mathematicians such as Thales of Miletus, Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt, Archimedes of Syracuse and Aristarchus of Samos. Roots also emerged in ancient Asian cultures such as India and China, and particularly the Islamic medieval period, which saw the development of scientific methodology emphasising experimentation, such as the work of Ibn al-Haytham in the 11th century. The modern scientific worldview and the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the physics of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler in the early 1600s. The work on mechanics, along with a mathematical treatment of physical systems, was further developed by Christiaan Huygens and culminated in Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation by the end of the 17th century. The experimental discoveries of Faraday and the theory of Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism were developmental high points during the 19th century. Many physicists contributed to the development of quantum mechanics in the early-to-mid 20th century. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes a large increase in understanding physical cosmology. The broad and general study of nature, natural philosophy, was divided into several fields in the 19th century, when the concept of "science" received its modern shape. Specific categories emerged, such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics" and "physicist", "chemistry" and "chemist", among other technical fields and titles. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. A standard undergraduate physics curriculum consists of classical mechanics, electricity and magnetism, non-relativistic quantum mechanics, optics, statistical mechanics and thermodynamics, and laboratory experience. Physics students also need training in mathematics , and in computer science. Intracerebral hemorrhage , also known as hemorrhagic stroke, is a sudden bleeding into the tissues of the brain , into its ventricles, or into both. An ICH is a type of bleeding within the skull and one kind of stroke . Symptoms can vary dramatically depending on the severity , acuity , and location but can include headache, one-sided weakness, numbness, tingling, or paralysis, speech problems, vision or hearing problems, memory loss, attention problems, coordination problems, balance problems, dizziness or lightheadedness or vertigo, nausea/vomiting, seizures, decreased level of consciousness or total loss of consciousness, neck stiffness, and fever. Hemorrhagic stroke may occur on the background of alterations to the blood vessels in the brain, such as cerebral arteriolosclerosis, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, cerebral arteriovenous malformation, brain trauma, brain tumors and an intracranial aneurysm, which can cause intraparenchymal or subarachnoid hemorrhage. The biggest risk factors for spontaneous bleeding are high blood pressure and amyloidosis. Other risk factors include alcoholism, low cholesterol, blood thinners, and cocaine use. Diagnosis is typically by CT scan. Treatment should typically be carried out in an intensive care unit due to strict blood pressure goals and frequent use of both pressors and antihypertensive agents. Anticoagulation should be reversed if possible and blood sugar kept in the normal range. A procedure to place an external ventricular drain may be used to treat hydrocephalus or increased intracranial pressure, however, the use of corticosteroids is frequently avoided. Sometimes surgery to directly remove the blood can be therapeutic. A chemist alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist) is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the relevant field. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties. In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists. Chemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products. The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning. Fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses. After gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy. The word chemist is derived from the Neo-Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista . Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. Jobs for chemists generally require at least a bachelor's degree in chemistry, but many positions, especially those in research, require a Master of Science or a Doctor of Philosophy . Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry, partly because chemistry is also known as "the central science", thus chemists ought to have a well-rounded knowledge about science. At the Master's level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, polymer chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry, environmental chemistry, and thermochemistry. Postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. A polymath is an individual whose knowledge spans over a substantial number of subjects, known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific problems. In Western Europe, the first work to use the term polymathy in its title was published in 1603 by Johann von Wowern, a Hamburg philosopher. Von Wowern defined polymathy as "knowledge of various matters, drawn from all kinds of studies ... ranging freely through all the fields of the disciplines, as far as the human mind, with unwearied industry, is able to pursue them". Von Wowern lists erudition, literature, philology, philomathy, and polyhistory as synonyms. The earliest recorded use of the term in the English language is from 1624, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy by Robert Burton; the form polymathist is slightly older, first appearing in the Diatribae upon the first part of the late History of Tithes of Richard Montagu in 1621. Use in English of the similar term polyhistor dates from the late 16th century. Polymaths include the great scholars and thinkers of the Renaissance and Enlightenment, who excelled at several fields in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and the arts. In the Italian Renaissance, the idea of the polymath was allegedly expressed by Leon Battista Alberti , a polymath himself, in the statement that "a man can do all things if he will". Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz has often been seen as a polymath. Al-Biruni was also a polymath. Other well-known and celebrated polymaths include Leonardo da Vinci, Hildegard of Bingen, Ibn al-Haytham, Rabindranath Tagore, Mikhail Lomonosov, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Alan Turing, Benjamin Franklin, John von Neumann, Omar Khayyam, Charles Sanders Peirce, Henri Poincare, Isaac Asimov, Nicolaus Copernicus, Rene Descartes, Aristotle, Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, Averroes, Archimedes, George Washington Carver, Hypatia, Blaise Pascal, Africanus Horton, Wang Wei, Isaac Newton, Pierre-Paul Riquet, Leonhard Euler, Emilie du Chatelet, Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, Bertrand Russell, Thomas Young, Sequoyah, Thomas Jefferson and Pierre-Simon Laplace. </Text>

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<Text> :The arrondissement of Tours is an arrondissement of France in the Indre-et-Loire department in the Centre-Val de Loire region. It has 54 communes. Its population is 384,117 , and its area is 1,087.6 km2 . The arrondissement of Tours was created in 1800. At the January 2017 reorganisation of the arrondissements of Indre-et-Loire, it gained 12 communes from the arrondissement of Chinon, and it lost 34 communes to the arrondissement of Chinon and 46 communes to the arrondissement of Loches. As a result of the reorganisation of the cantons of France which came into effect in 2015, the borders of the cantons are no longer related to the borders of the arrondissements. The cantons of the arrondissement of Tours were, as of January 2015: The arrondissement of Loches is an arrondissement of France in the Indre-et-Loire department in the Centre-Val de Loire region. It has 112 communes. Its population is 118,282 , and its area is 2,742.5 km2 . As a result of the reorganisation of the cantons of France which came into effect in 2015, the borders of the cantons are no longer related to the borders of the arrondissements. The cantons of the arrondissement of Loches were, as of January 2015: The canton of Amboise is an administrative division of the Indre-et-Loire department, central France. Its borders were modified at the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015. Its seat is in Amboise. A library is a collection of books, and possibly other materials and media, that is accessible for use by its members and members of allied institutions. Libraries provide physical or digital materials, and may be a physical location, a virtual space, or both. A library's collection normally includes printed materials which may be borrowed, and usually also includes a reference section of publications which may only be utilized inside the premises. Resources such as commercial releases of films, television programmes, other video recordings, radio, music and audio recordings may be available in many formats. These include DVDs, Blu-rays, CDs, cassettes, or other applicable formats such as microform. They may also provide access to information, music or other content held on bibliographic databases. Libraries can vary widely in size and may be organised and maintained by a public body such as a government, an institution , a corporation, or a private individual. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are trained experts in finding, selecting, circulating and organising information while interpreting information needs and navigating and analysing large amounts of information with a variety of resources. Library buildings often provide quiet areas for studying, as well as common areas for group study and collaboration, and may provide public facilities for access to their electronic resources, such as computers and access to the Internet. The library's clientele and general services offered vary depending on its type: users of a public library have different needs from those of a special library or academic library, for example. Libraries may also be community hubs, where programmes are made available and people engage in lifelong learning. Modern libraries extend their services beyond the physical walls of the building by providing material accessible by electronic means, including from home via the Internet. Maria Theresa was ruler of the Habsburg dominions from 1740 until her death in 1780, and the only woman to hold the position suo jure . She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Galicia and Lodomeria, the Austrian Netherlands, and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, and Holy Roman Empress. Maria Theresa started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died on 20 October 1740. Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. He neglected the advice of Prince Eugene of Savoy, who believed that a strong military and a rich treasury were more important than mere signatures. Eventually, Charles VI left behind a weakened and impoverished state, particularly due to the War of the Polish Succession and the Russo-Turkish War . Moreover, upon his death, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, and France all repudiated the sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. Frederick II of Prussia promptly invaded and took the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia in the eight-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession. In defiance of the grave situation, she managed to secure the vital support of the Hungarians for the war effort. During the course of the war, Maria Theresa successfully defended her rule over most of the Habsburg monarchy, apart from the loss of Silesia and a few minor territories in Italy. Maria Theresa later unsuccessfully tried to recover Silesia during the Seven Years' War. Although she was expected to cede power to her husband, Emperor Francis I, and her eldest son, Emperor Joseph II, who were officially her co-rulers in Austria and Bohemia, Maria Theresa ruled as autocratic sovereign with the counsel of her advisers. She promulgated institutional, financial, medical and educational reforms, with the assistance of Wenzel Anton of Kaunitz-Rietberg, Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz, and Gerard van Swieten. She also promoted commerce and the development of agriculture, and reorganised Austria's ramshackle military, all of which strengthened Austria's international standing. She despised Jews and Protestants, and on certain occasions she ordered their expulsion to remote parts of the realm. She also advocated for the state church. The second and eldest surviving child of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, Archduchess Maria Theresa was born on 13 May 1717 in Vienna, a year after the death of her elder brother, Archduke Leopold Johann, and was baptised on that same evening. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Luneburg and grandmother Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, were her godmothers. Most descriptions of her baptism stress that the infant was carried ahead of her cousins, Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, the daughters of Charles VI's elder brother and predecessor, Joseph I, before the eyes of their mother, Wilhelmine Amalia. It was clear that Maria Theresa would outrank them, even though their grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, had his sons sign the Mutual Pact of Succession, which gave precedence to the daughters of the elder brother. Her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a great disappointment to him and the people of Vienna; Charles never managed to overcome this feeling. A digital library, also called an online library, an internet library, a digital repository, a library without walls, or a digital collection, is an online database of digital objects that can include text, still images, audio, video, digital documents, or other digital media formats or a library accessible through the internet. Objects can consist of digitized content like print or photographs, as well as originally produced digital content like word processor files or social media posts. In addition to storing content, digital libraries provide means for organizing, searching, and retrieving the content contained in the collection. Digital libraries can vary immensely in size and scope, and can be maintained by individuals or organizations. The digital content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. These information retrieval systems are able to exchange information with each other through interoperability and sustainability. The early history of digital libraries is not well documented, but several key thinkers are connected to the emergence of the concept. Predecessors include Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine's Mundaneum, an attempt begun in 1895 to gather and systematically catalogue the world's knowledge, with the hope of bringing about world peace. The visions of the digital library were largely realized a century later during the great expansion of the Internet. Vannevar Bush and J.C.R. Licklider are two contributors that advanced this idea into then current technology. Bush had supported research that led to the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. After seeing the disaster, he wanted to create a machine that would show how technology can lead to understanding instead of destruction. This machine would include a desk with two screens, switches and buttons, and a keyboard. He named this the "Memex". This way individuals would be able to access stored books and files at a rapid speed. In 1956, Ford Foundation funded Licklider to analyze how libraries could be improved with technology. Almost a decade later, his book entitled "Libraries of the Future" included his vision. He wanted to create a system that would use computers and networks so human knowledge would be accessible for human needs and feedback would be automatic for machine purposes. This system contained three components, the corpus of knowledge, the question, and the answer. Licklider called it a procognitive system. In 1980 the role of the library in an electronic society was the focus of a clinic on library applications of data processing. Participants included Frederick Wilfrid Lancaster, Derek De Solla Price, Gerard Salton, and Michael Gorman). </Text>

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<Text> :Palazzo Brera or Palazzo di Brera is a monumental palace in Milan, in Lombardy in northern Italy. It was a Jesuit college for two hundred years. It now houses several cultural institutions including the Accademia di Brera, the art academy of the city, and its gallery, the Pinacoteca di Brera; the Orto Botanico di Brera, a botanical garden; an observatory, the Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera; the Istituto Lombardo Accademia di Scienze e Lettere, a learned society; and an important library, the Biblioteca di Brera. The origins of the palace lie in a monastery built on the lands of Guercio da Baggio, who may have been consul between 1150 and 1188. Shortly before 1178 it passed into the hands of the Humiliati. The church of Santa Maria in Brera was built between 1180 and 1229;: 251 a Gothic marble portal was added by the Pisan sculptor Giovanni di Balduccio between 1346 and 1348,: 7 and there were frescoes by Giovanni da Milano, Vincenzo Foppa and Bernardino Luini.: 251 After the suppression of the Humiliati by Pius V on 7 February 1571, the monastery became - at the request of Carlo Borromeo and with the approval of Gregory XIII - a Jesuit college. This grew to some 3000 students, and more space was needed. Between 1573 and 1590 Martino Bassi was engaged to design a new building on the lines of the Collegio Borromeo in Pavia.: 8 The present palace was built to designs of Francesco Maria Richini from about 1615.: 251 Work began in 1627, but was interrupted by the plague outbreak of 1630, and was resumed only in 1651; after Richini died in 1658, it was continued by his son Gian Domenico.: 8 Following the suppression of the Jesuits by Clement XIV on 21 July 1773, the palace passed to the then rulers of northern Italy, the Austrian Habsburg dynasty. In 1780 Giuseppe Piermarini completed the inner courtyard and built the imposing entrance from via Brera.: 252 He graduated in 1905 from the Istituto Tecnico Carlo Cattaneo and registered at the Politecnico, studying with Enrico Agostino Griffini and Carlo Calzecchi. During this time, he worked as a caricaturist with the satirical newspapers Il Babau, A quel paese, and Guerin Meschino. In September 1910, he graduated as an architect and won the Gold Medal of the College of Engineers and Architects of Milan, as its laureate. For the Conti Electrical Company, he worked on hydroelectric plants, mostly located in Formazza. The most famous are in Verampio , Valdo , Crevoladossola , and Cadarese . For the Azienda Elettrica Municipale di Milano, he designed the plant of Grosio . During the First World War, Portaluppi worked for the military in the Veneto and Friuli Regions. He resumed his professional activity after the war, rebuilding la Pinacoteca di Brera, the Villa Fossati, and the Casa degli Atellani in Corso Magenta, the home of Ettore Conti. Conti introduced Portaluppi to Milan's high society and he started to have the city's most important families as clients such as Borletti, Fossati, Venti and Crespi, Angelo Campiglio, and Mino Brughera. In 1920, Portaluppi designed two projects that are viewed as emblematic of his architecture: the skyscraper S.K.N.E. for the area of Allabanuel, and an utopian city, Hellytown. Other projects during this period were the Palazzo della Banca Commerciale Italiana , the Planetarium Hoepli , residential buildings for the Buonarroti-Carpaccio-Giotto family , the Casa Crespi on Corso Venezia , and the Palazzo Crespi on Corso Giacomo Matteotti . He designed the Italian Pavilion for the Universal Exposition in Barcelona in 1929. An art gallery is a room or a building in which visual art is displayed. In Western cultures from the mid-15th century, a gallery was any long, narrow covered passage along a wall, first used in the sense of a place for art in the 1590s. The long gallery in Elizabethan and Jacobean houses served many purposes including the display of art. Historically, art is displayed as evidence of status and wealth, and for religious art as objects of ritual or the depiction of narratives. The first galleries were in the palaces of the aristocracy, or in churches. As art collections grew, buildings became dedicated to art, becoming the first art museums. Among the modern reasons art may be displayed are aesthetic enjoyment, education, historic preservation, or for marketing purposes. The term is used to refer to establishments with distinct social and economic functions, both public and private. Institutions that preserve a permanent collection may be called either "gallery of art" or "museum of art". If the latter, the rooms where art is displayed within the museum building are called galleries. Art galleries that do not maintain a collection are either commercial enterprises for the sale of artworks, or similar spaces operated by art cooperatives or non-profit organizations. As part of the art world, art galleries play an important role in maintaining the network of connections between artists, collectors, and art experts that define fine art. The terms 'art museum' and 'art gallery' may be used interchangeably as reflected in the names of institutions around the world, some of which are called galleries , and some of which are called museums . However, establishments that display art for other purposes, but serve no museum functions, are only called art galleries. The distinctive function of a museum is the preservation of artifacts with cultural, historical, and aesthetic value by maintaining a collection of valued objects. Art museums also function as galleries that display works from the museum's own collection or on loan from the collections of other museums. Museums might be in public or private ownership and may be accessible to all or have restrictions on access. Although primarily concerned with visual art, art museums are often used as a venue for other cultural exchanges and artistic activities where the art object is replaced by practices such as performance art, dance, music concerts, or poetry readings. </Text>

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<Text> :The Portrait of Andrea Doria as Neptune is an oil painting on canvas completed by Bronzino for a private collection in either the 1530s or 1540s. It is now in the Pinacoteca di Brera in Milan, Italy. An oil painting on canvas, it measures 199.5 centimetres by 149 centimetres . In a conscious revival of the convention in classical sculpture of showing important political figures in heroic nudity, it depicts the Genoan admiral, Andrea Doria, posing as the classical god of the sea, Neptune. The subject of the painting is Andrea Doria, a Renaissance condottiero and admiral from Genoa, who was also the effective ruler of the city-state. He was around sixty when the portrait was painted ; either way his physique hardly reflects his age at the time. He chose to be depicted nude as the "God of the Sea". Although Doria is depicted naked, he is not fragile or frail. He is depicted as a powerful virile man, showing masculine spirit, strength, vigor, and power. He is stern and resolute, looking calmly over all that he surveys, yet also refined and mannered. The picture was meant to symbolize Doria's power, success, and fame as a celebrated admiral of his time. His beard is lengthy, flowing like the waves on the sea, and tufts of hair on his head recall the Roman emperors. Although his body is aged, his skin is still supple. He originally held a squared oar, a symbol of his command over his own fleet, but a trident head - described by art critic Camille Paglia as "cartoonish" - was painted over it by an unknown artist. The outline of the original oar is still faintly visible. The same individual probably added Doria's name. An educational institution is a place where people of different ages gain an education, including preschools, childcare, primary-elementary schools, secondary-high schools, and universities. They provide a large variety of learning environments and learning spaces. Educational architecture, school architecture or school building design is a discipline which practices architect and others for the design of educational institutions, such as schools and universities, as well as other choices in the educational design of learning experiences. The design of building can significantly influence the learning experience of students. Additionally, because schools are important sources of traffic, employment and community activities, school buildings often act as anchor institutions in neighborhoods or communities. The decline of a school can have significant impact on local communities. Educational buildings are often purpose built: designed with architectural choices unique to schools, such as classrooms and centralized restrooms, and other purpose built features. When the schools are closed, its often hard to repurpose the buildings. For example, in the 2013 Chicago closed 50 school buildings, and even in 2023, the government is having trouble identifying new tenants and use. Orvieto is a city and comune in the Province of Terni, southwestern Umbria, Italy, situated on the flat summit of a large butte of volcanic tuff. The city rises dramatically above the almost-vertical faces of tuff cliffs that are completed by defensive walls built of the same stone. The ancient city , populated since Etruscan times, has usually been associated with Etruscan Velzna, but some modern scholars differ. Orvieto was certainly a major centre of Etruscan civilization; the archaeological museum houses some of the Etruscan artifacts that have been recovered in the immediate area. A tomb in the Orvieto Cannicella necropolis bears the inscription mi aviles katacinas, "I am of Avile Katacina"; the tomb's occupant thus bore an Etruscan-Latin first name, Aulus, and a family name that is believed to be of Celtic origin . This interesting artifact might show the complexity of ethnic relations in ancient Italy, and how such relations could be peaceful. Also in the area is the Golini Tomb, which was constructed in the fourth century BCE. Its wall paintings depict a funeral banquet, giving some insight into the real-life gatherings held after the deaths of aristocratic Etruscans. The pictures include scenes of servants preparing for the feast in various ways. Orvieto was annexed by Rome in the third century BC. Because of its site on a high, steep bluff of tuff, a volcanic rock, the city was virtually impregnable. After the collapse of the Roman Empire its defensible site gained new importance: the episcopal seat was transferred from Bolsena, and the city was held by Goths and by Lombards before its self-governing commune was established in the tenth century, in which consuls governed under a feudal oath of fealty to the bishop. Orvieto's relationship to the papacy has been a close one; in the tenth century Pope Benedict VII visited the city of Orvieto with his nephew, Filippo Alberici, who later settled there and became Consul of the city-state in 1016. By the thirteenth century, three papal palaces had been built. The Bode Museum, formerly called the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum , is a listed building on the Museum Island in the historic centre of Berlin. It was built from 1898 to 1904 by order of German Emperor William II according to plans by Ernst von Ihne in Baroque Revival style. The building's front square featured a memorial to German Emperor Frederick III, which was destroyed by the East German authorities. Currently, the Bode-Museum is home to the Skulpturensammlung, the Museum fur Byzantinische Kunst and the Munzkabinett . As part of the Museum Island complex, the Bode-Museum was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1999 because of its outstanding architecture and testimony to the development of museums as a cultural phenomenon in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During World War II, portions of the collection were stored in an antiaircraft tower called the Flakturm Friedrichshain for safe keeping. In May 1945, several fires destroyed some of the collections. In total, more than 400 paintings and about 300 sculptures were missing due to looting during the fire or destroyed in the fire itself. Closed for repairs since 1997, the museum was reopened on 18 October 2006, after a EUR156 million refurbishment. True to the ethos of its founding director, Wilhelm von Bode, who believed in mixing art collections, it is now the home for a collection of sculptures, Byzantine art, and coins and medals. The presentation of the collections is both geographic and chronological, with the Byzantine and Gothic art of northern and southern Europe displayed separately on the museum's first floor and a similar regional division of Renaissance and Baroque art on its second floor. The sculpture collection displays artwork of the Christian Orient , sculptures from Byzantium and Ravenna, sculptures of the Middle Ages, the Italian Gothic, and the early Renaissance, including the controversial Flora attributed by Bode to Leonardo da Vinci but now widely argued to be a 19th-century work. Late German Gothic works are also represented by Tilman Riemenschneider, the south German Renaissance, and Prussian Baroque art up to the 18th century. In the future selected works of the Gemaldegalerie will be integrated into the sculpture collection. This is reminiscent of William von Bode's concept of "style rooms", in which sculptures, paintings, and crafts are viewed together, as was usual in upper middle-class private collections. The Bargello, also known as the Palazzo del Bargello or Palazzo del Popolo , is a former barracks and prison in Florence, Italy. Since 1865, it has housed the Museo Nazionale del Bargello, a national art museum. The word bargello appears to come from the late Latin bargillus , meaning "castle" or "fortified tower". During the Italian Middle Ages it was the name given to a military captain in charge of keeping peace and justice during riots and uproars. In Florence he was usually hired from a foreign city to prevent any appearance of favoritism on the part of the Captain. The position could be compared with that of a current Chief of police. The name Bargello was extended to the building which was the office of the captain. Construction began in 1255. The palace was built to house first the Capitano del Popolo and later, in 1261, the 'podesta', the highest magistrate of the Florence City Council. This Palazzo del Podesta, as it was originally called, is the oldest public building in Florence. This austere crenellated building served as model for the construction of the Palazzo Vecchio. In 1574, the Medici dispensed with the function of the Podesta and housed the bargello, the police chief of Florence, in this building, hence its name. It was employed as a prison; executions took place in the Bargello's yard until they were abolished by Grand Duke Peter Leopold in 1786, but it remained the headquarters of the Florentine police until 1859. When Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor Peter Leopold was exiled, the makeshift Governor of Tuscany decided that the Bargello should no longer be a jail, and it then became a national museum. The original two-story structure was built alongside the Volognana Tower in 1256. The third storey, which can be identified by the smaller blocks used to construct it, was added after the fire of 1323. The building is designed around an open courtyard with an external staircase leading to the second floor. An open well is found in the centre of the courtyard. The Gemaldegalerie is an art museum in Berlin, Germany, and the museum where the main selection of paintings belonging to the Berlin State Museums is displayed. It was first opened in 1830, and the current building was completed in 1998. It is located in the Kulturforum museum district west of Potsdamer Platz. It holds one of the world's leading collections of European paintings from the 13th to the 18th centuries. Its collection includes masterpieces from such artists as Albrecht Durer, Lucas Cranach, Hans Holbein, Rogier van der Weyden, Jan van Eyck, Raphael, Botticelli, Titian, Caravaggio, Peter Paul Rubens, David Teniers the Younger, Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer, Thomas Gainsborough, Joshua Reynolds and Antonio Viviani. Unlike most major national European collections , the Gemaldegalerie collection is not essentially formed around the former dynastic royal collection, but created by a process of acquisition by the Prussian government beginning in 1815. From the first the museum was intended to reflect the full range of European art, giving a different emphasis from that of older royal collections, including the royal collection of Saxony, now mostly in the Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, the finest German princely collection, which like other royal collections is strongest in Italian art. The collection is arranged more or less chronologically starting from the entrance and moving toward the farthest room; however there are many doors back to the long central space, so it is straightforward to reach any other room at any point. The visitor chooses between southern, mainly Italian, art to the left, and German and Flemish art to the right. Completing the circuit takes the visitor first forward, then backward, in time. The numbering system starting on the north side of the museum covers mostly Northern European art, then British art. A visitor following along the southern side will go through mostly Italian and Southern European art. The main floor galleries contain some 850 works in 53 rooms, with around 400 more in several rooms off a corridor downstairs, which are also open to visitors. The Frick Collection is an art museum on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. Established in 1935 to preserve the art collection of the industrialist Henry Clay Frick , the museum consists of European paintings from the 14th to the 19th centuries, as well as other works of European fine and decorative art. The museum is located at the Henry Clay Frick House, a Beaux-Arts mansion designed for Henry Clay Frick. The Frick also houses the Frick Art Reference Library, an art history research center established by Frick's daughter Helen Clay Frick in 1920, which contains sales catalogs, books, periodicals, and photographs. The museum dates to 1920, when the trustees of Frick's estate formed the Frick Collection Inc. to care for his art collection, which he had bequeathed for public use. After Frick's wife Adelaide Frick died in 1931, John Russell Pope converted the Frick House into a museum, which opened on December 16, 1935. The museum acquired additional works of art over the years, and it expanded the house in 1977 to accommodate increasing visitation. Following fundraising campaigns in the 2000s, a further expansion was announced in the 2010s. The museum was temporarily relocated to 945 Madison Avenue from 2021 to 2024, during the renovation of the Frick House. The Frick has about 1,500 pieces in its collection as of 2021. Artists with works in the collection have included Bellini, Fragonard, Goya, Holbein, Rembrandt, Titian, Turner, Velazquez, Vermeer, and Thomas Gainsborough. The museum has gradually acquired additional pieces over the years to supplement the paintings in Frick's original collection. In addition to its permanent collection, the museum has hosted small temporary exhibitions on narrowly defined topics, as well as academic symposiums, concerts, classes, and concerts. The Frick Collection typically accommodates up to 300,000 annual visitors and has an endowment fund to support its programming. Commentary on the museum over the years has been largely positive, particularly with relation to the works themselves and their juxtaposition of the Frick House. Henry Clay Frick was a coke and steel magnate, as early as 1870, had hung pictures throughout his house in Broadford, Pennsylvania. Frick acquired the first painting in his permanent collection, Luis Jimenez's In the Louvre, in 1880, after moving to Pittsburgh. He did not begin buying paintings in large numbers until the mid-1890s, and he began devoting significant amounts of time to his collection. This made Frick one of several prominent American businessmen who also collected art, along with figures such as Henry Havemeyer and J. P. Morgan. In explaining why he collected art, Frick said, "I can make money... I cannot make pictures." He curated his collection with the help of Joseph Duveen, 1st Baron Duveen. The Kupferstichkabinett, or Museum of Prints and Drawings, is a prints museum in Berlin, Germany. It is part of the Berlin State Museums, and is located in the Kulturforum on Potsdamer Platz. It is the largest museum of graphic art in Germany, with more than 500,000 prints and around 110,000 individual works on paper . The Kupferstichkabinett was officially founded in 1831, with a collection of drawings and watercolours acquired by Frederick William I in 1652 at its core. It was first housed in the Altes Museum beside the collections of Old Master paintings and Classical sculpture from ancient Greece and Rome, as exemplars of "High Art". The collection grew throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, with the addition of Medieval, Renaissance and later works, including drawings by Albrecht Durer and Matthias Grunewald, Sandro Botticelli's illustrations of Dante's Divine Comedy , and the estate of Adolph Menzel. Prominent members of former staff include Max Lehrs. In 1986 the Kupferstichkabinett took over the graphics collection of the National Gallery of Berlin, whose emphasis was on 20th-century prints, including Expressionist works that the Nazis had classified as "degenerate" and confiscated. In 1994 it opened in a new building in the Kulturforum, reuniting the parts of the collection that had been split between East and West Berlin together with the National Gallery's collection. The emphasis is on European drawings and printed graphics from the Middle Ages to the present, as well as illuminated manuscripts, sketchbooks, topographical drawings and printing plates. The older artists include Durer, Grunewald, Botticelli and Menzel, as well as Altdorfer, Bosch, Bruegel, Chodowiecki, Friedrich, Mantegna, Rembrandt, Schinkel, and Tiepolo. More recent artists include Kirchner, Munch and Picasso, Pop Artists conceptual artists, minimalists, and contemporary artists working in Berlin. The collection of the Kupferstichkabinett also includes Friedrich Gilly's plan for a monument to Frederick II of Prussia from 1796. </Text>

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family name <o> Perugino <s> Pietro Perugino <p> has works in the collection <o> Fitzwilliam Museum <s> Pietro Perugino <p> has works in the collection <o> Musée Jacquemart-André <s> Pietro Perugino <p> has works in the collection <o> Detroit Institute of Arts <s> Pietro Perugino <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Pietro Perugino <p> student <o> Lo Spagna <s> Pietro Perugino <p> described by source <o> Schilder-boeck <s> Pietro Perugino <p> described by source <o> Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects <s> Pietro Perugino <p> has works in the collection <o> Yale University Art Gallery <s> Pietro Perugino <p> has works in the collection <o> Walker Art Gallery <s> Pietro Perugino <p> has works in the collection <o> Nantes Museum of Arts <s> Pietro Perugino <p> has works in the collection <o> Minneapolis Institute of Art <s> Pietro Perugino <p> place of death <o> Fontignano <s> Pietro Perugino <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Pietro Perugino <s> Pietro Perugino <p> given name <o> Pietro <s> Pietro Perugino <p> notable work <o> God the Father with Two Saints <s> Pietro Perugino <p> notable work <o> Pietà <s> Pietro Perugino <p> described by source <o> Catholic Encyclopedia <s> Pietro Perugino <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Uffizi Gallery <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Alte Pinakothek <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Museo del Prado <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> instance of <o> human <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Italian <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Fogg Museum <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> WikiProject PCC Wikidata Pilot/Frick Art Reference Library <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> National Museum of the Renaissance <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Nationalmuseum <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Detroit Institute of Arts <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum of John Paul II Collection <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> artist files at <o> Frick Art Reference Library <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> described by source <o> Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> student of <o> Andrea del Verrocchio <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Bavarian State Painting Collections <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Galleria Borghese <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Gemäldegalerie <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> country of citizenship <o> Republic of Florence <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Czartoryski Museum <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Minneapolis Institute of Art <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Musée du Petit Palais <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> country of citizenship <o> Duchy of Florence <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> notable work <o> Venus <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> notable work <o> The Annunciation <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> notable work <o> Adoration of the Shepherds <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> given name <o> Lorenzo <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Musée de Picardie <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Musée Fesch <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Cenacolo di Fuligno <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Cincinnati Art Museum <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Harvard Art Museums <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Forlì Municipal Art Gallery <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery of Art <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Albertina <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> occupation <o> sculptor <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> described by source <o> Catholic Encyclopedia <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> place of death <o> Florence <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> place of birth <o> Florence <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> work location <o> Florence <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Cleveland Museum of Art <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum Kunstpalast <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> Führermuseum <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> convent of San Domenico <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> occupation <o> drawer <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> described by source <o> BEIC Digital Library <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Lorenzo di Credi <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery of Ireland <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> National Galleries Scotland <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> has works in the collection <o> The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> occupation <o> painter <s> Lorenzo di Credi <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Pistoia <p> category for the view of the item <o> Category:Views of Pistoia <s> Pistoia <p> seismic classification <o> 2 <s> Pistoia <p> country <o> Italy <s> Pistoia <p> located in time zone <o> UTC+02:00 <s> Pistoia <p> located in time zone <o> UTC+01:00 <s> Pistoia <p> twinned administrative body <o> Palermo <s> Pistoia <p> capital of <o> Province of Pistoia <s> Pistoia <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> Province of Pistoia <s> Pistoia <p> patron saint <o> St. James the Elder, Apostle <s> Pistoia <p> shares border with <o> Quarrata <s> Pistoia <p> shares border with <o> Sambuca Pistoiese <s> Pistoia <p> shares border with <o> Agliana <s> Pistoia <p> shares border with <o> Marliana <s> Pistoia <p> shares border with <o> Lizzano in Belvedere <s> Pistoia <p> shares border with <o> Cantagallo <s> Pistoia <p> twinned 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Beit Sahour <s> Pistoia <p> shares border with <o> Alto Reno Terme <s> Pistoia <p> shares border with <o> San Marcello Piteglio <s> Pistoia <p> twinned administrative body <o> Shirakawa <s> Pistoia <p> award received <o> Italian capital of culture 2017 <s> nude <p> depicts <o> human <s> nude <p> depicts <o> nudity <s> nude <p> different from <o> Akt <s> nude <p> subclass of <o> figurative art <s> nude <p> part of <o> plastic arts <s> nude <p> described by source <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art Tagging Vocabulary <s> nude <p> described by source <o> New Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> nude <p> described by source <o> National Encyclopedia of Uzbekistan <s> nude <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Nude art <s> nude <p> instance of <o> art genre <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> country <o> United States of America <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> Wikidata property <o> Yale University Art Gallery ID <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> parent organization <o> Yale University <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> part of <o> Yale University <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> New Haven <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> member of <o> North American Reciprocal Museum Association <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> member of <o> Association of Academic Museums and Galleries <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Yale University Art Gallery <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> director / manager <o> Andrew Carnduff Ritchie <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> director / manager <o> Lamont Moore <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> director / manager <o> John Marshall Phillips <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> accredited by <o> American Alliance of Museums <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> described by source <o> Survey of GLAM open access policy and practice <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> architectural style <o> Gothic Revival <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> instance of <o> art museum <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> part of <o> University of Pittsburgh <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> architect <o> Louis Kahn <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> architect <o> Egerton Swartwout <s> Yale University Art Gallery <p> founded by <o> John Trumbull <s> musician <p> properties for this type <o> genre <s> musician <p> properties for this type <o> instrument <s> musician <p> category for eponymous categories <o> Category:Wikipedia categories named after musicians <s> musician <p> Wikidata property <o> performer <s> musician <p> subclass of <o> artist <s> musician <p> field of this occupation <o> music <s> musician <p> different from <o> performing artist <s> musician <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> musician <p> described by source <o> Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language <s> musician <p> industry <o> creative industries <s> musician <p> said to be the same as <o> music artist <s> musician <p> topic's main template <o> luckystarzs <s> musician <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Musicians <s> musician <p> described by source <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art Tagging Vocabulary <s> musician <p> instance of <o> occupation <s> musician <p> instance of <o> musical profession <s> musician <p> has list <o> lists of musicians and bands <s> musician <p> subclass of <o> agent <s> musician <p> described by source <o> Riemann's Music Dictionary <s> musician <p> different from <o> music professional <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum of Fine Arts Boston <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Basilica of Santa Maria Novella <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Wawel Castle <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Louvre Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> instance of <o> human <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Ashmolean Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Kupferstichkabinett Berlin <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Uffizi Gallery <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Alte Pinakothek <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Italian <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> field of work <o> art of painting <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Vatican Museums <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Calouste Gulbenkian Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Cleveland Museum of Art <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Pinacoteca Vaticana <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Metropolitan Museum of Art <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> occupation <o> painter <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery of Art <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Victoria and Albert Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Gemäldegalerie <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> place of burial <o> Basilica of Santa Maria Novella <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> notable work <o> Sassetti Chapel <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> child <o> Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> country of citizenship <o> Republic of Florence <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> student of <o> Alesso Baldovinetti <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> relative <o> Bastiano Mainardi <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> student <o> Bastiano Mainardi <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> family name <o> Bigordi <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> place of birth <o> Florence <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Philadelphia Museum of Art <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Palazzo Vecchio <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Nationalmuseum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Lindenau-Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Collegiate Church of San Gimignano <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Bowes Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> notable work <o> Tornabuoni Chapel <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> topic's main template <o> Template:Domenico Ghirlandaio <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> place of death <o> Florence <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> student <o> Master of the Fiesole Epiphany <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> movement <o> Italian Renaissance <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery of Ireland <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Niedersächsisches Landesmuseum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Minneapolis Institute of Art <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Badia a Settimo <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> religion or worldview <o> Catholic Church <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> described by source <o> The Nuttall Encyclopædia <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> partner in business or sport <o> Bartolomeo di Giovanni <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> described by source <o> Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> artist files at <o> Frick Art Reference Library <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> artist files at <o> Berenson Library <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> copyright status as a creator <o> copyrights on works have expired <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Eroli Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Brighton Museum & Art Gallery <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Ognissanti Church <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Citta di Castello Communal Art Gallery <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Fondazione Magnani-Rocca <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Harvard Art Museums <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Volterra City Museum and Art Gallery <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Bavarian State Painting Collections <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Fogg Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> sibling <o> Davide Ghirlandaio <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> given name <o> Domenico <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> student <o> Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> student <o> Michelangelo <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> student <o> Francesco Granacci <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> student of <o> Andrea del Verrocchio <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Fabre museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> The Huntington Library, Art Museum, and Botanical Gardens <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Fitzwilliam Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Clark Art Institute <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> sex or gender <o> male <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> WikiProject PCC Wikidata Pilot/Frick Art Reference Library <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> WikiProject PCC Wikidata Pilot/Berenson Library <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> manner of death <o> natural causes <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Museo degli Innocenti <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Pieve di Sant'Andrea <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Galleria dell'Accademia <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum of San Marco <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Detroit Institute of Arts <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Smithsonian American Art Museum <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> sibling <o> Benedetto Ghirlandaio <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> described by source <o> Teutsche Academie der Edlen Bau- Bild- und Mahlerey-Künste <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> described by source <o> Obalky knih.cz <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> cause of death <o> malaria <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Domenico Ghirlandaio <s> Domenico Ghirlandaio <p> has works in the collection <o> Palazzo Cini Gallery <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> instance of <o> art museum <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> 8th arrondissement of Paris <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> country <o> France <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> founded by <o> Nélie Jacquemart <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> operator <o> Culturespaces <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> location <o> hôtel Jacquemart-André <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> operator <o> Institut de France <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> located on street <o> boulevard Haussmann <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> curator <o> Pierre de Nolhac <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> curator <o> Pierre-Nicolas Sainte Fare Garnot <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> category for the interior of the item <o> Category:Interior of the Musée Jacquemart-André <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> activity policy in this place <o> no video recording <s> Musée Jacquemart-André <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Musée Jacquemart-André <s> Galleria Palatina <p> country <o> Italy <s> Galleria Palatina <p> has facility <o> library <s> Galleria 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<Text> :Pietro Perugino was an Italian Renaissance painter of the Umbrian school, who developed some of the qualities that found classic expression in the High Renaissance. Raphael was his most famous pupil. Pietro Vannucci was born in Citta della Pieve, Umbria, the son of Cristoforo Maria Vannucci. His nickname characterizes him as from Perugia, the chief city of Umbria. Scholars continue to dispute the socioeconomic status of the Vannucci family. While certain academics maintain that Vannucci worked his way out of poverty, others argue that his family was among the wealthiest in the town. His exact date of birth is not known, but based on his age at death that was mentioned by Vasari and Giovanni Santi, it is believed that he was born between 1446 and 1452. Pietro most likely began studying painting in local workshops in Perugia such as those of Bartolomeo Caporali or Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. The date of the first Florentine sojourn is unknown; some make it as early as 1466-1470, others push the date to 1479. According to Vasari, he was apprenticed to the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio alongside Leonardo da Vinci, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Lorenzo di Credi, Filippino Lippi, and others. Piero della Francesca is thought to have taught him perspective form. In 1472, he must have completed his apprenticeship since he was enrolled as a master in the Confraternity of St Luke. Pietro, although very talented, was not extremely enthusiastic about his work. Perugino was one of the earliest Italian practitioners of oil painting. Some of his early works were extensive frescoes for the convent of the Ingessati fathers, destroyed during the Siege of Florence; he produced many cartoons for them also, which they executed with brilliant effect in stained glass. A good specimen of his early style in tempera is the tondo in the Musee du Louvre of the Virgin and Child Enthroned between Saints. Lorenzo di Credi was an Italian Renaissance painter and sculptor best known for his paintings of religious subjects. He is most famous for having worked in the studio of Andrea del Verrocchio at the same time as the young Leonardo da Vinci. Lorenzo was born in Florence in 1456 or 1459 to a goldsmith named Andrea d' Oderigo. He was apprenticed to Andrea del Verrocchio, probably in the mid-1470s. He eventually became Verrocchio's primary assistant and inherited his workshop on Verrocchio's death in 1488. On Verrocchio's behalf he completed the famous Madonna di Piazza for the cathedral of Pistoia, commissioned to Verrocchio in 1475 but executed by Lorenzo between 1485 and 1491. Lorenzo's earliest independent works include an Annunciation in the Uffizi, two panels of the Madonna and Child at the Galleria Sabauda in Turin, another at the National Gallery in London and Adoration of the Child at the Pinacoteca Querini Stampalia in Venice. From his maturity date the Madonna and Child with Saints Julian and Nicholas for the Mascalonzi chapel at the Cestello, Florence , the Adoration of the Shepherds for Santa Chiara and the Baptism of Christ for the Chiostro dello Scalzo . In 1501 he remade parts of Fra Angelico's high altarpiece for San Domenico, Fiesole. Later works include an altarpiece for the Ospedale del Ceppo, Pistoia and many small religious panels, including an unfinished Crucifixion at Gottingen University and an Annunciation dated 1508 at the Harvard University Art Museums. Lorenzo was also a painter of portraits. His most famous is the Portrait of Caterina Sforza, called La dama dei gelsomini, at the Pinacoteca in Forli. Caterina Sforza was the Lady of Forli and Imola in the Romagna and later a prisoner of Cesare Borgia. Lorenzo's portrait of her has been the subject of recent attention because of the sitter's resemblance to the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci. Another portrait by Lorenzo, perhaps of his brother's widow is the panel now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The composition of this work is often compared to Leonardo's Ginevra de' Benci at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Pistoia is a city and comune in the Italian region of Tuscany, the capital of a province of the same name, located about 30 kilometres west and north of Florence and is crossed by the Ombrone Pistoiese, a tributary of the River Arno. It is a typical Italian medieval city, and it attracts many tourists, especially in the summer. The city is famous throughout Europe for its plant nurseries. Pistoria was a centre of Gallic, Ligurian and Etruscan settlements before becoming a Roman colony in the 6th century BC, along the important road Via Cassia: in 62 BC the demagogue Catiline and his fellow conspirators were slain nearby. From the 5th century the city was a bishopric, and during the Lombardic kingdom it was a royal city and had several privileges. Pistoia's most splendid age began in 1177 when it proclaimed itself a free commune: in the following years it became an important political centre, erecting walls and several public and religious buildings. In 1254 the Ghibelline town of Pistoia was conquered by the Guelph Florence; this did not pacify the town, but led to marked civil violence between "Black" and "White" Guelph factions, pitting different noble families against one another. In the Inferno of Dante, we encounter a particularly violent member of the Black faction of Pistoia, Vanni Fucci, tangled up in a knot of snakes while cursing God, who states: beast and Pistoia my worthy lair. Pistoia remained a Florentine holding except for a brief period in the 14th century, when a former abbott, Ormanno Tedici, became Lord of the city. This did not last long, since his nephew Filippo sold the town to Castruccio Castracani of Lucca. The town was officially annexed to Florence in 1530. One of the most famous families of the city was that of the Rospigliosi, owners of agricultural estates and wool merchants; the Rospigliosi provided a pope in 1667 with Giulio Rospigliosi, who briefly reigned as Clement IX , and gave several cardinals to the church. Nudity is the state of being in which a human is without clothing. While estimates vary, for the first 90,000 years of pre-history, anatomically modern humans were naked, having lost their body hair and living in hospitable climates. As humans became behaviorally modern, body adornments such as jewelry, tattoos, body paint and scarification became part of non-verbal communications, indicating a person's social and individual characteristics. Indigenous peoples in warm climates used clothing for decorative, symbolic or ceremonial purposes but were often nude, having neither the need to protect the body from the elements nor any conception of nakedness being shameful. In many societies, both ancient and contemporary, children might be naked until the beginning of puberty. Women may not cover their breasts, being associated with nursing babies more than with sexuality. In the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean, from Mesopotamia to the Roman Empire, proper attire was required to maintain social standing. The lower classes might possess a single piece of cloth that was wrapped or tied to cover the lower body; the lowest classes including slaves might be naked. However, through much of Western history until the late modern period, people of any status were also unclothed by necessity or convenience when engaged in labor and athletics; or when bathing or swimming. Such functional nudity occurred in groups that were usually but not always segregated by sex. Although improper dress might be socially embarrassing, the association of nudity with sin regarding sexuality began with Judeo-Christian societies, spreading through Europe in the post-classical period. Traditional clothing in temperate regions worldwide also reflect concerns for maintaining social status and order, as well as by necessity due to the colder climate. However, societies such as Japan and Finland maintain traditions of communal nudity based upon the use of baths and saunas that provided alternatives to sexualization. The spread of Western concepts of modest dress is part of colonialism, and continues today with globalization. Contemporary social norms regarding nudity reflect cultural ambiguity towards the body and sexuality, and differing conceptions of what constitutes public versus private spaces. Norms relating to nudity are different for men than they are for women. Individuals may intentionally violate norms relating to nudity; those without power may use nudity as a form of protest, and those with power may impose nakedness on others as a form of punishment. While the majority of contemporary societies require clothing in public, some recognize non-sexual nudity as being appropriate for some recreational, social or celebratory activities, and appreciate nudity in the arts as representing positive values. A minority within many countries assert the benefits of social nudity, while other groups continue to disapprove of nudity not only in public but also in private based upon religious beliefs. Norms are codified to varying degrees by laws defining proper dress and indecent exposure. The Yale University Art Gallery is the oldest university art museum in the Western Hemisphere. It houses a major encyclopedic collection of art in several interconnected buildings on the campus of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. Although it embraces all cultures and periods, the gallery emphasizes early Italian Renaissance painting, African sculpture, and modern art. The gallery was founded in 1832 when patriot artist John Trumbull donated over 100 paintings of the American Revolution to Yale College and designed the original picture gallery. This building on the university's Old Campus was razed in 1901. Street Hall, designed by Peter Bonnett Wight, was opened as the Yale School of the Fine Arts in 1866, and included exhibition galleries on the second floor. The exterior was in a neo-Gothic style, with an appearance influenced by 13th-century Venetian palaces. These spaces are the oldest ones still in use as part of the Yale University Art Gallery. A Tuscan romanesque building, designed by Yale University architect Egerton Swartwout, was completed in 1928. This building had cornices, a pitched slate roof, and large windows set within stone arches, and was connected to Street Hall by an enclosed bridge over High Street. It was ultimately known as the "Old Yale Art Gallery" to contrast it with the modernist expansion added a couple of decades later. A musician is a person who composes, conducts, or performs music. According to the United States Employment Service, "musician" is a general term used to designate one who follows music as a profession. Musicians include songwriters who write both music and lyrics for songs, conductors who direct a musical performance, or performers who perform for an audience. A music performer is generally either a singer who provides vocals or an instrumentalist who plays a musical instrument. Musicians may perform on their own or as part of a group, band or orchestra. Musicians can specialize in a musical genre, though a good number of musicians play a variety of different styles depending on cultures and backgrounds. A musician who records and releases music can be known as a recording artist. A composer is a musician who creates musical compositions. The title is principally used for those who write classical music or film music. Those who write the music for popular songs may be called songwriters. Those who mainly write the words for songs may be referred to as lyricists. A conductor directs a musical performance; conducting has been defined as "the art of directing the simultaneous performance of several players or singers by the use of gesture". The conductor stands on a raised podium and communicates with the musicians through hand gestures or eye contact. Examples of performers include, but are not limited to, instrumentalists and singers who perform for an audience. A musician can perform as a solo artist or as a part of an ensemble . Domenico di Tommaso Curradi di Doffo Bigordi , professionally known as Domenico Ghirlandaio , was an Italian Renaissance painter born in Florence. Ghirlandaio was part of the so-called "third generation" of the Florentine Renaissance, along with Verrocchio, the Pollaiolo brothers and Sandro Botticelli. Ghirlandaio led a large and efficient workshop that included his brothers Davide Ghirlandaio and Benedetto Ghirlandaio, his brother-in-law Bastiano Mainardi from San Gimignano, and later his son Ridolfo Ghirlandaio. Many apprentices passed through Ghirlandaio's workshop, including the famous Michelangelo. His particular talent lay in his ability to posit depictions of contemporary life and portraits of contemporary people within the context of religious narratives, bringing him great popularity and many large commissions. Ghirlandaio was born Domenico di Tommaso di Currado di Doffo Bigordi. He was the eldest of six children born to Tommaso Bigordi by his first wife Antonia di ser Paolo Paoli; of these, only Domenico and his brothers and collaborators Davide and Benedetto Ghirlandaio survived childhood. Tommaso had two more children by his second wife, also named Antonia, whom he married in 1464. Domenico's half-sister Alessandra married the painter Bastiano Mainardi in 1494. Both Ghirlandaio's father and his uncle, Antonio, were setaiuolo a minuto . Giorgio Vasari reported that Domenico was at first apprenticed to his father, who was a goldsmith. The nickname "Il Ghirlandaio" came to Domenico from his father, who was famed for creating the metallic garland-like headdresses worn by Florentine women. According to Vasari, Domenico made portraits of the passers-by and visitors to the shop: "when he painted the country people or anyone who passed through his studio he immediately captured their likeness". He was eventually apprenticed to Alesso Baldovinetti to study painting and mosaic. According to the art historian Gunter Passavent, he was apprenticed in Florence to Andrea del Verrocchio. He maintained a close association with other Florentine painters including Botticelli and with the Umbrian painter Perugino. Ghirlandaio excelled in the painting of frescos and it is for his fresco cycles that he is best known. An early commission came to him in the 1470s from the Commune of San Gimignano to decorate the Chapel of Santa Fina in the Collegiate Church of that city. The frescos, executed from 1477 to 1478, depict two miraculous events associated with the death of Saint Fina. The Musee Jacquemart-Andre is a private museum located at 158 Boulevard Haussmann in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. The museum was created from the private home of Edouard Andre and Nelie Jacquemart to display the art they collected during their lives. Edouard Andre, the scion of a Protestant banking family, devoted his considerable fortune to buying works of art. He then exhibited them in his new mansion built in 1869 by the architect Henri Parent, and completed in 1875. He married a well-known society painter, Nelie Jacquemart, who had painted his portrait 10 years earlier. Every year, the couple would travel in Italy, amassing one of the finest collections of Italian art in France. When Edouard Andre died, Nelie Jacquemart completed the decoration of the Italian Museum and travelled in the Orient to add more precious works to the collection. Faithful to the plan agreed with her husband, she bequeathed the mansion and its collections to the Institut de France as a museum, and it opened to the public in 1913. The Italian museum: the Sculpture Gallery houses collections of 15th- and 16th-century Italian sculpture, with masterpieces by Francesco Laurana, Donatello, Luca Della Robbia and others. The Florentine Gallery is both a place of worship, containing works on religious themes -- choir stalls, reredos and funerary monuments -- and a picture gallery focusing on the Florentine school, with works by Botticelli, Francesco Botticini and Perugino, and Ucello's celebrated St George and the Dragon. The Venetian Gallery attests to the Andres' love of 15th-century Venetian artists. Dominated by a coffer ceiling attributed to Mocetto, paintings by Mantegna, Bellini or Carpaccio recreate the typical setting of a Venetian Palazzo. The Palazzo Pitti , in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace, is a vast, mainly Renaissance, palace in Florence, Italy. It is situated on the south side of the River Arno, a short distance from the Ponte Vecchio. The core of the present palazzo dates from 1458 and was originally the town residence of Luca Pitti, an ambitious Florentine banker. The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549 and became the chief residence of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It grew as a great treasure house as later generations amassed paintings, plates, jewelry and luxurious possessions. In the late 18th century, the palazzo was used as a power base by Napoleon and later served for a brief period as the principal royal palace of the newly united Italy. The palace and its contents were donated to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919. The palazzo is now the largest museum complex in Florence. The principal palazzo block, often in a building of this design known as the corps de logis, is 32,000 square metres. It is divided into several principal galleries or museums detailed below. Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi , known mononymously as Donatello , was an Italian sculptor of the Renaissance period. Born in Florence, he studied classical sculpture and used his knowledge to develop an Early Renaissance style of sculpture. He spent time in other cities, where he worked on commissions and taught others; his periods in Rome, Padua, and Siena introduced to other parts of Italy the techniques he had developed in the course of a long and productive career. His David was the first freestanding nude male sculpture since antiquity; like much of his work it was commissioned by the Medici family. He worked with stone, bronze, wood, clay, stucco, and wax, and used glass in inventive ways. He had several assistants, with four perhaps being a typical number.Ref. ? Although his best-known works are mostly statues executed in the round, he developed a new, very shallow, type of bas-relief for small works, and a good deal of his output was architectural reliefs for pulpits, altars and tombs, as well as Madonna and Childs for homes. Broad, overlapping, phases can be seen in his style, beginning with the development of expressiveness and classical monumentality in statues, then developing energy and charm, mostly in smaller works. Early on he veered away from the International Gothic style he learned from Lorenzo Ghiberti, with classically informed pieces, and further on a number of stark, even brutal pieces. The sensuous eroticism of his most famous work, the bronze David, is very rarely seen in other pieces. All accounts describe Donatello as amiable and well-liked, but rather poor at the business side of his career. Like Michelangelo in the next century, he tended to accept more commissions than he could handle, and many works were either completed some years late, handed to other sculptors to finish, or never produced. Again like Michelangelo, he enjoyed steady support and patronage from the Medici family. </Text>

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<Text> :The House of Medici was an Italian banking family and political dynasty that first consolidated power in the Republic of Florence under Cosimo de' Medici, during the first half of the 15th century. The family originated in the Mugello region of Tuscany, and prospered gradually until it was able to fund the Medici Bank. This bank was the largest in Europe during the 15th century and facilitated the Medicis' rise to political power in Florence, although they officially remained citizens rather than monarchs until the 16th century. The Medici produced four popes of the Catholic Church--Pope Leo X , Pope Clement VII , Pope Pius IV and Pope Leo XI --and two queens of France--Catherine de' Medici and Marie de' Medici . In 1532, the family acquired the hereditary title Duke of Florence. In 1569, the duchy was elevated to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany after territorial expansion. The Medici ruled the Grand Duchy from its inception until 1737, with the death of Gian Gastone de' Medici. The grand duchy witnessed degrees of economic growth under the early grand dukes, but was bankrupt by the time of Cosimo III de' Medici . The Medicis' wealth and influence was initially derived from the textile trade guided by the wool guild of Florence, the Arte della Lana. Like other families ruling in Italian signorie, the Medici dominated their city's government, were able to bring Florence under their family's power, and created an environment in which art and humanism flourished. They and other families of Italy inspired the Italian Renaissance, such as the Visconti and Sforza in Milan, the Este in Ferrara, the Borgia and Della Rovere in Rome, and the Gonzaga in Mantua. The Medici Bank, from when it was created in 1397 to its fall in 1494, was one of the most prosperous and respected institutions in Europe, and the Medici family was considered the wealthiest in Europe for a time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy and Europe. They were among the earliest businesses to use the general ledger system of accounting through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits. A goldsmith is a metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Nowadays they mainly specialize in jewelry-making but historically, goldsmiths have also made silverware, platters, goblets, decorative and serviceable utensils, and ceremonial or religious items. Goldsmiths must be skilled in forming metal through filing, soldering, sawing, forging, casting, and polishing. The trade has very often included jewelry-making skills, as well as the very similar skills of the silversmith. Traditionally, these skills had been passed along through apprenticeships; more recently jewelry arts schools, specializing in teaching goldsmithing and a multitude of skills falling under the jewelry arts umbrella, are available. Many universities and junior colleges also offer goldsmithing, silversmithing, and metal arts fabrication as a part of their fine arts curriculum. Compared to other metals, gold is malleable, ductile, rare, and it is the only solid metallic element with a yellow color. It may easily be melted, fused, and cast without the problems of oxides and gas that are problematic with other metals such as bronzes, for example. It is fairly easy to "pressure weld", wherein, similarly to clay, two small pieces may be pounded together to make one larger piece. Gold is classified as a noble metal--because it does not react with most elements. It usually is found in its native form, lasting indefinitely without oxidization and tarnishing! Gold has been worked by humans in all cultures where the metal is available, either indigenously or imported, and the history of these activities is extensive. Superbly made objects from the ancient cultures of Africa, Asia, Europe, India, North America, Mesoamerica, and South America grace museums and collections throughout the world. The Copper Age Varna culture from the 5th millennium BC is credited with inventing goldsmith . The associated Varna Necropolis treasure contains the oldest golden jewellery in the world with an approximate age of over 6,000 years. Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi , better known as Sandro Botticelli or simply Botticelli, was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. Botticelli's posthumous reputation suffered until the late 19th century, when he was rediscovered by the Pre-Raphaelites who stimulated a reappraisal of his work. Since then, his paintings have been seen to represent the linear grace of late Italian Gothic and some Early Renaissance painting, even though they date from the latter half of the Italian Renaissance period. In addition to the mythological subjects for which he is best known today, Botticelli painted a wide range of religious subjects and also some portraits. His best-known works are The Birth of Venus and Primavera, both in the Uffizi in Florence, which holds many of Botticelli's works. Botticelli lived all his life in the same neighbourhood of Florence; his only significant times elsewhere were the months he spent painting in Pisa in 1474 and the Sistine Chapel in Rome in 1481-82. Only one of Botticelli's paintings, the Mystic Nativity is inscribed with a date , but others can be dated with varying degrees of certainty on the basis of archival records, so the development of his style can be traced with some confidence. He was an independent master for all the 1470s, which saw his reputation soar. The 1480s were his most successful decade, the one in which his large mythological paintings were completed along with many of his most famous Madonnas. By the 1490s, his style became more personal and to some extent mannered. His last works show him moving in a direction opposite to that of Leonardo da Vinci and the new generation of painters creating the High Renaissance style, and instead returning to a style that many have described as more Gothic or "archaic". Botticelli was born in the city of Florence in a house on the street still called Borgo Ognissanti. He lived in the same area all his life and was buried in his neighbourhood church called Ognissanti . Sandro was one of several children to the tanner Mariano di Vanni d'Amedeo Filipepi and his wife Smeralda Filipepi, and the youngest of the four who survived into adulthood. The date of his birth is not known, but his father's tax returns in following years give his age as two in 1447 and thirteen in 1458, meaning he must have been born between 1444 and 1446. He came from a family of stone carvers and stonemasons in Settignano, near Florence. Although his work shows the influence of Donatello, specifically in his use of low reliefs, it is most likely that he received his training in the large Florentine workshop run by Bernardo and Antonio Rossellino. Desiderio matriculated into the Arte dei Maestri di Pietra e Legname, Florence's guild of Stone and Woodworkers, in 1453 and shortly thereafter already was supplying cherub head medallions for the frieze running across the front of the Pazzi Chapel in the second cloisteryard of the Basilica of Santa Croce. It is rather surprising that he would have received such an important commission as the monumental tomb of Carlo Marsuppini so early in his career. Apparently, his design capabilities and sensitivity to the tactile qualities of marble had already been recognized. In composing this wall tomb for the Basilica of Santa Croce, Desiderio relied upon the precedent set only a few years earlier in Bernardo Rossellino's Tomb of Leonardo Bruni. This seems quite appropriate since Marsuppini had succeeded Bruni in the position of Florentine State Chancellor and had been mentored by him just as Desiderio had received his training from Bernardo Rossellini. In fact, in his design for the tomb, Desiderio was paying homage to Bernardo's example in much the same fashion as Marsuppini did when he had composed the epitaph for the Bruni Tomb. Desiderio took over the essential compositional scheme of an elevated triumphal arch containing a sarcophagus and effigy bier from the Bruni monument but transformed the sobriety of the earlier memorial into a work of heightened decorative fancy. In the Marsuppini tomb, Desiderio placed standing children holding heraldic shields on either side of the sarcophagus, draped long festoons from an ornate candelabra which surmounts the arch of the lunette, and positioned running youths above the pilasters which frame the funeral niche. In the niche itself, he ignored the symbolism of the Trinity by using four instead of three panels as the backdrop for the sarcophagus. To increase the visibility of the deceased scholar and statesman, he tilted Marsuppini's effigy forward toward the viewer and carved elaborate floral decorations on the rounded corners of the lion-footed sarcophagus. The motifs used are all somewhat classical in inspiration and the total effect is light and charming, even joyous, if somewhat unfocused. In 1461 he finished a tabernacle intended for installation either in the Sacrament Chapel in San Lorenzo, dedicated to the Medici family saints, Cosmas and Damien, located in the left transept of the church; or, more likely, it was first installed in the main chapel choir. Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to the Italian geographical region. Italians share a common culture, history, ancestry and usage of Italian language. Their predecessors differ regionally, but generally include native populations such as the Etruscans, the Rhaetians, the Ligurians, the Adriatic Veneti, and the Italic peoples, including the Latins, from which the Romans emerged and helped create and evolve the modern Italian identity. Foreign influences include the ancient Greeks in Magna Graecia, and the Phoenicians, who had a presence in Sicily and Sardinia, the Celts, who settled in parts of the north, the Germanics and the Slavs. Legally, Italian nationals are citizens of Italy, regardless of ancestry or nation of residence and may be distinguished from ethnic Italians in general or from people of Italian descent without Italian citizenship and ethnic Italians living in territories adjacent to the Italian peninsula without Italian citizenship. The Latin equivalent of the term Italian had been in use for natives of the geographical region since antiquity. The majority of Italian nationals are native speakers of the country's official language, Italian, a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin, or a variety thereof, that is regional Italian. However, many of them also speak a regional or minority language native to Italy, the existence of which predates the national language. Although there is disagreement on the total number, according to UNESCO, there are approximately 30 languages native to Italy, although many are often misleadingly referred to as "Italian dialects". Since 2017, in addition to the approximately 55 million Italians in Italy , Italian-speaking autonomous groups are found in neighboring nations; about a half million are in Switzerland, as well as in France, the entire population of San Marino. In addition, there are also clusters of Italian speakers in the former Yugoslavia, primarily in Istria, located between in modern Croatia and Slovenia , and Dalmatia, located in present-day Croatia and Montenegro . Due to the wide-ranging diaspora following Italian unification in 1861, World War I and World War II, over 80 million people abroad claim full or partial Italian ancestry. This includes about 60% of Argentina's population , 44% of Uruguayans , 15% of Brazilians , more than 18 million Italian Americans, and people in other parts of Europe , the American Continent , Australasia , and to a lesser extent in the Middle East . Italians have influenced and contributed to fields like arts and music, science, technology, fashion, cinema, cuisine, restaurants, sports, jurisprudence, banking and business. Furthermore, Italian people are generally known for their attachment to their locale, expressed in the form of either regionalism or municipalism. The Equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni is a Renaissance sculpture in Campo Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, Italy, created by Andrea del Verrocchio in 1480-1488. Portraying the condottiero Bartolomeo Colleoni , it has a height of 395 cm excluding the pedestal. It is the second major equestrian statue of the Italian Renaissance, after Donatello's equestrian statue of Gattamelata . In 1475, the Condottiero Colleoni, a former Captain General of the Republic of Venice, died and by his will left a substantial part of his estate to the Republic on condition that a statue of himself should be commissioned and set up in the Piazza San Marco. In 1479 the Republic announced that it would accept the legacy, but that the statue would be placed in the open space in front of the Scuola of San Marco. A competition was arranged to enable a sculptor to be selected. Three sculptors competed for the contract, Verrocchio from Florence, Alessandro Leopardi from Venice and Bartolomeo Vellano from Padua. Verrocchio made a model of his proposed sculpture using wood and black leather, while the others made models of wax and terracotta. The three models were exhibited in Venice in 1483 and the contract was awarded to Verrocchio. He then opened a workshop in Venice and made the final wax model which was ready to be cast in bronze, but he died in 1488, before this was done. He had asked that his pupil Lorenzo di Credi, who was then in charge of his workshop in Florence, should be entrusted with the finishing of the statue, but the Venetian state after considerable delay commissioned Alessandro Leopardi to do this. In 1496, the statue was erected on a pedestal made by Leopardi in the Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo, where it stands today. Verrocchio based the sculpture on Donatello's statue of Gattamelata, as well as on the ancient statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, the St. Mark's Horses in Venice, the Regisole , and the frescoes of the Funerary Monument to Sir John Hawkwood by Paolo Uccello and of the Equestrian Monument of Niccolo da Tolentino by Andrea del Castagno. </Text>

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<Text> :The OED dates the first express use of the term "animal painter" to the mid-18th century: by English physician, naturalist and writer John Berkenhout . From the early 20th century, wildlife artist became a more usual term for contemporary animal painters. Especially in the 17th century, animal painters would often collaborate with other artists, who would either paint the main subject in a historical or mythological piece, or the landscape background in a decorative one. Frans Snyders, a founder of the Baroque animal painting tradition, often provided the animals, and also still lifes of food, for Peter Paul Rubens; a different landscape specialist might provide the background. The paintings by Snyders and his workshop alone typically lack humans, except in kitchen scenes, and usually show a number of animals of different species . There are about equal numbers of paintings of dead animals, usually in a kitchen setting or as hunting trophies in a landscape, and of live ones, often in ferocious combat. In the Dutch Golden Age such specialists tended to produce smaller genre paintings concentrating on their specialism. Animal painters came lower down in the hierarchy of genres, but the best painters could make a very good living; many royal and aristocratic patrons were more interested in their subject matter than that of the more prestigious genres. Mainly in England, there were still more specialised painters from the 18th century who produced portraits of racehorses and prize specimens of livestock, whereas in France animal subjects continued to be decorative capriccios often set around garden statuary. Animalier, as a collective plural noun, is a term used in antiques for small-scale sculptures of animals in particular , but also paintings of animals. Large numbers of these were produced - often mass-produced - in the 19th century in France and elsewhere. Many earlier examples can be found, but animalier sculpture became more popular, and reputable, in early 19th century Paris, with the works of Antoine-Louis Barye - for whom the term was coined, decisively, by critics in 1831 - and Christopher Fratin . By the mid 19th-century, a taste for animal subjects was widespread among the middle-classes. The name derives from the Greek word aner , genitive andros , that refers to man as opposed to woman . The original male Greek name, Andreas, represents the hypocoristic, with endearment functions, of male Greek names composed with the andr- prefix, like Androgeos , Androcles , Andronikos . In the year 2006, it was the third most popular name in Italy with 3.1% of newborns. It is one of the Italian male names ending in a, with others being Elia , Enea , Luca , Mattia , Nicola , Tobia . In recent and past times it has also been used on occasion as a female name in Italy and in Spain, where it is considered the legitimate feminine form of Andres/Andreo/Andreu . Outside of Italy, the name is generally considered a female name. Tobias and the Angel is the title given to paintings and other artworks depicting a scene from the Book of Tobit in which Tobias, son of Tobit, meets an angel without realising he is an angel and is then instructed by the angel what to do with a giant fish he catches . Francesco Botticini was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. He was born in Florence, where he remained active until his death in 1498. Although there are only few documented works by Botticini, a considerable corpus has been confidently attributed to him on the basis of style including a number of altarpieces, dozens of small-scale religious panels and a few portraits. Botticini was born in Florence in 1446. His father was Giovanni di Domenico di Piero, a naibaio, or painter of playing cards, from whom he probably received his initial artistic training. By 22 July 1459 was a salaried assistant in the workshop of Neri di Bicci. Botticini left Neri's workshop in 24 July 1460. He eventually came into contact with Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop he would have met Leonardo da Vinci, Lorenzo di Credi, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Pietro Perugino. Though Botticini's presence in Verrocchio's studio is not documented, it is often inferred on the basis of style. Botticini opened his own workshop by 1469, as reported in an arbitration document from that year. He remained close with his father, who oversaw his working contracts until 1475, when he filed for emancipation. The emancipation was granted in 1477, according to legal records. Botticini's earliest works include the Saint Nicholas and Four Female Saints at the National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo, a Saint Sebastian at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and a Madonna adoring the Child at the Birmingham Museum of Art in Alabama. His earliest dated work is an altarpiece of the Madonna and Child with Saints Sebastian, Pancras, Sebastian and Peter at the Musee Jacquemart-Andre, Paris, which is painted under the strong influence of Verrocchio. The Saint Monica Enthroned with Augustinian Nuns in Santo Spirito, Florence, is usually dated-also dated-to this year, as is the famous Three Archangels with the Young Tobias at the Uffizi. By 1475 Botticini had developed a more personal style, which he first expressed in his most famous work, the large Assumption of the Virgin at the National Gallery, London. Wrongly attributed Botticelli in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists, this painting has been unanimously attributed to Botticini since the early twentieth century. The attribution is corroborated by extant documents, which state how the painting was begun in 1475 and completed in 1477. The picture was commissioned by the poet Matteo Palmieri and his wife Niccolosa, presumably for their burial chapel in the now-destroyed church of San Pier Maggiore, Florence. However, some scholars believe it was instead intended for Palmieri's chapel in the Badia Fiesolana because the dimensions are almost the same as Hans Memling's Last Judgment, a work initially intended for the Badia but later stolen and taken to Gdansk, Poland. Several preparatory drawings for Botticini's altarpiece survive in various collections.</Text>

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<Text> :Medieval Greek is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th-6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. From the 7th century onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the Byzantine Empire. This stage of language is thus described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature is a branch of Byzantine studies, the study of the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire. The beginning of Medieval Greek is occasionally dated back to as early as the 4th century, either to 330 AD, when the political centre of the Roman Empire was moved to Constantinople, or to 395 AD, the division of the empire. However, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political, as opposed to cultural and linguistic, developments. Indeed, by this time the spoken language, particularly pronunciation, had already shifted towards modern forms. The conquests of Alexander the Great, and the ensuing Hellenistic period, had caused Greek to spread to peoples throughout Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, altering the spoken language's pronunciation and structure. Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Considered a dead language, Latin was originally spoken in Latium , the lower Tiber area around Rome. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire. Even after the fall of Western Rome, Latin remained the common language of international communication, science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the 18th century, when regional vernaculars supplanted it in common academic and political usage. For most of the time it was used, it would be considered a dead language in the modern linguistic definition; that is, it lacked native speakers, despite being used extensively and actively. Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders , seven noun cases , five declensions, four verb conjugations, six tenses , three persons, three moods, two voices , two or three aspects, and two numbers . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets. By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin. Vulgar Latin was the colloquial register with less prestigious variations attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and author Petronius. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onwards, and Vulgar Latin's various regional dialects had developed by the 6th to 9th centuries into the ancestors of the modern Romance languages. In Latin's usage beyond the early medieval period, it lacked native speakers. Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance, which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin. This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period. In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world. The term "Byzantine Empire" was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as "Romans". Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of state Christianity, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier "Roman Empire" and the later "Byzantine Empire". During the earlier Pax Romana period, the western parts of the empire became increasingly Latinised, while the eastern parts largely retained their preexisting Hellenistic culture. This created a dichotomy between the Greek East and Latin West. These cultural spheres continued to diverge after Constantine I moved the capital to Constantinople and legalised Christianity. Under Theodosius I , Christianity became the state religion, and other religious practices were proscribed. Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use as Latin fell into disuse. The empire experienced several cycles of decline and recovery throughout its history, reaching its greatest extent after the fall of the west during the reign of Justinian I , who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the western Mediterranean coast. The appearance of plague and a devastating war with Persia exhausted the empire's resources; the early Muslim conquests that followed saw the loss of the empire's richest provinces--Egypt and Syria--to the Rashidun Caliphate. In 698, Africa was lost to the Umayyad Caliphate, but the empire subsequently stabilised under the Isaurian dynasty. The empire was able to expand once more under the Macedonian dynasty, experiencing a two-century-long renaissance. This came to an end in 1071, with the defeat by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert. Thereafter, periods of civil war and Seljuk incursion resulted in the loss of most of Asia Minor. The empire recovered during the Komnenian restoration, and Constantinople would remain the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century. The empire was dissolved in 1204, following the sack of Constantinople by Latin armies at the end of the Fourth Crusade; its former territories were then divided into competing Greek and Latin realms. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the reconstituted empire would wield only regional power during its final two centuries of existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in perennial wars fought throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 ultimately brought the empire to an end. Many refugees who had fled the city after its capture settled in Italy and throughout Europe, helping to ignite the Renaissance. The fall of Constantinople is sometimes used to mark the dividing line between the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.378 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2021. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization. The church consists of 24 sui iuris churches, including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, which comprise almost 3,500 dioceses and eparchies located around the world. The pope, who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church. The Diocese of Rome, known as the Holy See, is the central governing authority of the church. The administrative body of the Holy See, the Roman Curia, has its principal offices in Vatican City, a small independent city-state and enclave within the Italian capital city of Rome, of which the pope is head of state. The core beliefs of Catholicism are found in the Nicene Creed. The Catholic Church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles, and that the pope is the successor to Saint Peter, upon whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith taught by the apostles, preserving the faith infallibly through scripture and sacred tradition as authentically interpreted through the magisterium of the church. The Roman Rite and others of the Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic liturgies, and institutes such as mendicant orders, enclosed monastic orders and third orders reflect a variety of theological and spiritual emphases in the church. Of its seven sacraments, the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated as the Perpetual Virgin, Mother of God, and Queen of Heaven; she is honoured in dogmas and devotions. Catholic social teaching emphasizes voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church operates tens of thousands of Catholic schools, universities and colleges, hospitals, and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world. Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations. The Catholic Church has profoundly influenced Western philosophy, culture, art, literature, music, and science. Catholics live all over the world through missions, colonization, diaspora, and conversions. Since the 20th century, the majority have resided in the Southern Hemisphere, partially due to secularization in Europe and increased persecution in the Middle East. The Catholic Church shared communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church until the East-West Schism in 1054, disputing particularly the authority of the pope. Before the Council of Ephesus in AD 431, the Church of the East also shared in this communion, as did the Oriental Orthodox Churches before the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451; all separated primarily over differences in Christology. The Eastern Catholic Churches, who have a combined membership of approximately 18 million, represent a body of Eastern Christians who returned or remained in communion with the pope during or following these schisms for a variety of historical circumstances. In the 16th century, the Reformation led to Protestantism also breaking away. From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticized for its teachings on sexuality, its doctrine against ordaining women, and its handling of sexual abuse cases involving clergy. Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek , Dark Ages , the Archaic or Epic period , and the Classical period . Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period , Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek, which is regarded as a separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek, and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, and Doric, many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. </Text>

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<Text> :Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective. More narrowly it is the study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural, but also deals with religious epistemology, asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation. Revelation pertains to the acceptance of God, gods, or deities, as not only transcendent or above the natural world, but also willing and able to interact with the natural world and to reveal themselves to humankind. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, defend or promote any myriad of religious topics. As in philosophy of ethics and case law, arguments often assume the existence of previously resolved questions, and develop by making analogies from them to draw new inferences in new situations. The study of theology may help a theologian more deeply understand their own religious tradition, another religious tradition, or it may enable them to explore the nature of divinity without reference to any specific tradition. Theology may be used to propagate, reform, or justify a religious tradition; or it may be used to compare, challenge , or oppose a religious tradition or worldview. Theology might also help a theologian address some present situation or need through a religious tradition, or to explore possible ways of interpreting the world. The term derives from the Greek theologia , a combination of theos and logia --the latter word relating to Greek logos . The term would pass on to Latin as theologia, then French as theologie, eventually becoming the English theology. Marsilio Ficino was an Italian scholar and Catholic priest who was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance. He was an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism in touch with the major academics of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin. His Florentine Academy, an attempt to revive Plato's Academy, influenced the direction and tenor of the Italian Renaissance and the development of European philosophy. Ficino was born at Figline Valdarno. His father, Diotifeci d'Agnolo, was a physician under the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici, who took the young man into his household and became the lifelong patron of Marsilio, who was made tutor to his grandson, Lorenzo de' Medici. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, the Italian humanist philosopher and scholar, was another of his students. During the sessions at Florence of the Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1438-1445, during the failed attempts to heal the schism of the Eastern and Western churches, Cosimo de' Medici and his intellectual circle had made acquaintance with the Neoplatonic philosopher George Gemistos Plethon, whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the humanists of Florence that they named him the second Plato. In 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on Greek language and literature at Florence, and Ficino became his pupil. When Cosimo decided to refound Plato's Academy at Florence, he chose Ficino as its head. In 1462, Cosimo supplied Ficino with Greek manuscripts of Plato's work, whereupon Ficino started translating the entire corpus into Latin . Ficino also produced a translation of a collection of Hellenistic Greek documents found by Leonardo da Pistoia later called Hermetica, and the writings of many of the Neoplatonists, including Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Plotinus. Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse along with grammar and logic/dialectic. As an academic discipline within the humanities, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or writers use to inform, persuade, and motivate their audiences. Rhetoric also provides heuristics for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments for particular situations. Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion", and since mastery of the art was necessary for victory in a case at law, for passage of proposals in the assembly, or for fame as a speaker in civic ceremonies, he called it "a combination of the science of logic and of the ethical branch of politics". Aristotle also identified three persuasive audience appeals: logos, pathos, and ethos. The five canons of rhetoric, or phases of developing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times. Although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, to many modern scholars it encompasses every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a much more diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. While classical rhetoric trained speakers to be effective persuaders in public forums and in institutions such as courtrooms and assemblies, contemporary rhetoric investigates human discourse writ large. Rhetoricians have studied the discourses of a wide variety of domains, including the natural and social sciences, fine art, religion, journalism, digital media, fiction, history, cartography, and architecture, along with the more traditional domains of politics and the law. Because the ancient Greeks valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as an important curriculum for those desiring to influence politics. Rhetoric is still associated with its political origins. However, even the original instructors of Western speech--the Sophists--disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to Sophists like Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on a topic in any field, regardless of his experience in that field. This suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking, for his amusement, to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War. Constantinople became the capital of the Roman Empire during the reign of Constantine the Great in 330. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century, Constantinople remained the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire , the Latin Empire , and the Ottoman Empire . Following the Turkish War of Independence, the Turkish capital then moved to Ankara. Officially renamed Istanbul in 1930, the city is today the largest city in Europe, straddling the Bosporus strait and lying in both Europe and Asia, and the financial centre of Turkey. In 324, after the Western and Eastern Roman Empires were reunited, the ancient city of Byzantium was selected to serve as the new capital of the Roman Empire, and the city was renamed Nova Roma, or 'New Rome', by Emperor Constantine the Great. On 11 May 330, it was renamed Constantinople and dedicated to Constantine. Constantinople is generally considered to be the center and the "cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization". From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe. The city became famous for its architectural masterpieces, such as Hagia Sophia, the cathedral of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate; the sacred Imperial Palace, where the emperors lived; the Hippodrome; the Golden Gate of the Land Walls; and opulent aristocratic palaces. The University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century and contained artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453, including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had 100,000 volumes. The city was the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and guardian of Christendom's holiest relics such as the Crown of thorns and the True Cross. Constantinople was famous for its massive and complex fortifications, which ranked among the most sophisticated defensive architecture of antiquity. The Theodosian Walls consisted of a double wall lying about 2 kilometres to the west of the first wall and a moat with palisades in front. Constantinople's location between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara reduced the land area that needed defensive walls. The city was built intentionally to rival Rome, and it was claimed that several elevations within its walls matched Rome's 'seven hills'. The impenetrable defenses enclosed magnificent palaces, domes, and towers, the result of prosperity Constantinople achieved as the gateway between two continents and two seas . Although besieged on numerous occasions by various armies, the defenses of Constantinople proved impenetrable for nearly nine hundred years. In 1204, however, the armies of the Fourth Crusade took and devastated the city, and for several decades, its inhabitants resided under Latin occupation in a dwindling and depopulated city. In 1261 the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos liberated the city, and after the restoration under the Palaiologos dynasty, it enjoyed a partial recovery. With the advent of the Ottoman Empire in 1299, the Byzantine Empire began to lose territories, and the city began to lose population. By the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, making it an enclave inside the Ottoman Empire. The city was finally besieged and conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453, remaining under its control until the early 20th century, after which it was renamed Istanbul under the Empire's successor state, Turkey. Philology 'love of word') is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics with strong ties to etymology. Philology is also defined as the study of literary texts and oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist. In older usage, especially British, philology is more general, covering comparative and historical linguistics. Classical philology studies classical languages. Classical philology principally originated from the Library of Pergamum and the Library of Alexandria around the fourth century BC, continued by Greeks and Romans throughout the Roman and Byzantine Empire. It was eventually resumed by European scholars of the Renaissance, where it was soon joined by philologies of other European , Eurasian , Asian , and African languages. Indo-European studies involve the comparative philology of all Indo-European languages. Philology, with its focus on historical development , is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis. While the contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and the emphasis of Noam Chomsky on syntax, research in historical linguistics often relies on philological materials and findings. The term philology is derived from the Greek philologia , from the terms philos 'love, affection, loved, beloved, dear, friend' and logos 'word, articulation, reason', describing a love of learning, of literature, as well as of argument and reasoning, reflecting the range of activities included under the notion of logos. The term changed little with the Latin philologia, and later entered the English language in the 16th century, from the Middle French philologie, in the sense of 'love of literature'. Johann Reuchlin , sometimes called Johannes, was a German Catholic humanist and a scholar of Greek and Hebrew, whose work also took him to modern-day Austria, Switzerland, Italy, and France. Most of Reuchlin's career centered on advancing German knowledge of Greek and Hebrew. Johann Reuchlin was born at Pforzheim in the Black Forest in 1455, where his father was an official of the Dominican monastery. According to the fashion of the time, his name was graecized by his Italian friends into Capnion , a nickname which Reuchlin used as a sort of transparent mask when he introduced himself as an interlocutor in the De Verbo Mirifico. He remained fond of his home town; he constantly calls himself Phorcensis, and in the De Verbo he ascribes to Pforzheim his inclination towards literature. Here he began his Latin studies in the monastery school, and, though in 1470 he was for a short time at Freiburg, that university seems to have taught him little. Reuchlin's career as a scholar appears to have turned almost on an accident; his fine voice gained him a place in the household of Charles I, Margrave of Baden, and soon, having some reputation as a Latinist, he was chosen to accompany Frederick, the third son of the prince, to the University of Paris. Frederick was some years his junior, and was destined for an ecclesiastical career. This new connection did not last long, but it determined the course of Reuchlin's life. He now began to learn Greek, which had been taught in the French capital since 1470, and he also attached himself to the leader of the Paris realists, Jean a Lapide , a worthy and learned man, whom he followed to the vigorous young University of Basel in 1474. At Basel Reuchlin took his master's degree , and began to lecture with success, teaching a more classical Latin than was then common in German schools, and explaining Aristotle in Greek. His studies in this language had been continued at Basel under Andronicus Contoblacas. In Basel he made the acquaintance of the bookseller Johann Amerbach, for whom he prepared a Latin lexicon , which ran through many editions. This first publication, and Reuchlin's account of his teaching at Basel in a letter to Cardinal Adrian in February 1518, show that he had already found his life's work. He was a born teacher, and this work was not to be done mainly from the professor's chair. Jacques Lefevre d'Etaples was a French theologian and a leading figure in French humanism. He was a precursor of the Protestant movement in France. The "d'Etaples" was not part of his name as such, but used to distinguish him from Jacques Lefevre of Deventer, a less significant contemporary who was a friend and correspondent of Erasmus. Both are also sometimes called by the German version of their name, Jacob/Jakob Faber. He himself had a sometimes tense relationship with Erasmus, whose work on Biblical translation and in theology closely paralleled his own. Although he anticipated some ideas that were important to the Protestant Reformation, Lefevre remained a Roman Catholic throughout his life, and sought to reform the Church without separating from it. Several of his books were condemned as heretical, and he spent some time in exile. He was, however, a favorite of the King of France, Francis I, and enjoyed his protection. He was born of humble parents at Etaples, in Picardy, but appears later to have been possessed of considerable means. He had already been ordained a priest when he entered the University of Paris for higher education. Hermonymus of Sparta was his master in Greek. He visited Italy before 1486, for he heard the lectures of John Argyropoulos, who died in that year; he formed a friendship with Paulus Aemilius of Verona. In 1492 he again travelled in Italy, studying in Florence, Rome and Venice, making himself familiar with the writings of Aristotle, though greatly influenced by the Platonic philosophy. Returning to the University of Paris, he became the director of the College du Cardinal Lemoine. Among his famous pupils were Beatus Rhenanus, Francois Vatable, Charles de Bovelles, and Guillaume Farel; his connection with the last drew him closer to the Calvinistic side of the movement of reform. Farel joined Lefevre at Meaux to help in the training of preachers, before Farel left for Switzerland where he was one of the founders of the Reformed churches. Georgios Gemistos Plethon , commonly known as Gemistos Plethon, was a Greek scholar and one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era. He was a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe. As revealed in his last literary work, the Nomoi or Book of Laws, which he circulated only among close friends, he rejected Christianity in favour of a return to the worship of the classical Hellenic gods, mixed with ancient wisdom based on Zoroaster and the Magi. In 1438-1439 he reintroduced Plato's ideas to Western Europe during the Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism. There, Plethon met and influenced Cosimo de' Medici to found a new Platonic Academy, which, under Marsilio Ficino, proceeded to translate into Latin all of Plato's works, the Enneads of Plotinus, and various other Neoplatonist works. Plethon also formulated his political vision in several speeches throughout his life. The boast in one of the speeches that "We are Hellenes by race and culture" and his proposal of a reborn Byzantine Empire following a utopian Hellenic system of government centered in Mystras, have generated discussion about Byzantine and modern Greek identity. In this regard, Plethon has been labelled both "the last Hellene" and "the first modern Greek". Georgios Gemistos Plethon was born in Constantinople in 1355/1360. Raised in a family of well-educated Orthodox Christians, he studied in Constantinople and Adrianople, before returning to Constantinople and establishing himself as a teacher of philosophy. Adrianople, the Ottoman capital following its capture by the Ottoman Sultan Murad I in 1365, was a centre of learning modelled by Murad on the caliphates of Cairo and Baghdad. Plethon admired Plato so much that late in life he took the similar-meaning name Plethon. Some time before 1410, Emperor Manuel II Paleologos sent him to Mystra in the Despotate of Morea in the southern Peloponnese, which remained his home for the rest of his life. In Constantinople, he had been a senator, and he continued to fulfil various public functions, such as being a judge, and was regularly consulted by rulers of Morea. Despite suspicions of heresy from the Church, he was held in high Imperial favour. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> University of Padua <p> country <o> Italy <s> University of Padua <p> language used <o> Italian <s> University of Padua <p> member of <o> Coimbra Group <s> University of Padua <p> member of <o> Mediterranean Universities Union <s> University of Padua <p> member of <o> Top International Managers in Engineering <s> University of Padua <p> member of <o> European University Association <s> University of Padua <p> location <o> Padua <s> University of Padua <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> Padua <s> University of Padua <p> headquarters location <o> Padua <s> University of Padua <p> category for employees of the organization <o> Category:Academic staff of the University of Padua <s> University of Padua <p> category for alumni of educational institution <o> Category:University of Padua alumni <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca medica Vincenzo Pinali. Sezione moderna. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> instance of <o> university <s> University of Padua <p> owner of <o> Bo Palace <s> University of Padua <p> owner of <o> Torre del Bo <s> University of Padua <p> affiliation <o> Coimbra Group <s> University of Padua <p> topic's main category <o> Category:University of Padua <s> University of Padua <p> member of <o> ORCID, Inc. <s> University of Padua <p> award received <o> Gold Medal of Military Valour <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di storia. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del farmaco. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca medica Vincenzo Pinali. Sezione antica della Facoltà di medicina e chirurgia. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di fisica e astronomia. Sede di fisica. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Dipartimento di mineralogia e petrologia. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Dipartimento di metodi e modelli matematici per le scienze applicate. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di Chimica Cesare Pecile. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di Scienze del farmaco. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di geografia. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca dell'Orto botanico. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca centrale di psicologia Fabio Metelli. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> University of Padua School of Medicine and Surgery <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di neuroscienze. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Dipartimento di diritto pubblico, internazionale, e comunitario. Sezione penale. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Dipartimento di farmacologia ed anestesiologia E. Meneghetti. Sezione farmacologia. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca P. Cancellieri del Centro di studi e di formazione sui diritti dell'uomo e dei popoli. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca centrale di ingegneria. Sede di ingegneria dell'informazione e ingegneria elettrica "Giovanni Someda". Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di diritto comparato Ruggero Meneghelli. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Dipartimento di diritto pubblico, internazionale, e comunitario. Sezione internazionale. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Mediateca del Centro Linguistico di Ateneo. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca centrale di Ingegneria. Sede di tecnica e gestione dei sistemi industriali. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Dipartimento di diritto pubblico, internazionale, e comunitario. Sezione tributario. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di Palazzo Maldura. Sezione Sala riviste. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Centro di Ateneo per la storia della Resistenza e dell'età contemporanea <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di Palazzo Maldura. Sezione Francese. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca medica Vincenzo Pinali. Sezione antica. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di Scienze dell'Antichità Arte Musica Liviano. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di storia. Università. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di fisica e astronomia . Sede di astronomia. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di Slavistica e Ungherese. Università degli studi di Padova (Sezione staccata della Biblioteca Maldura) <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di astronomia. Osservatorio di astrofisica. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Beato Pellegrino library <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca centrale di ingegneria. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Centro di cinematografia scientifica ed audiovisivi. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di scienze economiche e aziendali. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca centrale di giurisprudenza. Sezione di diritto pubblico internazionale e comunitario. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di diritto romano. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di scienze politiche Ettore Anchieri. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Centro internazionale di idrologia della Facoltà di ingegneria. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di filosofia del diritto. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di filosofia. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Dipartimento di geologia, paleontologia e geofisica. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di Scienze Statistiche "Bernardo Colombo". Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca di matematica. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca biologico-medica Vallisneri. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca centrale di Giurisprudenza. Sezione di diritto privato e critica del diritto. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca della sede di Bressanone. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca della Presidenza. Facoltà di giurisprudenza. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca dell'Istituto di storia del teatro e dello spettacolo della Facoltà di scienze della formazione. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca centrale di Agripolis Pietro Arduino. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca dell'Istituto di storia della medicina della Facoltà di medicina e chirurgia. Università degli studi di Padova <s> University of Padua <p> has subsidiary <o> Biblioteca del Dipartimento di geologia, paleontologia e geofisica. Sezione di geofisica. 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<Text> :The University of Padua is an Italian public research university in Padua, Italy. It was founded in 1222 by a group of students and teachers from the University of Bologna, who previously settled in Vicenza, thus, it is the second-oldest university in Italy, as well as the world's fifth-oldest surviving university. The University of Padua was one of the most prominent universities in early modern Europe, known particularly for the rigor of its Aristotelean logic and science. Together with the University of Bologna, Padua had a central role in the italian renaissance, housing and educating a number of italian renaissance mathemathicians, amongst them Nicolaus Copernicus. Today, it is made up of 32 departments and eight schools. Padua is part a network of historical research universities known as the Coimbra Group. In 2021, the university had approximately 72,000 students including undergraduates, postgraduates, and doctoral students. The university is conventionally said to have been founded in 1222 when a large group of students and professors left the University of Bologna in search of more academic freedom . Although it is certain that schools of law and medicine with students from various nations existed near Padua for a few years before 1222, more precisely in Vicenza. In reality, the first place where this group of students and professors from Bologna settled was at the University of Vicenza, where they were welcomed. Due to various vicissitudes the headquarters was permanently moved to Padua for various reasons. The first subjects to be taught were law and theology. The curriculum expanded rapidly, and by 1399 the institution had divided in two: a Universitas Iuristarum for civil law and Canon law, and a Universitas Artistarum which taught astronomy, dialectic, philosophy, grammar, medicine, and rhetoric. There was also a Universitas Theologorum, established in 1373 by Urban V. Bessarion was a Byzantine Greek Renaissance humanist, theologian, Catholic cardinal and one of the famed Greek scholars who contributed to the so-called great revival of letters in the 15th century. He was educated by Gemistus Pletho in Neoplatonic philosophy and later served as the titular Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. He eventually was named a cardinal and was twice considered for the papacy. His baptismal name was Basil . The name Bessarion he took when entering the monastery. He has been mistakenly known also as Johannes Bessarion due to an erroneous interpretation of Gregory III Mammas. Bessarion was born in Trebizond, the Black Sea port in northeastern Anatolia that was the heart of Pontic Greek culture and civilization during the Byzantine and Ottoman periods. The year of his birth has been given as 1389, 1395 or 1403. Constantine Lascaris was a Greek scholar and grammarian, one of the promoters of the revival of Greek learning in Italy during the Renaissance, born in Constantinople. Constantine Lascaris was born in Constantinople, where he was educated by the scholar John Argyropoulos, Gemistus Pletho's friend and pupil. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, he took refuge in Rhodes and then in Italy, where Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, appointed him Greek tutor to his daughter Hippolyta. Here was published his Grammatica Graeca, sive compendium octo orationis partium, remarkable as being probably the first book entirely in Greek issued from the printing press, in 1476. After leaving Milan in 1465, Lascaris taught in Rome and in Naples, to which he had been summoned by Ferdinand I to deliver a course of lectures on Greece. In the following year, on the invitation of the inhabitants, and especially of Ludovico Saccano, he settled in Messina . On the recommendation of Cardinal Bessarion, he was appointed to succeed Andronikos Galaziotes to teach Greek to the Basilian monks of the island. He continued to work in Messina until his death, teaching many pupils who came on purpose to Sicily, from all over Italy, to learn grammar and Greek culture from him. Among his numerous pupils in Milan was Giorgio Valla and, in Messina, Pietro Bembo, Angelo Gabrieli, Urbano Valeriani, Cola Bruno, Bernardino Rizzo, Francesco Faraone, Antonio Maurolico , Francesco Giannelli and Cristobal Escobar. Lascaris bequeathed his library of valuable manuscripts of philosophy, science and magic to the Senate of Messina; the collection, after the Messina revolt , was confiscated and carried to Spain and is now in the Spanish National Library in Madrid. In the second half of the sixteenth century his tomb in Messina was totally destroyed during the repression of the Counter-Reformation. He was a typical Renaissance humanist, with polymathic interests, but especially in Neoplatonism combined with Pythagoreanism . Through his pupils Antonio Maurolico, Francesco Faraone and Giacomo Notese-Genovese his knowledge reached the scientist Francesco Maurolico. Early in 1571 he went to Rome and in the spring of 1575 he went to Venice. In 1571 he married his first cousin Eleonora di Garzia di Toledo, whom he accused of adultery and strangled with a dog leash in July 1576 at the Villa Medici at Cafaggiolo. He also had her supposed lover Bernardino Antinori imprisoned and killed. At the end of 1577, he went for the first of many stays at the Spanish court. He remained in Spain until the end of 1578. During this visit he gained a reputation as a spendthrift and a rake. He left Tuscany in October 1579 to bring Italian troops to Spain and lead them during the mission to Portugal. He stayed in Lisbon until the end of 1582 when he returned to Spain where his presence is documented in 1583 and 1584. His correspondence proves that he had serious money problems. He came to Italy in July 1584 to ask his brothers to cover his debts, incurring their disapproval for living with a woman with a questionable reputation. The Medici court tried to arrange a marriage for Pietro. In July 1586 he went back to Spain, where he continued to accumulate debts. He came back to Italy in November 1587 after Francesco I de' Medici's death and stayed until September 1589, when he went back to Spain. His marriage to Dona Beatriz de Lara, daughter of Manuel de Menezes, the Portuguese Duke of Vila Real, in 1593 did little to stabilize him economically and emotionally. Pietro continued to see his lover Antonia de Carvajal who gave him five children out of wedlock. He also had an illegitimate son with Maria della Ribera. Chortasmenos is first attested as a notary of the patriarchal chancery in 1391. He continued to occupy this position until c. 1415. At some point he became a monk, with the monastic name Ignatios. Eventually he was raised to metropolitan bishop of Selymbria, a post he held by 1431. An ardent bibliophile, Chortasmenos is notable both as a writer as well as a teacher, counting scholars Mark of Ephesus, Bessarion and Gennadius Scholarius among his pupils. He was the author of philological, historical and philosophical works, as well as at least 56 surviving letters to various literati and to Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos. He wrote a hagiography of Constantine the Great and Helena of Constantinople, commentaries on John Chrysostomos and Aristotle, a treatise on hyphenation, as well as poems. It has been suggested that he wrote a historical work, now lost, covering the period between the end of the history of Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos and the early 15th century, when the historians who wrote after the Fall of Constantinople started their works with. Herbert Hunger attributed to him an anonymous account of the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1394-1402, but this was rejected by Paul Gautier. At least 24 surviving manuscripts are known to have belonged to Chortasmenos' library. Among the more notable is the Juliana Anicia Codex of Dioscurides, which he had restored, rebound, and a table of contents and extensive scholia added in Byzantine Greek minuscule in 1406. Beside the same problem in Diophantus' manuscript next to which Fermat would later write his famous marginalia , Chortasmenos wrote, "Thy soul, Diophantus, be with Satan because of the difficulty of your other theorems and particularly of the present theorem." In 2013, Italian Philologist and historian of Mathematics Fabio Acerbi showed that Chortasmenos wasn't cursing Diophantus because of the same passage next to which Fermat wrote his theorem , but because of the far more difficult II.7. Joseph Bryennios ) was a learned Byzantine monk of the 15th century. He was a monk at the Monastery of Stoudios. He wrote many important works of scholarship in support of Orthodoxy, and against the Union of Churches. He died sometime between 1431 and 1438. Language education - the process and practice of teaching a second or foreign language - is primarily a branch of applied linguistics, but can be an interdisciplinary field. There are four main learning categories for language education: communicative competencies, proficiencies, cross-cultural experiences, and multiple literacies. Increasing globalization has created a great need for people in the workforce who can communicate in multiple languages. Common languages are used in areas such as trade, tourism, diplomacy, technology, media, translation, interpretation and science. Many countries such as Korea , Japan and China frame education policies to teach at least one foreign language at the primary and secondary school levels. However, some countries such as India, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, and the Philippines use a second official language in their governments. According to GAO , China has recently been putting enormous importance on foreign language learning, especially the English language. Ancient learners seem to have started by reading, memorising and reciting little stories and dialogues that provided basic vocabulary and grammar in naturalistic contexts. These texts covered topics such as getting dressed in the morning , going to school , visiting a sick friend , trading insults , or getting a new job . The texts were presented bilingually in two narrow columns, the language you were learning on the left and the one you already knew on the right, with the columns matching line for line: each line was effectively a glossary, while each column was a text. Although the need to learn foreign languages is almost as old as human history itself, the origins of modern language education are in the study and teaching of Latin in the 17th century. In the Ancient Near East, Akkadian was the language of diplomacy, as in the Amarna letters. For many centuries, Latin had been the dominant language of education, commerce, religion, and government in much of the Western world. By the end of the 16th century, it had largely been displaced by French, Italian, and English. John Amos Comenius was one of many people who tried to reverse this trend. He composed a complete course for learning Latin, covering the entire school curriculum, culminating in his Opera Didactica Omnia, 1657. </Text>

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<Text> :The University of Florence is an Italian public research university located in Florence, Italy. It comprises 12 schools and has around 50,000 students enrolled. The first university in Florence was the Studium Generale, which was established by the Florentine Republic in 1321. The Studium was recognized by Pope Clement VI in 1349, and authorized to grant regular degrees. The Pope also established that the first Italian faculty of theology would be in Florence. The Studium became an imperial university in 1364, but was moved to Pisa in 1473 when Lorenzo the Magnificent gained control of Florence. Charles VIII moved it back from 1497 to 1515, but it was moved to Pisa again when the Medici family returned to power. The modern university dates from 1859, when a group of disparate higher-studies institutions grouped together in the Istituto di Studi Pratici e di Perfezionamento, which a year later was recognized as a full-fledged university by the government of newly unified Italy. In 1923, the Istituto was officially denominated as University by the Italian Parliament. The university is subdivided into 12 schools, which are: Agriculture; Architecture; Arts; Economics; Education; Engineering; Law; Mathematics, Physics and Natural Sciences; Medicine and Surgery; Pharmacology; Political Science; and Psychology. Donato Acciaioli was an Italian scholar and statesman. He was known for his learning, especially in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to his native state, the Republic of Florence. He was born in Florence, Italy. He was educated under the patronage or guidance of Jacopo Piccolomini-Ammannati , who subsequently was named cardinal. He also putatively gained his knowledge of the classics from Lionardo and Carlo Marsuppini and from the refugee scholar from Byzantium, Giovanni Argiropolo. Having previously been entrusted with several important embassies, in 1473 he became Gonfalonier of Florence, one of the nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months, who formed the government. He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to ask the aid of Louis XI on behalf of the Florentines against Pope Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence and buried in the church of the Carthusian order at the public expense, and his daughters were endowed by his fellow-citizens, since he had little in terms of wealth. He wrote Latin translations of some of Plutarch's Lives ; Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics, Politics, Physics, and De anima; the lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne as well as the biography of the grand seneschal of the Kingdom of Naples, Niccolo Acciaioli by Matteo Palmieri. In the work on Aristotle he had the cooperation of his master John Argyropulus. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone . In some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family , rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching . In most countries, formal teaching of students is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their main role, to teach others in a formal education context, such as at a school or other place of initial formal education or training. A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the classroom teachers may accompany students on field trips, supervise study halls, help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities. They also have the legal duty to protect students from harm, such as that which may result from bullying, sexual harassment, racism or abuse. In some education systems, teachers may be responsible for student discipline. Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is partially because teaching is a social practice, that takes place in a specific context and therefore is shaped by the values of that specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, accepted theories about learning, etc. Genre is any style or form of communication in any mode with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other forms of art or entertainment, based on some set of stylistic criteria Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand-alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, but genres are amalgams of these texts based on agreed-upon or socially inferred conventions. Some genres may have rigid, strictly adhered-to guidelines, while others may show great flexibility. Genre began as an absolute classification system for ancient Greek literature, as set out in Aristotle's Poetics. For Aristotle, poetry , prose, and performance each had specific design features that supported appropriate content of each genre. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, for example, and even actors were restricted to their genre under the assumption that a type of person could tell one type of story best. Genres proliferate and develop beyond Aristotle's classifications-- in response to changes in audiences and creators. Genre has become a dynamic tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictability through artistic expression. Given that art is often a response to a social state, in that people write, paint, sing, dance, and otherwise produce art about what they know about, the use of genre as a tool must be able to adapt to changing meanings. The term genre is much used in the history and criticism of visual art, but in art history has meanings that overlap rather confusingly. Genre painting is a term for paintings where the main subject features human figures to whom no specific identity attaches - in other words, figures are not portraits, characters from a story, or allegorical personifications. These are distinguished from staffage: incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting. Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings. Method , literally means a pursuit of knowledge, investigation, mode of prosecuting such inquiry, or system. In recent centuries it more often means a prescribed process for completing a task. The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, comics, design, crafts, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines, such as performing arts, conceptual art, and textile arts, also involve aspects of the visual arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the visual arts are the applied arts, such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design, and decorative art. Current usage of the term "visual arts" includes fine art as well as applied or decorative arts and crafts, but this was not always the case. Before the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain and elsewhere at the turn of the 20th century, the term 'artist' had for some centuries often been restricted to a person working in the fine arts and not the decorative arts, crafts, or applied visual arts media. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement, who valued vernacular art forms as much as high forms. Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts, maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts. The increasing tendency to privilege painting, and to a lesser degree sculpture, above other arts has been a feature of Western art as well as East Asian art. In both regions, painting has been seen as relying to the highest degree on the imagination of the artist and being the furthest removed from manual labour - in Chinese painting, the most highly valued styles were those of "scholar-painting", at least in theory practiced by gentleman amateurs. The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes. Training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems. In Europe, the Renaissance movement to increase the prestige of the artist led to the academy system for training artists, and today most of the people who are pursuing a career in the arts train in art schools at tertiary levels. Visual arts have now become an elective subject in most education systems. </Text>

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<Text> :Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact. Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts, as demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture, of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aediculae replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings. The word "Renaissance" derives from the term rinascita, which means rebirth, first appeared in Giorgio Vasari's Le vite de' piu eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori . Although the term Renaissance was used first by the French historian Jules Michelet, it was given its more lasting definition from the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt, whose book Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien, 1860 was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance. The folio of measured drawings Edifices de Rome moderne; ou, Recueil des palais, maisons, eglises, couvents et autres monuments , first published in 1840 by Paul Letarouilly, also played an important part in the revival of interest in this period. Erwin Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, The Renaissance style was recognized by contemporaries in the term "all'antica", or "in the ancient manner" . This template's initial visibility currently defaults to autocollapse, meaning that if there is another collapsible item on the page , it is hidden apart from its title bar; if not, it is fully visible. Engineers, as practitioners of engineering, are professionals who invent, design, analyze, build and test machines, complex systems, structures, gadgets and materials to fulfill functional objectives and requirements while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium . The foundational qualifications of a licensed professional engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice and passage of engineering board examinations. A professional engineer is competent by virtue of his/her fundamental education and training to apply the scientific method and outlook to the analysis and solution of engineering problems. He/she is able to assume personal responsibility for the development and application of engineering science and knowledge, notably in research, design, construction, manufacturing, superintending, managing, and in the education of the engineer. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a routine mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgment and the ability to supervise the technical and administrative work of others. His/her education will have been such as to make him/her capable of closely and continuously following progress in his/her branch of engineering science by consulting newly published works on a worldwide basis, assimilating such information, and applying it independently. He/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. His/her education and training will have been such that he/she will have acquired a broad and general appreciation of the engineering sciences as well as thorough insight into the special features of his/her own branch. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice and assume responsibility for the direction of important tasks in his/her branch. Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, including 14% actively searching for information. Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements and needs. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. Physiology 'nature, origin', and -logia 'study of') is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out chemical and physical functions in a living system. According to the classes of organisms, the field can be divided into medical physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, cell physiology, and comparative physiology. Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes, homeostatic control mechanisms, and communication between cells. Physiological state is the condition of normal function. In contrast, pathological state refers to abnormal conditions, including human diseases. Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines: Although there are differences between animal, plant, and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of cell division, cell signaling, cell growth, and cell metabolism. An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be an entirely new concept. If an idea is unique enough either as a stand-alone invention or as a significant improvement over the work of others, it can be patented. A patent, if granted, gives the inventor a proprietary interest in the patent over a specific period of time, which can be licensed for financial gain. An inventor creates or discovers an invention. The word inventor comes from the Latin verb invenire, invent-, to find. Although inventing is closely associated with science and engineering, inventors are not necessarily engineers or scientists. Due to advances in artificial intelligence, the term "inventor" no longer exclusively applies to an occupation . Some inventions can be patented. The system of patents was established to encourage inventors by granting limited-term, limited monopoly on inventions determined to be sufficiently novel, non-obvious, and useful. A patent legally protects the intellectual property rights of the inventor and legally recognizes that a claimed invention is actually an invention. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary by country and the process of obtaining a patent is often expensive. Another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines and books. Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of human knowledge, experience or capability. The Bavarian State Painting Collections , based in Munich, Germany, oversees artwork held by the Free State of Bavaria. It was established in 1799 as Centralgemaldegaleriedirektion. Artwork includes paintings, sculptures, photographs, video art and installation art. Pieces are on display in numerous galleries and museums throughout Bavaria. In 2012, the Bavarian State Paintings Collections announced the restitution of a painting from the workshop of Jan Brueghel the Elder to the heirs of Julius Kien of Vienna. Bavaria had acquired it from the collection of Fritz Thyssen. In 2013, the Bavarian State Painting Collections agreed to return two watercolours by Max Pechstein to the heirs of Professor Curt Glaser, confirming that the auction of his art collection and library were entirely due to Nazi persecution. In 2016, the heirs of Alfred Flechtheim, a German-Jewish art dealer and collector, sued the German state of Bavaria, arguing in court papers that it has refused to turn over works of art that the heirs say were looted by the Nazis before World War II. Painters exhibited in the museum include Beato Angelico, Fra Angelico, Canaletto, Ludovico Carracci , Agostino Carracci , Correggio, Leonardo da Vinci, Sebastiano del Piombo, Guercino , Parmigianino , Tintoretto, and others. Later, the remaining collection was increased with the addition of Greco-Roman findings, donations, and with the restitution of some of the works that had been taken to Naples, as well as, through new acquisitions under Duke Ferdinand . During the French occupation of Parma , the works were moved to Paris, returning in 1816. Duchess Marie Louise reordered the collections in the Palazzo della Pilotta and built the hall that now bears her name. She also acquired several noble collections in the duchy to avoid their dispersal. The Biblioteca Ambrosiana is a historic library in Milan, Italy, also housing the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, the Ambrosian art gallery. Named after Ambrose, the patron saint of Milan, it was founded in 1609 by Cardinal Federico Borromeo, whose agents scoured Western Europe and even Greece and Syria for books and manuscripts. Some major acquisitions of complete libraries were the manuscripts of the Benedictine monastery of Bobbio and the library of the Paduan Vincenzo Pinelli, whose more than 800 manuscripts filled 70 cases when they were sent to Milan and included the famous Iliad, the Ilias Picta. During Cardinal Borromeo's sojourns in Rome, 1585-95 and 1597-1601, he envisioned developing this library in Milan as one open to scholars and that would serve as a bulwark of Catholic scholarship in the service of the Counter-Reformation against the treatises issuing from Protestant presses. To house the cardinal's 15,000 manuscripts and twice that many printed books, construction began in 1603 under designs and direction of Lelio Buzzi and Francesco Maria Richini. When its first reading room, the Sala Fredericiana, opened to the public on 8 December 1609 it was one of the earliest public libraries. One innovation was that its books were housed in cases ranged along the walls, rather than chained to reading tables, the latter a medieval practice seen still today in the Laurentian Library of Florence. A printing press was attached to the library, and a school for instruction in the classical languages. Constant acquisitions, soon augmented by bequests, required enlargement of the space. Borromeo intended an academy and a collection of pictures, for which a new building was initiated in 1611-18 to house the Cardinal's paintings and drawings, the nucleus of the Pinacoteca. Cardinal Borromeo gave his collection of paintings and drawings to the library, too. Shortly after the cardinal's death, his library acquired twelve manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci, including the Codex Atlanticus. The library now contains some 12,000 drawings by European artists, from the 14th through the 19th centuries, which have come from the collections of a wide range of patrons and artists, academicians, collectors, art dealers, and architects. Prized manuscripts, including the Leonardo codices, were requisitioned by the French during the Napoleonic occupation, and only partly returned after 1815. The Walker Art Gallery's collection dates from 1819 when the Liverpool Royal Institution acquired 37 paintings from the collection of William Roscoe, who had to sell his collection following the failure of his banking business, though it was saved from being broken up by his friends and associates. In 1843, the Royal Institution's collection was displayed in a purpose-built gallery next to the Institution's main premises. In 1850 negotiations by an association of citizens to take over the Institution's collection, for display in a proposed art gallery, library and museum, came to nothing. The collection grew over the following decades: in 1851 Liverpool Town Council bought Liverpool Academy's diploma collection and further works were acquired from the Liverpool Society for the Fine Arts, founded in 1858. The competition between the academy and society eventually led to both collapsing. William Brown Library and Museum opened in 1860, named after a Liverpool merchant whose generosity enabled the Town Council to act upon an 1852 Act of Parliament which allowed the establishment of a public library, museum and art gallery, and in 1871 the council organised the first Liverpool Autumn Exhibition, held at the new library and museum. </Text>

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<Text> :Drawing is a visual art that uses an instrument to mark paper or another two-dimensional surface. The instrument might be pencils, crayons, pens with inks, brushes with paints, or combinations of these, and in more modern times, computer styluses with graphics tablets. A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, vellum, wood, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, have been used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard. Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating ideas. The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities. In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering, and technical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman, or draughtsman. Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface. Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support. The Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China is a vast encyclopedic work written in China during the reigns of the Qing dynasty emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng. It was begun in 1700 and completed in 1725. The work was headed and compiled mainly by scholar Chen Menglei . Later on the Chinese painter Jiang Tingxi helped work on it as well. The encyclopaedia contained 10,000 volumes. Sixty-four imprints were made of the first edition, known as the Wu-ying Hall edition. The encyclopaedia consisted of 6 series, 32 divisions, and 6,117 sections. It contained 800,000 pages and over 100 million Chinese characters, making it the largest leishu ever printed. Topics covered included natural phenomena, geography, history, literature and government. The work was printed in 1726 using copper movable type printing. It spanned around 10 thousand rolls . To illustrate the huge size of the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China, it is estimated to have contained 3 to 4 times the amount of material in the Encyclopaedia Britannica Eleventh Edition. In 1908, the Guangxu Emperor of China presented a set of the encyclopaedia in 5,000 fascicles to the China Society of London, which has deposited it on loan to Cambridge University Library. Another one of the three extant copies of the encyclopedia outside of China is located at the C.V. Starr East Asian Library at Columbia University. A complete copy in Japan was destroyed in the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake. The Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China is known as the Gujin Tushu Jicheng or Qinding Gujin Tushu Jicheng in Chinese, also translated as the Imperial Encyclopaedia, the Complete Collection of Ancient and Modern Illustrations and Texts, the Complete Collection of Ancient and Modern Writings and Charts, or the Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times. Painting is a visual art, which is characterized by the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface . The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. In art, the term "painting" describes both the act and the result of the action . The support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may incorporate multiple other materials, including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold leaf, and even whole objects. Painting is an important form of visual art, bringing in elements such as drawing, composition, gesture, narration, and abstraction. Paintings can be naturalistic and representational , photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic , emotive or political in nature . A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by religious art. Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, to scenes from the life of Buddha . Doxastic attitudes are epistemic attitudes which a person can hold towards a proposition. The most commonly discussed doxastic attitude is belief . Other doxastic attitudes include disbelief and suspension of judgment . The term doxastic is derived from the ancient Greek word doxa , which means "belief". Thus, doxastic attitudes include beliefs and other psychological attitudes which resemble beliefs. Doxastic attitudes in many ways resemble propositional attitudes, although the two concepts are distinct from one another. Other terms which are commonly used to refers to beliefs, such as "judgment" and "opinion", can also be classified as doxastic attitudes. More broadly, the term "doxastic attitude" can also refer to states sufficiently similar to beliefs, such as psychological certainty and credence. A worldview or a world-view or Weltanschauung is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual's or society's knowledge, culture, and point of view. A worldview can include natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics. The term worldview is a calque of the German word Weltanschauung i, composed of Welt and Anschauung . The German word is also used in English. It is a concept fundamental to German philosophy, especially epistemology and refers to a wide world perception. Additionally, it refers to the framework of ideas and beliefs forming a global description through which an individual, group or culture watches and interprets the world and interacts with it as a social reality. Within cognitive philosophy and the cognitive sciences is the German concept of Weltanschauung. This expression is used to refer to the "wide worldview" or "wide world perception" of a people, family, or person. The Weltanschauung of a people originates from the unique world experience of a people, which they experience over several millennia. The language of a people reflects the Weltanschauung of that people in the form of its syntactic structures and untranslatable connotations and its denotations. The term Weltanschauung is often wrongly attributed to Wilhelm von Humboldt, the founder of German ethnolinguistics. However, Humboldt's key concept was Weltansicht. Weltansicht was used by Humboldt to refer to the overarching conceptual and sensorial apprehension of reality shared by a linguistic community . On the other hand, Weltanschauung, first used by Immanuel Kant and later popularized by Hegel, was always used in German and later in English to refer more to philosophies, ideologies and cultural or religious perspectives, than to linguistic communities and their mode of apprehending reality. Irreligion takes many forms, ranging from the casual and unaware to full-fledged philosophies such as secular humanism and antitheism. Social scientists tend to define irreligion as a purely naturalist worldview that excludes a belief in anything supernatural. The broadest and loosest definition, serving as an upper limit, is the lack of religious identification, though many non-identifiers express metaphysical and even religious beliefs. The narrowest and strictest is subscribing to positive atheism. According to the Pew Research Center's 2012 global study of 230 countries and territories, 16% of the world's population does not identify with any religion. The population of the religiously unaffiliated, sometimes referred to as "nones", has grown significantly in recent years. Measurement of irreligiosity requires great cultural sensitivity, especially outside the West, where the concepts of "religion" or "the secular" are not always rooted in local culture. The term irreligion is a combination of the noun religion and the ir- form of the prefix in-, signifying "not" . It was first attested in French as irreligion in 1527, then in English as irreligion in 1598. It was borrowed into Dutch as irreligie in the 17th century, though it is not certain from which language. Irreligion is defined as a rejection of religion, but whether it is distinct from lack of religion is disputed. The Encyclopedia of religion and society defines it as the "rejection of religion in general or any of its more specific organized forms, as distinct from absence of religion"; while the Oxford English dictionary defines it as want of religion; hostility to or disregard of religious principles; irreligious conduct; and the Merriam Webster dictionary defines it as "neglectful of religion: lacking religious emotions, doctrines, or practices". Agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of God, of the divine or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable. Another definition provided is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist." The English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the word agnostic in 1869, and said "It simply means that a man shall not say he knows or believes that which he has no scientific grounds for professing to know or believe." Earlier thinkers, however, had written works that promoted agnostic points of view, such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta, a 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife; and Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about the existence of "the gods". principle may be stated in various ways, but they all amount to this: that it is wrong for a man to say that he is certain of the objective truth of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty. This is what Agnosticism asserts; and, in my opinion, it is all that is essential to Agnosticism. Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the essence of which lies in the rigorous application of a single principle ... Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable.Apatheism is the attitude of apathy toward the existence or non-existence of God. It is more of an attitude rather than a belief, claim, or belief system. The term was coined by Robert Nash, theology professor at Mercer University, in 2001. An apatheist is someone who is not interested in accepting or rejecting any claims that gods exist or do not exist. The existence of a god or gods is not rejected, but may be designated irrelevant. One of the first recorded apatheists was arguably Denis Diderot , who wrote: "It is very important not to mistake hemlock for parsley; but not at all so to believe or not in God." Philosopher Trevor Hedberg has called apatheism "uncharted territory in the philosophy of religion". Political theorist and constitutional law scholar, Adam Scott Kunz, has further defined apatheism as "the philosophical attitude of indifference, both public and private, to the question of the existence of a deity, the metaphysical and practical value of loyalty to that deity, and/or the interaction of that deity with the natural world". There is a common misconception that journalist Jonathon Rauch coined the word apatheism in his 2003 essay "Let It Be" . Apatheism was first coined by Canadian sociologist Stuart Johnson in his study of indifference to religion amid secularization. </Text>

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<Text> :Theism is broadly defined as the belief in the existence of at least one deity. In common parlance, or when contrasted with deism, the term often describes the philosophical conception of God that is found in classical theism--or conception found in monotheism--or gods found in polytheistic religions--or a belief in God or gods without the rejection of revelation as is characteristic of deism. Atheism is commonly understood as non-acceptance or outright rejection of theism in the broadest sense of the term . Related is the claim that the existence of any deity is unknown or unknowable; a stance known as agnosticism. Agnostic theism is a personal belief in one or more deities along with acceptance that the existence or non-existence of the deity or deities is fundamentally unknowable. The term theism derives from the Greek theos or theoi meaning "god" or "gods". The term theism was first used by Ralph Cudworth . In Cudworth's definition, they are "strictly and properly called Theists, who affirm, that a perfectly conscious understanding being, or mind, existing of itself from eternity, was the cause of all other things". Classical theism is the form of theism that describes God as the Absolute Being. Central insights of classical theistic theology includes emanationism and divine simplicity. Classical theistic traditions can be observed in major religions and philosophies; such as Sufism in Islam, Vaishnavism in Hinduism, Sikhism in general, and Platonism. Marxist-Leninist atheism, also known as Marxist-Leninist scientific atheism, is the antireligious element of Marxism-Leninism. Based upon a dialectical-materialist understanding of humanity's place in nature, Marxist-Leninist atheism proposes that religion is the opium of the people; thus, Marxism-Leninism advocates atheism, rather than religious belief. To support those ideological premises, Marxist-Leninist atheism proposes an explanation for origin of religion and explains methods for the scientific criticism of religion. The philosophic roots of Marxist-Leninist atheism are in the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and of Ludwig Feuerbach , of Karl Marx and of Vladimir Lenin . Marxist-Leninist atheism informed public policy in various nations, such as the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China for example. Some non-Soviet Marxists opposed this antireligious stance, and in certain forms of Marxist thinking, such as the liberation theology movements in Latin America, Marxist-Leninist atheism was rejected entirely. In training as a philosopher in the early 19th century, Karl Marx participated in debates about the philosophy of religion, specifically about the interpretations presented in Hegelianism, i.e. "What is rational is real; and what is real is rational." In those debates about reason and reality, the Hegelians considered philosophy an intellectual enterprise in service to the insights of Christian religious comprehension, which Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel had elaborately rationalized in The Phenomenology of Spirit . Although critical of contemporary religion, as a 19th-century intellectual, Hegel pursued the ontology and the epistemology of Christianity, as a personal interest compatible with Christian theological explanations of Dasein -- explanations of the questions of existence and of being -- which he clarified, systematized, and justified in his philosophy. Atheism - rejection of belief in the existence of deities. In a narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Most inclusively, atheism is simply the absence of belief that any deities exist. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists. The term New Atheism describes the positions of some atheist academics, writers, scientists, and philosophers of the 20th and 21st centuries. New Atheism advocates the view that superstition, religion, and irrationalism should not simply be tolerated. Instead, they advocate the antitheist view that the various forms of theism should be criticised, countered, examined, and challenged by rational argument, especially when they exert strong influence on the broader society, such as in government, education, and politics. Major figures of New Atheism include Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, Christopher Hitchens and Daniel Dennett, collectively referred to as the "four horsemen" of the movement, as well as Ayaan Hirsi Ali until her conversion to Christianity in 2023. The 2004 publication of The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason by Sam Harris, a bestseller in the United States, was joined over the next couple years by a series of popular best-sellers by atheist authors. Harris was motivated by the events of 11 September 2001, for which he blamed Islam, while also directly criticizing Christianity and Judaism. Two years later, Harris followed up with Letter to a Christian Nation, which was a severe criticism of Christianity. Also in 2006, following his television documentary series The Root of All Evil?, Richard Dawkins published The God Delusion, which was on the New York Times best-seller list for 51 weeks. In 2010, Tom Flynn, then editor of Free Inquiry, stated that the only thing new about "New Atheism" was the wider publication of atheist material by big-name publishers, books that appeared on bestseller lists and were read by millions. Mitchell Landsberg, covering a gathering held by the Council for Secular Humanism in 2010, said that religious skeptics in attendance were at odds between "new atheists" who preferred to "encourage open confrontation with the devout" and "accommodationists" who preferred "a subtler, more tactical approach." Paul Kurtz was ousted from the Center for Inquiry in the late 2000's. This was in part due to a perception that Kurtz was "on the mellower end of the spectrum", according to Flynn. In November 2015, The New Republic published an article entitled, "Is the New Atheism dead?" The atheist and evolutionary biologist David Sloan Wilson wrote in 2016, "The world appears to be tiring of the New Atheism movement." In 2017, PZ Myers who formerly considered himself a new atheist, publicly renounced the New Atheism movement. Atheism is either the general lack of belief in the existence of deities or a specified disbelief in specified deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists. Historically, evidence of atheistic viewpoints can be traced back to classical antiquity and early Indian philosophy. In the Western world, atheism declined as Christianity gained prominence. The 16th century and the Age of Enlightenment marked the resurgence of atheistic thought in Europe. Atheism achieved a significant position in the 20th century with legislation protecting freedom of thought. According to 2003 estimates, there are at least 500 million atheists in the world. Atheist organizations have defended the autonomy of science, secular ethics and secularism. Arguments for atheism range from philosophical to social and historical approaches. Rationales for not believing in deities include the lack of evidence, the problem of evil, the argument from inconsistent revelations, the rejection of concepts that cannot be falsified, and the argument from nonbelief. Nonbelievers contend that atheism is a more parsimonious position than theism and that everyone is born without beliefs in deities; therefore, they argue that the burden of proof lies not on the atheist to disprove the existence of gods but on the theist to provide a rationale for theism. Writers disagree on how best to define and classify atheism, contesting what supernatural entities are considered gods, whether atheism is a philosophical position in its own right or merely the absence of one, and whether it requires a conscious, explicit rejection. However the norm is to define atheism in terms of an explicit stance against theism. Secularity, also the secular or secularness , is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Origins of secularity can be traced to the Bible itself and fleshed out through Christian history into the modern era. In the medieval period there were even secular clergy. Furthermore, secular and religious entities were not separated in the medieval period, but coexisted and interacted naturally. Today, anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negatively or positively, may be considered secular. Secularity is best understood, not as being "anti-religious", but as being "religiously neutral" since many activities in religious bodies are secular themselves, and though there are multiple types of secularity or secularization, most do not lead to irreligiosity. Linguistically, a process by which anything becomes secular is named secularization, though the term is mainly reserved for the secularization of society; and any concept or ideology promoting the secular may be termed secularism, a term generally applied to the ideology dictating no religious influence on the public sphere. Scholars recognize that secularity is structured by Protestant models of Christianity, shares a parallel language to religion, and intensifies Protestant features such as iconoclasm, skepticism towards rituals, and emphasizes beliefs. In doing so, secularism perpetuates Christian traits under a different name. Most cultures around the world do not have tension or dichotomous views of religion and secularity. Since religion and secular are both Western concepts that were formed under the influence of Christian theology, other cultures do not necessarily have words or concepts that resemble or are equivalent to them. Historically, the word secular was not related or linked to religion, but was a freestanding term in Latin that would relate to any mundane endeavour. However, the term, saecula saeculorum as found in the New Testament in the Vulgate translation of the original Koine Greek phrase eis tous aionas ton aionon , e.g. at Galatians 1:5, was used in the early Christian church , in the doxologies, to denote the coming and going of the ages, the grant of eternal life, and the long duration of created things from their beginning to forever and ever. Secular and secularity derive from the Latin word saeculum which meant "of a generation, belonging to an age" or denoted a period of about one hundred years. The Christian doctrine that God exists outside time led medieval Western culture to use secular to indicate separation from specifically religious affairs and involvement in temporal ones. </Text>

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<Text> :A belief is a subjective attitude that a proposition is true or a state of affairs is the case. A subjective attitude is a mental state of having some stance, take, or opinion about something. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take it to be true; for instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the proposition "snow is white". However, holding a belief does not require active introspection. For example, few individuals carefully consider whether or not the sun will rise tomorrow, simply assuming that it will. Moreover, beliefs need not be occurrent , but can instead be dispositional . There are various ways that contemporary philosophers have tried to describe beliefs, including as representations of ways that the world could be , as dispositions to act as if certain things are true , as interpretive schemes for making sense of someone's actions , or as mental states that fill a particular function . Some have also attempted to offer significant revisions to our notion of belief, including eliminativists about belief who argue that there is no phenomenon in the natural world which corresponds to our folk psychological concept of belief and formal epistemologists who aim to replace our bivalent notion of belief with the more permissive, probabilistic notion of credence . Beliefs are the subject of various important philosophical debates. Notable examples include: "What is the rational way to revise one's beliefs when presented with various sorts of evidence?", "Is the content of our beliefs entirely determined by our mental states, or do the relevant facts have any bearing on our beliefs ?", "How fine-grained or coarse-grained are our beliefs?", and "Must it be possible for a belief to be expressible in language, or are there non-linguistic beliefs?" Various conceptions of the essential features of beliefs have been proposed, but there is no consensus as to which is the right one. Representationalism is the traditionally dominant position. Its most popular version maintains that attitudes toward representations, which are typically associated with propositions, are mental attitudes that constitute beliefs.These attitudes are part of the internal constitution of the mind holding the attitude. This view contrasts with functionalism, which defines beliefs not in terms of the internal constitution of the mind but in terms of the function or the causal role played by beliefs. According to dispositionalism, beliefs are identified with dispositions to behave in certain ways. This view can be seen as a form of functionalism, defining beliefs in terms of the behavior they tend to cause. Interpretationism constitutes another conception, which has gained popularity in contemporary philosophy. It holds that the beliefs of an entity are in some sense dependent on or relative to someone's interpretation of this entity. Representationalism tends to be associated with a mind-body-dualism. Naturalist considerations against this dualism are among the motivations for choosing one of the alternative conceptions. John the Baptist was a Judaean preacher active in the area of the Jordan River in the early 1st century AD. He is also known as Saint John the Forerunner in Eastern Orthodoxy, John the Immerser in some Baptist Christian traditions, Saint John by certain Catholic churches, and Prophet Yahya in Islam. He is sometimes alternatively referred to as John the Baptiser. John is mentioned by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus and he is revered as a major religious figure in Christianity, Islam, the Baha'i faith, the Druze faith, and Mandaeism, the latter in which he is considered to be the final and most vital prophet. He is considered to be a prophet of God by all of the aforementioned faiths, and is honoured as a saint in many Christian denominations. According to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself, and the Gospels portray John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus himself identifies John as "Elijah who is to come", which is a direct reference to the Book of Malachi , as confirmed by the angel who announced John's birth to his father, Zechariah. According to the Gospel of Luke, John and Jesus were relatives. Some scholars maintain that John belonged to the Essenes, a semi-ascetic Jewish sect who expected a messiah and practised ritual baptism. John used baptism as the central symbol or sacrament of his pre-messianic movement. Most biblical scholars agree that John baptized Jesus, and several New Testament accounts report that some of Jesus's early followers had previously been followers of John. According to the New Testament, John was sentenced to death and subsequently beheaded by Herod Antipas around AD 30 after John rebuked him for divorcing his wife Phasaelis and then unlawfully wedding Herodias, the wife of his brother Herod Philip I. Josephus also mentions John in the Antiquities of the Jews and states that he was executed by order of Herod Antipas in the fortress at Machaerus. Followers of John existed well into the 2nd century AD, and some proclaimed him to be the Messiah awaited by Jews. In modern times, the followers of John the Baptist are the Mandaeans, an ancient ethnoreligious group who believe that he is their greatest and final prophet. In the Roman martyrology, apart from Jesus and the Virgin Mary, John is the only saint whose birth and death are both commemorated. Everhard or Eberhard Jabach was a French businessman, art collector, and director of the French East India Company. He was born in Cologne in the Holy Roman Empire but later naturalised as a French subject. His father had expanded the family fortune and founded a bank in Antwerp, then in the Spanish Netherlands. Everhard himself settled in France in 1638 and was naturalised as a French subject in 1647. In 1648, he married Anna Maria de Groote in Cologne; she was the daughter of one of the city's senators, and he had four children with her. Francis Haskell called him "an opulent banker", associated with a trading company based in Amsterdam and one of the directors of the French East India Company, managing the 'factory' at Corbeil. In 1671, his fortune was valued at 2 million livres. Now lost, his town house, or 'hotel particulier, was on rue Neuve-Saint-Merri; he put on plays there, whose audiences included Voltaire, before it became the base of the "Caisse Jabach" Comptoir commercial. Jabach is most notable as a famous collector of drawings, paintings, sculptures, objets d'art, bronzes, and prints by Raphael, the Caracci brothers, Rubens, Paul Bril, Durer, Le Brun, and Poussin. They came from the Ludovisi collection in Italy, from the sales in the Netherlands of the collections of the Earl of Arundel after the death of his widow in 1654 and those in London of Charles I of England in 1650-1653, from other collections in Germany, and from the dispersal of Rubens' estate. Some of his drawings originated in Vasari's noted Libro de' Disegni portfolio. In 1661-62 and 1671, he ceded much of his collection to Louis XIV--a total of 5,000 drawings in the second sale, now in the Louvre's Cabinet des dessins. In 1741, Pierre-Jean Mariette stated that "in selling the King his paintings and drawings, held back some of the drawings, and certainly not the least beautiful ones". At his death, he left behind another collection of 4,000 drawings in 26 portfolios; the Louvre's departement des Arts graphiques conducted an inventory of them after his death and published it in 2002. In 2013, one aspect of Jabach's collection was the subject of an exhibition at the Louvre called "A German at the Court of Louis XIV; From Durer to Van Dyck: the Everhard Jabach collection of Northern Art".Louis XIV , also known as Louis the Great or the Sun King , was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any sovereign. Although Louis XIV's France was emblematic of the Age of Absolutism in Europe, the King surrounded himself with a variety of significant political, military, and cultural figures, such as Bossuet, Colbert, Louvois, Le Brun, Le Notre, Lully, Mazarin, Moliere, Racine, Turenne, Conde, and Vauban. Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister Cardinal Mazarin, when the King famously declared that he would take over the job himself. An adherent of the divine right of kings, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralised state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France; by compelling many members of the nobility to reside at his lavish Palace of Versailles, he succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many of whom had participated in the Fronde rebellions during his minority. He thus became one of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured until the French Revolution. Louis also enforced uniformity of religion under the Catholic Church. His revocation of the Edict of Nantes abolished the rights of the Huguenot Protestant minority and subjected them to a wave of dragonnades, effectively forcing Huguenots to emigrate or convert, virtually destroying the French Protestant community. During Louis's long reign, France emerged as the leading European power and regularly asserted its military strength. A conflict with Spain marked his entire childhood, while during his personal rule, Louis fought three major continental conflicts, each against powerful foreign alliances: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years' War, and the War of the Spanish Succession. In addition, France also contested shorter wars, such as the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions. Warfare defined Louis's foreign policy and his personal ambition shaped his approach. Impelled by "a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique", he sensed that war was the ideal way to enhance his glory. His wars strained France's resources to the utmost, while in peacetime, he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military. Upon his death in 1715, Louis XIV left his great-grandson and successor, Louis XV, a powerful kingdom, albeit in major debt after the War of the Spanish Succession that had raged on since 1701. Significant achievements during Louis XIV's reign which would go on to have a wide influence on the early modern period, well into the Industrial Revolution and until today, include the construction of the Canal du Midi, the patronage of artists, and the founding of the French Academy of Sciences. The Christ Child, also known as Divine Infant, Baby Jesus, Infant Jesus, the Divine Child, Child Jesus, the Holy Child, Divino Nino, and Santo Nino in Hispanic nations, refers to Jesus Christ from his nativity until age 12. From about the third or fourth century onwards, the child Jesus is frequently shown in paintings, and sculpture. Commonly these are nativity scenes showing the birth of Jesus, with his mother Mary, and her husband Joseph. Depictions as a baby with the Virgin Mary, known as Madonna and Child, are iconographical types in Eastern and Western traditions. Other scenes from his time as a baby, of his circumcision, presentation at the temple, the adoration of the Magi, and the flight into Egypt, are common. Scenes showing his developing years are more rare but not unknown. Saint Joseph, Anthony of Padua, and Saint Christopher are often depicted holding the Christ Child. The Christian mystics Saint Teresa of Avila, Saint Therese of Lisieux, along with the devotees of Divino Nino such as Mother Angelica and Father Giovanni Rizzo claim to have had apparitions of Jesus as a toddler. The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne or Madonna and Child with Saint Anne is a subject in Christian art showing Saint Anne with her daughter, the Virgin Mary, and her grandson Jesus. This depiction has been popular in Germany and neighboring countries since the 14th century. In the 13th century, Jacobus de Voragine incorporated apocryphal accounts from the Protoevangelium of James regarding the parents of the Blessed Virgin Mary in his Golden Legend. The cult of St. Anne spread rapidly and she became one of the most popular saints of the Latin Church. Saint Anne was recognized as the patroness of grandparents, women in labor, and of miners, Christ being compared to gold, and Mary to silver. Inscriptions on some medieval church bells indicate that Saint Anne was invoked for protection against thunderstorms. The subject of Saint Anne and the Virgin and Child was a popular subject in both painting and sculpture. This was due in part to its universality "--the love and tension between generations and also between humanity and the divine." The Anna Selbdritt style, popular in northern Germany in the 1500s, demonstrates the medieval focus on the humanity of Jesus. St. Anne's motherhood of Mary was viewed as mirroring Mary motherhood of Jesus. In 1497, the German Benedictine abbot Johannes Trithemius, in his De purissima et immaculate conception virginis Marie et de festivitate sancta Annematris eius linked the Immaculate Conception of Mary to the devotion to her mother. While the matter of the Immaculate Conception remained a subject of debate between philosophers and theologians, the depiction of Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate was sometimes interpreted as a symbolic representation of the conception of Mary. Saint Anne was revered as the avia Christi , matriarch of the Holy Kinship and exemplary mother. Fourteenth-century images of Saint Anne with the Virgin and Child were often modeled on the earlier seat of Wisdom motif. Mary was often shown as a much smaller figure than her mother. As devotion to St. Anne developed 14th century, sometimes a statue of the Madonna and Child was modified to include the additional figure of St. Anne. Anne's traditional colors are green and red, although often she is shown wearing the more sober colors of an older woman. Mary was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is a central figure of Christianity, venerated under various titles such as virgin or queen, many of them mentioned in the Litany of Loreto. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is the Mother of God. Other Protestant views on Mary vary, with some holding her to have lesser status. The synoptic Gospels name Mary as the mother of Jesus. The gospels of Matthew and Luke describe Mary as a virgin who was chosen by God to conceive Jesus through the Holy Spirit. After giving birth to Jesus in Bethlehem, she raised him in the city of Nazareth in Galilee, and was in Jerusalem at his crucifixion and with the apostles after his ascension. Although her later life is not accounted in the Bible, Catholic, Eastern Christian, and some Protestant traditions believe that her body was raised into heaven at the end of her earthly life, which is known in Western Christianity as the Assumption of Mary and in Eastern Christianity as the Dormition of the Mother of God. Mary has been venerated since early Christianity, and is often considered to be the holiest and greatest saint. There is a certain diversity in the Mariology and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her Immaculate Conception and her bodily Assumption into heaven. Many Protestants hold less exalted views of Mary's role, often based on a perceived lack of biblical support for many traditional Christian dogmas pertaining to her. She is mentioned numerous times in the Quran, including in a chapter named after her, and has the highest position in Islam among all women. The multiple forms of Marian devotions include various prayers and hymns, the celebration of several Marian feast days in liturgy, the veneration of images and relics, the construction of churches dedicated to her and pilgrimages to Marian shrines. Many Marian apparitions and miracles attributed to her intercession have been reported by believers over the centuries. She has been a traditional subject in arts, notably in Byzantine art, medieval art and Renaissance art. </Text>

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<Text> :A mother is the female parent of a child. A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given birth, by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring, or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in the case of gestational surrogacy. A biological mother is the female genetic contributor to the creation of the infant, through sexual intercourse or egg donation. A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive mother is a female who has become the child's parent through the legal process of adoption. A putative mother is a female whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A stepmother is a non-biological female parent married to a child's preexisting parent, and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child. A father is the male counterpart of a mother. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, though such appellations are less readily applied to fathers or adoptive parents. The process of becoming a mother has been referred to as "matrescence". The adjective "maternal" refers to a mother and comparatively to "paternal" for a father. The verb "to mother" means to procreate or to sire a child, or to provide care for a child, from which also derives the noun "mothering". Related terms of endearment are mom , mum , mumsy, mamacita and mammy. A female role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a mother-figure. The Renaissance is a period in history and a cultural movement marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity, covering the 15th and 16th centuries and characterized by an effort to revive and surpass the ideas and achievements of classical antiquity; it was associated with great social change in most fields and disciplines, including art, architecture, politics, literature, exploration and science. It began in the Republic of Florence. The Renaissance's intellectual basis was its version of humanism, derived from the concept of Roman humanitas and the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that "man is the measure of all things". Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the revived knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe: the first traces appear in Italy as early as the late 13th century, in particular with the writings of Dante and the paintings of Giotto. As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual and social scientific pursuits, as well as the introduction of modern banking and the field of accounting, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man". The term rinascita first appeared in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists , the corresponding French word, renaissance, was adopted into English as the term for this period during the 1830s. According to apocrypha, as well as Christian and Islamic tradition, Saint Anne was the mother of Mary, the wife of Joachim and the maternal grandmother of Jesus. Mary's mother is not named in the Bible's canonical gospels. In writing, Anne's name and that of her husband Joachim come only from New Testament apocrypha, of which the Gospel of James seems to be the earliest that mentions them. The mother of Mary is mentioned but not named in the Quran. The story is similar to that of Samuel, whose mother Hannah had also been childless. The Immaculate Conception was eventually made dogma by the Catholic Church following an increased devotion to Anne in the twelfth century. Dedications to Anne in Eastern Christianity occur as early as the sixth century. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Anne and Joachim are ascribed the title Ancestors of God, and both the Nativity of Mary and the Presentation of Mary are celebrated as two of the twelve Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church. The Dormition of Anne is also a minor feast in Eastern Christianity. In Lutheran Protestantism, it is held that Martin Luther chose to enter religious life as an Augustinian friar after invoking St. Anne while endangered by lightning. Anne is also revered in Islam, recognized as a highly spiritual woman and as the mother of Mary. She is not named in the Quran, where she is referred to as "the wife of Imran". The Quran describes her remaining childless until her old age. One day, Anne saw a bird feeding its young while sitting in the shade of a tree, which awakened her desire to have children of her own. She prayed for a child and eventually conceived; her husband, Imran, died before the child was born. Expecting the child to be male, Anne vowed to dedicate him to isolation and service in the Second Temple. However, Anne bore a daughter instead, and named her Mary. Her words upon delivering Mary reflect her status as a great mystic, realising that while she had wanted a son, this daughter was God's gift to her:Armand Jean du Plessis, 1st Duke of Richelieu , known as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French statesman and prelate of the Catholic Church. He became known as l'Eminence rouge, or "the Red Eminence", a term derived from the title "Eminence" applied to cardinals and from the red robes that they customarily wear. Consecrated a bishop in 1607, Richelieu was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616. He continued to rise through the hierarchy of both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622 and chief minister to King Louis XIII of France in 1624. He retained that office until his death in 1642, when he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, whose career he had fostered. Richelieu became engaged in a bitter dispute with Marie de Medici, the king's mother, and formerly his close ally. Richelieu sought to consolidate royal power and restrained the power of the nobility in order to transform France into a strong centralized state. In foreign policy, his primary objectives were to check the power of the Habsburg dynasty and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648 after that conflict engulfed Europe. Despite suppressing the Huguenot rebellions of the 1620s, he made alliances with Protestant states like the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic to help him achieve his goals. However, although he was a powerful political figure in his own right, events such as the Day of the Dupes in 1630 showed that Richelieu's power still depended on the king's confidence. An alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the College of Sorbonne, Richelieu renovated and extended the institution. He became famous for his patronage of the arts and founded the Academie Francaise, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. As an advocate for Samuel de Champlain and New France, he founded the Compagnie des Cent-Associes; he also negotiated the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye under which Quebec City returned to French rule after English privateers took it in 1629. He was created Duke of Richelieu in 1629. Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically or chemically processing cellulose fibres derived from wood, rags, grasses, or other vegetable sources in water, draining the water through a fine mesh leaving the fibre evenly distributed on the surface, followed by pressing and drying. Although paper was originally made in single sheets by hand, almost all is now made on large machines--some making reels 10 metres wide, running at 2,000 metres per minute and up to 600,000 tonnes a year. It is a versatile material with many uses, including printing, painting, graphics, signage, design, packaging, decorating, writing, and cleaning. It may also be used as filter paper, wallpaper, book endpaper, conservation paper, laminated worktops, toilet tissue, currency, and security paper, or in a number of industrial and construction processes. The papermaking process developed in east Asia, probably China, at least as early as 105 CE, by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BCE in China. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States following. The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper date to the 2nd century BCE in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch. It has been said that knowledge of papermaking was passed to the Islamic world after the Battle of Talas in 751 CE when two Chinese papermakers were captured as prisoners. Although the veracity of this story is uncertain, paper started to be made in Samarkand soon after. In the 13th century, the knowledge and uses of paper spread from the Middle East to medieval Europe, where the first water-powered paper mills were built. Because paper was introduced to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos. In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German inventor Friedrich Gottlob Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres. Cleavage is the narrow depression or hollow between the breasts of a woman. The superior portion of cleavage may be accentuated by clothing such as a low-cut neckline that exposes the division, and often the term is used to describe the low neckline itself, instead of the term decolletage. Joseph Breen, head of the U.S. film industry's Production Code Administration, coined the term in its current meaning when evaluating the 1943 film The Outlaw, starring Jane Russell. The term was explained in Time magazine on August 5, 1946. It is most commonly used in the parlance of Western female fashion to refer to necklines that reveal or emphasize decolletage . The visible display of cleavage can provide erotic pleasure for those who are sexually attracted to women, though this does not occur in all cultures. Explanations for this effect have included evolutionary psychology, a patriarchal revolution, and dissociation from breastfeeding. Since at least the 15th century, women in the Western world have used their cleavage to flirt, attract, make political statements , and assert power. In several parts of the world, the advent of Christianity and Islam saw a sharp decline in the amount of cleavage which was considered socially acceptable. In many cultures today, cleavage exposure is considered unwelcome or is banned legally. In some areas like European beaches and among many indigenous populations across the world, cleavage exposure is acceptable; conversely, even in the Western world it is often discouraged in daywear or in public spaces. In some cases, exposed cleavage can be a target for unwanted voyeuristic photography or sexual harassment. Cleavage-revealing clothes started becoming popular in the Christian West as it came out of the Early Middle Ages and enjoyed significant prevalence during Mid-Tang-era China, Elizabethan era England, and France over many centuries, particularly after the French Revolution. But in Victorian era England and during the flapper period of Western fashion, it was suppressed. Cleavage came vigorously back to Western fashion in the 1950s, particularly through Hollywood celebrities and lingerie brands. The consequent fascination with cleavage was most prominent in the U.S., and countries heavily influenced by the U.S. With the advent of push-up and underwired bras that replaced corsets of the past, the cleavage fascination was propelled by these lingerie manufacturers. By the early 2020s, dramatization of cleavage started to lose popularity along with the big lingerie brands. At the same time cleavage was sometimes replaced with other types of presentation of clothed breasts, like sideboobs and underboobs. Many women enhance their cleavage through the use of things like brassieres, falsies and corsetry, as well as surgical breast augmentation using saline or silicone implants and hormone therapy. Workouts, yoga, skin care, makeup, jewelry, tattoos and piercings are also used to embellish the cleavage. Male cleavage , accentuated by low necklines or unbuttoned shirts, is a film trend in Hollywood and Bollywood. Some men also groom their chests. Typically, women inherit a pair of X chromosomes, one from each parent, and are capable of pregnancy and giving birth from puberty until menopause. More generally, sex differentiation of the female fetus is governed by the lack of a present, or functioning, SRY-gene on either one of the respective sex chromosomes. Female anatomy is distinguished from male anatomy by the female reproductive system, which includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva. An adult woman generally has a wider pelvis, broader hips, and larger breasts than an adult man. Women typically have less facial and other body hair, have a higher body fat composition, and are on average shorter and less muscular than men. Throughout human history, traditional gender roles have often defined and limited women's activities and opportunities, resulting in gender inequality; many religious doctrines and legal systems stipulate certain rules for women. With restrictions loosening during the 20th century in many societies, women have gained wider access to careers and the ability to pursue higher education. Violence against women, whether within families or in communities, has a long history and is primarily committed by men. Some women are denied reproductive rights. The movements and ideologies of feminism have a shared goal of achieving gender equality. Trans women have a gender identity that does not align with their sex assignment at birth as male, while intersex women may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of female biology. The spelling of "woman" in English has progressed over the past millennium from wifmann to wimmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spelling woman. In Old English, wifmann meant 'woman' , whereas wermann meant 'man'. Mann had a gender-neutral meaning of 'human', corresponding to Modern English 'person' or 'someone'; however, subsequent to the Norman Conquest, man began to be used more in reference to 'male human', and by the late 13th century it had begun to eclipse usage of the older term wer. The medial labial consonants f and m in wifmann coalesced into the modern form "woman", while the initial element wif, which had also meant 'woman', underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman . </Text>

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<Text> :A dress is a garment traditionally worn by women or girls consisting of a skirt with an attached bodice . It consists of a top piece that covers the torso and hangs down over the legs. A dress can be any one-piece garment containing a skirt of any length, and can be formal or casual. Dresses are outer garments made up of a bodice and a skirt and can be made in one or more pieces. Dresses are generally suitable for both formal wear and casual wear in the West for women and girls. In the 11th century, women in Europe wore dresses that were similar to men's tunics and were loose, with a hemline reaching to below the knees or lower. By the end of the century, these dresses featured a tighter fit on the arms and women's upper bodies. Dresses were made snug by featuring slits on the sides of the dress that were pulled tight in order to fit a woman's figure. Starting in the 1550s, middle- and upper-class women in Europe wore dresses which included a smock, stays, kirtle, gown, forepart, sleeves, ruff and a partlet. Undergarments were not worn underneath. In England, Queen Elizabeth dictated what kinds of dresses women were allowed to wear. French women were inspired by Spanish-style bodices and also wore ruffs. French dresses were known as marlottes. In Italy, dresses were known as ropa and semarra. Dresses in the 16th century also displayed surface decoration such as embroidery, with blackwork being especially popular. A pastel is an art medium that consist of powdered pigment and a binder. It can exist in a variety of forms, including a stick, a square, a pebble, or a pan of color, though other forms are possible. The pigments used in pastels are similar to those used to produce some other colored visual arts media, such as oil paints; the binder is of a neutral hue and low saturation. The color effect of pastels is closer to the natural dry pigments than that of any other process. Pastel sticks or crayons consist of powdered pigment combined with a binder. The exact composition and characteristics of an individual pastel stick depend on the type of pastel and the type and amount of binder used. It also varies by individual manufacturer. Dry pastels have historically used binders such as gum arabic and gum tragacanth. Methyl cellulose was introduced as a binder in the 20th century. Often a chalk or gypsum component is present. They are available in varying degrees of hardness, the softer varieties being wrapped in paper. Some pastel brands use pumice in the binder to abrade the paper and create more tooth. There has been some debate within art societies as to what exactly qualifies as a pastel. The Pastel Society within the UK states the following are acceptable media for its exhibitions: "Pastels, including Oil pastel, Charcoal, Pencil, Conte, Sanguine, or any dry media". The emphasis appears to be on "dry media" but the debate continues. She was a patron of the arts as well as a leader of fashion and her innovative style of dressing was emulated by many women. The poet Ariosto labeled her as the "liberal and magnanimous Isabella", while author Matteo Bandello described her as "supreme among women". Diplomat Niccolo da Correggio went even further by hailing her as "The First Lady of the world". She served as the regent of Mantua during the absence of her husband Francesco II Gonzaga and during the minority of her son Federico. She was a prolific letter-writer and maintained a lifelong correspondence with her sister-in-law Elisabetta Gonzaga. Isabella grew up in a cultured family in the city-state of Ferrara. She received a fine classical education and she met many famous humanist scholars and artists. Due to the vast amount of extant correspondence between Isabella and her family and friends, her life is extremely well documented. Isabella was born on Tuesday, 19 May 1474 at nine o'clock in the evening Isabella's mother, Eleanor of Naples, wrote a letter to her friend Barbara Gonzaga describing the details of Isabella's birth in Ferrara. Eleanor was the daughter of Ferdinand I, the Aragonese King of Naples, and Isabella of Clermont. One year later, on 29 June 1475, her sister Beatrice was born, and in 1476 and 1477 two brothers, Alfonso and Ferrante, were born. In 1479 and 1480 two more brothers were born; Ippolito and Sigismondo. Of all the children born into the family, Isabella is believed to have been the favourite. Croquis drawing is quick and sketchy drawing of usually a live nude model. Croquis drawings are usually made in a few minutes, after which the model changes pose or leaves and another croquis is drawn. The word croquis comes from French and means simply "sketch". A croquis is often an outline silhouette, for use by a designer. The short duration of the pose benefits models because they do not need to keep still for a long time; this also benefits the artists because it helps them concentrate on the essential elements of the pose, or the most important parts of the drawing. An artist does not have time to draw all the details, so they learn to concentrate on the important elements. Croquis is also a good method of drawing subjects that generally do not stand still and pose, such as insects, animals, and children. In fashion, the term refers to a quick sketch of a figure with a loose drawing of the clothes that are being designed. Often a large number of croquis drawings will be created for one finished look, which is fully drawn and finished. Sanguine or red chalk is chalk of a reddish-brown color, so called because it resembles the color of dried blood. It has been popular for centuries for drawing . The word comes via French from the Italian sanguigna and originally from the Latin "sanguis". Sanguine lends itself naturally to sketches, life drawings, and rustic scenes. It is ideal for rendering modeling and volume, and human flesh. In the form of wood-cased pencils and manufactured sticks, sanguine may be used similarly to charcoal and pastel. As with pastel, a mid-toned paper may be put to good use. A fixative may be applied to preserve the finished state of the drawing. The pigment used in sanguine sticks comes from red earths such as red ochre. Sanguines are also available in several other tones such as orange, tan, brown, beige. Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, called charcoal burning, often by forming a charcoal kiln, the heat is supplied by burning part of the starting material itself, with a limited supply of oxygen. The material can also be heated in a closed retort. Modern "charcoal" briquettes used for outdoor cooking may contain many other additives, e.g. coal. This process happens naturally when combustion is incomplete, and is sometimes used in radiocarbon dating. It also happens inadvertently while burning wood, as in a fireplace or wood stove. The visible flame in these is due to combustion of the volatile gases exuded as the wood turns into charcoal. The soot and smoke commonly given off by wood fires result from incomplete combustion of those volatiles. Charcoal burns at a higher temperature than wood, with hardly a visible flame, and releases almost nothing except heat, water, and carbon dioxide. The production of wood charcoal in locations where there is an abundance of wood dates back to ancient times. It generally begins with piling billets of wood on their ends to form a conical pile. Openings are left at the bottom to admit air, with a central shaft serving as a flue. The whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outward and upward. The success of the operation depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under average conditions wood yields about 60% charcoal by volume, or 25% by weight; small-scale production methods often yield only about 50% by volume, while large-scale methods enabled higher yields of about 90% by the 17th century. The operation is so delicate that it was generally left to colliers . They often lived alone in small huts to tend their wood piles. For example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany, charcoal burners lived in conical huts called Koten which are extant today. </Text>

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<Text> :A silverpoint drawing is made by dragging a silver rod or wire across a surface, often prepared with gesso or Chinese white ground. Silverpoint is one of several types of metalpoint used by scribes, craftsmen and artists since ancient times. Metalpoint styli were used for writing on soft surfaces , ruling and underdrawing on parchment, and drawing on prepared paper and panel supports. For drawing purposes, the essential metals used were lead, tin and silver. The softness of these metals made them effective drawing instruments. Goldsmiths also used metalpoint drawings to prepare their detailed, meticulous designs. Albrecht Durer's father was one such craftsman who later taught his young son to draw in metalpoint, to such good effect that his 1484 Self-Portrait at the Age of 13 is still considered a masterpiece. In the late Gothic/early Renaissance era, silverpoint emerged as a fine line drawing technique. Not blunting as easily as lead or tin, and rendering precise detail, silverpoint was especially favored in Florentine and Flemish workshops. Silverpoint drawings of this era include model books and preparatory sheets for paintings. Artists who worked in silverpoint include Jan van Eyck, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Durer and Raphael. Cennino Cennini's Il Libro dell'Arte provides a window on the practice of silver and leadpoint drawing, as well as preparing metalpoint grounds, in the late 14th century. Susan Dorothea White's book Draw Like da Vinci describes the silverpoint technique of Leonardo da Vinci. As noted by Francis Ames-Lewis, drawing styles changed at the end of the 16th century, resulting in a decline for metalpoint. The discovery of graphite deposits at Seathwaite in Borrowdale, Cumbria, England, in the early 1500s, and its increasing availability to artists in a pure, soft form hastened silverpoint's eclipse. Artists sought more gestural qualities, for which graphite, red and black chalk were better suited. Ink and wash drawings are also prevalent in the period. In addition, these other drawing techniques required less effort and were more forgiving than silver, which resists erasure and leaves a fainter line. Furthermore, the preparation of silverpoint supports, usually with hide glue with finely ground bone ash, was labor-intensive. Modern practitioners use zinc, pre-prepared acrylic-based grounds or titanium white tempera or marble dust as a ground. Natural chalks and charcoal have the advantage of producing immediate results on uncoated papers. Dutch artists Hendrick Goltzius and Rembrandt maintained the silverpoint tradition into the 17th century, as it declined in other parts of Europe. Rembrandt made several silverpoints on prepared vellum, the best-known being the portrait of his wife Saskia, 1633. Botanical artists and architects continued to use metalpoint because of its exact lines. However, artists who continued this tradition of fine line drawing, such as Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, turned to graphite, which gradually improved in quality and availability throughout Europe since the 17th century. Silverpoint was for practical purposes rendered obsolete by the 18th century. There has however been a contemporary art revival among European and American artists and academies because the medium imposes considerable discipline in draughtsmanship since drawings cannot be erased or altered. The Russian Empire, also known as Imperial Russia or simply Russia, was a vast realm that spanned most of northern Eurasia in 1618 from its proclamation in November 1721 until its dissolution in March 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered an area of approximately 22,800,000 square kilometres , roughly one-sixth of the world's landmass, making it the third-largest empire in history, surpassed only by the British and Mongol empires; it also held colonies in North America between 1799 and 1867. The Russian Empire had a population of 125.6 million in 1897--per the only census conducted during the entire imperial period--which featured considerable ethnic, linguistic, religious, and socioeconomic diversity. The rise of the Russian Empire coincided with the decline of neighbouring rival powers, namely the Swedish Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Qajar Iran, the Ottoman Empire, and Qing China. From the 10th to 17th centuries, the Russians were ruled by a noble class known as the boyars, above whom was an absolute monarch titled the tsar. The groundwork of the Russian Empire was laid by Ivan III , who greatly expanded his domain, established a centralized Russian national state, and secured independence against the Tatars. His grandson, Ivan IV , was the first Russian monarch to be crowned "tsar of all Russia" in 1547. Between 1550 and 1700, the Russian state grew by an average of 35,000 square kilometres per year. Major events during this period include the transition from the Rurik to the Romanov dynasties, the conquest of Siberia, and the reign of Peter I who transformed the tsardom into an empire. Peter I fought numerous wars that expanded an already vast empire into a major European power. He moved the Russian capital from Moscow to the new model city of Saint Petersburg, which marked the birth of the imperial era, and led a cultural revolution that introduced a modern, scientific, rationalist, and Western-oriented system. Catherine II presided over further expansion of the Russian state by conquest, colonization, and diplomacy, while continuing Peter I's policy of modernization towards a Western model. Alexander I played a major role in defeating the militaristic ambitions of Napoleon and subsequently constituting the Holy Alliance, which aimed to restrain the rise of secularism and liberalism across Europe. Russia further expanded to the west, south, and east, strengthening its position as a European power. Its victories in the Russo-Turkish Wars were later checked by defeat in the Crimean War , leading to a period of reform and intensified expansion into Central Asia. Alexander II initiated numerous reforms, most notably the 1861 emancipation of all 23 million serfs. His official policy saw Russia assume responsibility over the protection of Eastern Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule; this was one of the factors that later led to the Russian entry into World War I. From 1721 until 1762, the Russian Empire was ruled by the House of Romanov; its matrilineal branch of patrilineal German descent, the House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov, ruled from 1762 until 1917. By the start of the 19th century, Russian territory extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea in the south, and from the Baltic Sea in the west to Alaska, Hawaii, and California in the east. By the end of the 19th century, Russia had expanded its control over the Caucasus, most of Central Asia and parts of Northeast Asia. Notwithstanding its extensive territorial gains and great power status, the empire entered the 20th century in a perilous state. A devastating famine in 1891-1892 killed millions and led to popular discontent. As the last remaining absolute monarchy in Europe, the empire saw rapid political radicalization and the growing popularity of revolutionary ideas such as communism. After the 1905 revolution, Nicholas II authorized the creation of a national parliament, the State Duma, although he still retained absolute political power. Writing is the act of creating a persistent representation of human language. A writing system uses a set of symbols and rules to encode aspects of spoken language, such as its lexicon and syntax. However, written language may take on characteristics distinct from those of any spoken language. Writing is a cognitive and social activity involving neuropsychological and physical processes. The outcome of this activity, also called "writing", and sometimes a "text", is a series of physically inscribed, mechanically transferred, or digitally represented symbols. The interpreter or activator of a text is called a "reader". In general, writing systems do not constitute languages in and of themselves, but rather a means of encoding language such that it can be read by others across time and space. While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend the capacities of spoken language by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space and stored over time . Writing can also have knowledge-transforming effects, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise. Any instance of writing involves a complex interaction among available tools, intentions, cultural customs, cognitive routines, genres, tacit and explicit knowledge, and the constraints and limitations of the writing system deployed. Inscriptions have been made with fingers, styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many styles of lithography; surfaces used for these inscriptions include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo slats, papyrus, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, slate, porcelain, and other enameled surfaces. The Incas used knotted cords known as quipu for keeping records. Countless writing tools and surfaces have been improvised throughout history . An encyclopedic dictionary typically includes many short listings, arranged alphabetically, and discussing a wide range of topics. Encyclopedic dictionaries can be general, containing articles on topics in many different fields; or they can specialize in a particular field, such as art, biography, law, medicine, or philosophy. They may also be organized around a particular academic, cultural, ethnic, or national perspective. Historically, the term has been used to refer to any encyclopedic reference book , which was organized alphabetically, as with the familiar dictionary . To convey their alphabetic method of organization and to contrast that method with other systems for classifying knowledge, many early encyclopedias were titled or sub-titled "a dictionary of arts and sciences" or something similar. Compared to a dictionary, the encyclopedic dictionary offers a more complete description and a choice of entries selected to convey a range of knowledge. Compared to an encyclopedia, the encyclopedic dictionary offers ease of use, through summarized entries and in some cases more entries of separate terms; and often reduced size, and the reduced publishing and purchase cost that implies. The question of how to structure the entries, and how much information to include, are among the core issues in organizing reference books. As different approaches are better suited to different uses or users, all three approaches have been in wide use since the end of the 18th century. </Text>

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contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Kievsky Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Voskresenskoye Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Matushkino District <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Kokoshkino Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Voronovskoye Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Staroye Kryukovo District <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Silino District <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Vnukovskoye Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Tverskoy District <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Desyonovskoye Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Mosrentgen Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Clenovsky <s> Moscow <p> twinned administrative body <o> Bangkok <s> Moscow <p> anthem <o> Moya Moskva <s> Moscow <p> highest judicial authority <o> Constitutional (charter) court of a subject of the Russian Federation <s> Moscow <p> located in time zone <o> Moscow Time <s> Moscow <p> award received <o> Hero City of the Soviet Union <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Pervomayskoye <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Shchapovskoye settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Novofedorovskoe <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Ryazanovskoye Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Filimonkovskoye Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Rogovskoye Settlement <s> Moscow <p> contains the administrative territorial entity <o> Sosenskoye Settlement <s> Moscow <p> twinned 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<Text> :Moscow is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million residents within the city limits, over 18.8 million residents in the urban area, and over 21.5 million residents in the metropolitan area. The city covers an area of 2,511 square kilometers , while the urban area covers 5,891 square kilometers , and the metropolitan area covers over 26,000 square kilometers . Moscow is among the world's largest cities, being the most populous city entirely in Europe, the largest urban and metropolitan area in Europe, and the largest city by land area on the European continent. First documented in 1147, Moscow grew to become a prosperous and powerful city that served as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. When the Tsardom of Russia was proclaimed, Moscow remained the political and economic center for most of its history. Under the reign of Peter the Great, the Russian capital was moved to the newly founded city of Saint Petersburg in 1712, diminishing Moscow's influence. Following the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Russian SFSR, the capital was moved back to Moscow in 1918, where it later became the political center of the Soviet Union. In the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Moscow remained the capital city of the newly established Russian Federation. The northernmost and coldest megacity in the world, Moscow is governed as a federal city, where it serves as the political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe. As an alpha world city, Moscow has one of the world's largest urban economies. The city is one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in the world, and is one of Europe's most visited cities. Moscow is home to the sixth-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world. The Moscow International Business Center is one of the largest financial centers in Europe and the world, and features the majority of Europe's tallest skyscrapers. Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, and one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. As the historic core of Russia, Moscow serves as the home of numerous Russian artists, scientists, and sports figures due to the presence of its various museums, academic and political institutions, and theaters. The city is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is well known for its display of Russian architecture, particularly its historic Red Square, and buildings such as the Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Moscow Kremlin, of which the latter serves as the seat of power of the Government of Russia. Moscow is home to many Russian companies in numerous industries and is served by a comprehensive transit network, which includes four international airports, ten railway terminals, a tram system, a monorail system, and most notably the Moscow Metro, the busiest metro system in Europe, and one of the largest rapid transit systems in the world. The city has over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, making it one of the greenest cities in the world. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia is the largest Soviet Russian-language encyclopedia, published in the Soviet Union from 1926 to 1990. After 2002, the encyclopedia's data was partially included into the later Boljsaja rossijskaja enciklopjedija in an updated and revised form. The GSE claimed to be "the first Marxist-Leninist general-purpose encyclopedia". The idea of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia emerged in 1923 on the initiative of Otto Schmidt, a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In early 1924 Schmidt worked with a group which included Mikhail Pokrovsky, , Nikolai Meshcheryakov , Valery Bryusov , Veniamin Kagan and Konstantin Kuzminsky to draw up a proposal which was agreed to in April 1924. Also involved was Anatoly Lunacharsky, People's Commissar of Education , who had previously been involved with a proposal by Alexander Bogdanov and Maxim Gorky to produce a Workers' Encyclopedia. There were three editions. The first edition of 65 volumes was published during 1926-1947, the chief editor being Otto Schmidt . The second edition of 50 volumes was published in 1950-1958; chief editors: Sergei Vavilov and Boris Vvedensky ; two index volumes to this edition were published in 1960. The third edition of 1969-1978 contains 30 volumes . Volume 24 is in two books, one being a full-sized book about the USSR, all with about 21 million words, and the chief editor being Alexander Prokhorov . In the third edition, much attention was paid to the philosophical problems of natural sciences, physical and chemical sciences, and mathematical methods in various branches of knowledge. The foreword to the first volume of the GSE proclaims "The Soviet Union has become the center of the civilized world." The GSE, along with all other books and other media and communications with the public, was directed toward the "furtherance of the aims of the party and the state." The 1949 decree issued for the production of the second edition of the GSE directed: </Text>

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<Text> :</Text>

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<Text> :Otto Yulyevich Shmidt , better known as Otto Schmidt, was a Soviet scientist, mathematician, astronomer, geophysicist, statesman, and academician. He was born in the town of Mogilev in the Russian Empire, in what is now Belarus. His father was a descendant of German settlers in Courland, while his mother was a Latvian. In 1912-13 while in university he published a number of mathematical works on group theory which laid foundation for Krull-Schmidt theorem. In 1913, Schmidt married Vera Yanitskaia and graduated from the Saint Vladimir Imperial University of Kiev, where he worked as a privat-docent starting from 1916. In 1918 he became a member of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which was later dissolved in to the Russian Communist Party . After the October Revolution of 1917, he was a board member at several People's Commissariats - such as Narkomprod from 1918 to 1920 , People's Commissariat for Finance from 1921 to 1922 . Schmidt was one of the chief proponents of developing the higher education system, publishing, and science in Soviet Russia. He worked at Narkompros , the State Scientific Board at the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, and the Communist Academy. He was Chair of the Foreign Literature Committee from October 1921. Following the Litkens Commission Schmidt was also employed as the director of the State Publishing House from 1921 to 1924, and chief editor of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia from 1924 to 1941. From 1923 he was a professor at the Second Moscow State University and later at the Moscow State University, and from 1930 to 1932, Schmidt was the head of the Arctic Institute. During this time he coined the term for the double bond rule. </Text>

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<Text> :A lexicon is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge . In linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes. The word lexicon derives from Greek word lexikon , neuter of lexikos meaning 'of or for words'. Linguistic theories generally regard human languages as consisting of two parts: a lexicon, essentially a catalogue of a language's words ; and a grammar, a system of rules which allow for the combination of those words into meaningful sentences. The lexicon is also thought to include bound morphemes, which cannot stand alone as words . In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions, collocations and other phrases are also considered to be part of the lexicon. Dictionaries are lists of the lexicon, in alphabetical order, of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included. Items in the lexicon are called lexemes, lexical items, or word forms. Lexemes are not atomic elements but contain both phonological and morphological components. When describing the lexicon, a reductionist approach is used, trying to remain general while using a minimal description. To describe the size of a lexicon, lexemes are grouped into lemmas. A lemma is a group of lexemes generated by inflectional morphology. Lemmas are represented in dictionaries by headwords that list the citation forms and any irregular forms, since these must be learned to use the words correctly. Lexemes derived from a word by derivational morphology are considered new lemmas. The lexicon is also organized according to open and closed categories. Closed categories, such as determiners or pronouns, are rarely given new lexemes; their function is primarily syntactic. Open categories, such as nouns and verbs, have highly active generation mechanisms and their lexemes are more semantic in nature. A central role of the lexicon is the documenting of established lexical norms and conventions. Lexicalization is the process by which new words, having gained widespread usage, enter the lexicon. Since lexicalization may modify lexemes phonologically and morphologically, it is possible that a single etymological source may be inserted into a single lexicon in two or more forms. These pairs, called a doublet, are often close semantically. Two examples are aptitude versus attitude and employ versus imply. German Reich was the constitutional name for the German nation state as it existed from 11 August 1871 to 5 June 1945. The Reich became understood as deriving its authority and sovereignty entirely from a continuing unitary German Volk , with that authority and sovereignty being exercised at any one time over a unitary German "state territory" with variable boundaries and extent. Although commonly translated as "German Empire", the word Reich here better translates as "realm" or territorial "reach", in that the term does not in itself have monarchical connotations. The Federal Republic of Germany asserted, following its establishment on 23 May 1949, that within its boundaries it was the sole legal continuation of the German Reich, and consequently not a successor state. Nevertheless, the Federal Republic did not maintain the specific title German Reich, and so consistently replaced the prefix Reichs- in all official titles and designations with Bundes- . Hence, for instance, the Reichskanzler became the Bundeskanzler. Following German reunification on 3 October 1990, the expanded Federal Republic describes itself as "United Germany", emphasizing that it does not now recognize any territories once included in the former German Reich outside its boundaries as having a valid claim to be a part of Germany as a whole. In referring to the entire period between 1871 and 1945, the partially translated English phrase "German Reich" is applied by historians in formal contexts; although in common English usage this state was and is known simply as Germany, the English term "German Empire" is reserved to denote the German state between 1871 and 1918. However the term Deutsches Reich dates back earlier than all of this. It was occasionally applied in contemporary maps to the Holy Roman Empire , also called the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" from 1512. The Holy Roman Empire however was not exclusively German-speaking but constituted a supranational entity extending beyond the frontiers of the German language area . The first attempt to re-establish a "German Empire" during the 1848 March Revolution by the Frankfurt Constitution ultimately failed: it was aborted by the monarchs of the German Confederation, especially by the Prussian aristocracy and the King of Prussia himself, which opposed German nationalism, as then was associated with the idea of popular sovereignty. Leipzig , with a population of 628,718 inhabitants as of 2023, is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony, the second-most populous city in the area of the former East Germany after Berlin, and Germany's eighth-most populous. Leipzig/Halle Airport is situated in Schkeuditz, between Leipzig and Halle . The name of the city and those of many of its districts are of Slavic origin. Leipzig is located about 150 km southwest of Berlin, in the southernmost part of the North German Plain , at the confluence of the White Elster and its tributaries Pleisse and Parthe, that form an extensive inland delta in the city known as "Leipziger Gewasserknoten "), along which Leipzig Riverside Forest, Europe's largest intra-city riparian forest has developed. Leipzig is at the centre of Neuseenland , consisting of several artificial lakes created from former lignite open-pit mines. Leipzig has been a trade city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and the Via Imperii, two important medieval trade routes. Leipzig's trade fair dates back to 1190. Between 1764 and 1945, the city was a centre of publishing. After the Second World War and during the period of the German Democratic Republic Leipzig remained a major urban centre in East Germany, but its cultural and economic importance declined. Events in Leipzig in 1989 played a significant role in precipitating the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe, mainly through demonstrations starting from St. Nicholas Church. The immediate effects of the reunification of Germany included the collapse of the local economy , severe unemployment, and urban blight. By the early 2000s the trend had reversed, and since then Leipzig has undergone some significant changes, including urban and economic rejuvenation, and modernisation of the transport infrastructure. Meyers Konversations-Lexikon or Meyers Lexikon was a major encyclopedia in the German language that existed in various editions, and by several titles, from 1839 to 1984, when it merged with the Brockhaus Enzyklopadie. Joseph Meyer , who had founded the publishing house Bibliographisches Institut in 1826, intended to issue a universal encyclopaedia meant for a broad public: people having a general knowledge as well as businessmen, technicians and scholars, considering contemporary works like those of Pierer and Brockhaus to be superficial or obsolete. The first part of Das Grosse Conversations-Lexikon fur die gebildeten Stande appeared in October 1839. In contrast to its contemporaries, it contained maps and illustrations with the text. There is no indication of the planned number of volumes or a time limit for this project, but little headway had been made by the otherwise dynamic Meyer. After six years, 14 volumes had appeared, covering only one fifth of the alphabet. Another six years passed before the last volume was published. Six supplementary volumes finally finished the work in 1855. Ultimately numbering 52 volumes, Das Grosse Conversations-Lexikon fur die gebildeten Stande was the most comprehensive completed German encyclopedia of the 19th century, also called "der Wunder-Meyer" . The complete set was reprinted 1858-59. </Text>

<Graph> : <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> country <o> Germany <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> located in time zone <o> UTC+02:00 <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> located in time zone <o> UTC+01:00 <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> instance of <o> museum <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> director / manager <o> Julien Chapuis <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> Berlin-Mitte <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> location <o> Bode Museum <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> part of <o> Staatliche Museen zu Berlin <s> Skulpturensammlung und Museum für Byzantinische Kunst <p> replaces <o> Museum of Late Antique and Byzantine Art <s> The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art <p> artist files at <o> Philadelphia Museum of Art Library 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<Text> :The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art is an art museum in Kansas City, Missouri, known for its encyclopedic collection of art from nearly every continent and culture, and especially for its extensive collection of Asian art. On September 1, 2010, Julian Zugazagoitia became the museum's fifth Director. Zugazagoitia had previously served for seven years as the Director and CEO of El Museo del Barrio in New York City. The museum was built on the grounds of Oak Hall, the home of Kansas City Star publisher William Rockhill Nelson . When he died in 1915, his will provided that upon the deaths of his wife and daughter, the proceeds of his entire estate would go to purchasing artwork for public enjoyment. This bequest was augmented by additional funds from the estates of Nelson's daughter, son-in-law and attorney. In 1911, former schoolteacher Mary McAfee Atkins , widow of real estate speculator James Burris Atkins, bequeathed $300,000 to establish an art museum. Through sound management of the estate and a booming economy, this amount grew to $700,000 by 1927. Original plans called for two art museums based on the separate bequests . However, trustees of the two estates decided to combine the two bequests along with smaller bequests from others to make a single major art institution. The Minneapolis Institute of Art is an arts museum located in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. Home to more than 90,000 works of art representing 5,000 years of world history, Mia is one of the largest art museums in the United States. Its permanent collection spans about 20,000 years and represents the world's diverse cultures across six continents. The museum has seven curatorial areas: Arts of Africa & the Americas; Contemporary Art; Decorative Arts, Textiles & Sculpture; Asian Art; Paintings; Photography and New Media; and Prints and Drawings. Mia is one of the largest arts educators in Minnesota. More than a half-million people visit the museum each year, and a hundred thousand more are reached through the museum's Art Adventure program for elementary schoolchildren. The museum's has a free general admission policy, as well as public programs, classes for children and adults, and interactive media programs. The Minneapolis Society of Fine Arts was established in 1883 to bring the arts into the life of the community. This group, made up of business and professional leaders, organized art exhibits throughout the decade. In 1889, the Society, now known as the Minneapolis Institute of Art, moved into its first permanent space, inside the newly built Minneapolis Public Library. The institute received gifts from Clinton Morrison and William Hood Dunwoody, among others, for its building fund. In 1911, Morrison donated the land, formerly occupied by his family's Villa Rosa mansion, in memory of his father, Dorilus Morrison, contingent on the institute's raising the $500,000 needed for the building. A few days later, the institute received a letter from Dunwoody, who got the ball rolling: "Put me down for $100,000." A fundraising dinner a few days later brought in $335,500, donated in 90 minutes. Religious art is a visual representation of religious ideologies and their relationship with humans. Sacred art directly relates to religious art in the sense that its purpose is for worship and religious practices. According to one set of definitions, artworks that are inspired by religion but are not considered traditionally sacred remain under the umbrella term of religious art, but not sacred art. Other terms often used for art of various religions are cult image, usually for the main image in a place of worship, icon in its more general sense , and "devotional image" usually meaning a smaller image for private prayer or worship. Images can often be divided into "iconic images", just showing one or more figures, and "narrative images" showing moments from an episode or story involving sacred figures. Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama, 6th to 5th century BC, and thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread throughout Asia and the world. Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art. Religious art is a visual representation of religious ideologies and their relationship with humans. Sacred art directly relates to religious art in the sense that its purpose is for worship and religious practices. According to one set of definitions, artworks that are inspired by religion but are not considered traditionally sacred remain under the umbrella term of religious art, but not sacred art. Other terms often used for art of various religions are cult image, usually for the main image in a place of worship, icon in its more general sense , and "devotional image" usually meaning a smaller image for private prayer or worship. Images can often be divided into "iconic images", just showing one or more figures, and "narrative images" showing moments from an episode or story involving sacred figures. Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama, 6th to 5th century BC, and thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread throughout Asia and the world. Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art. In art history, the High Renaissance was a short period of the most exceptional artistic production in the Italian states, particularly Rome, capital of the Papal States, and in Florence, during the Italian Renaissance. Most art historians state that the High Renaissance started between 1490 and 1500, and ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael, although some say the High Renaissance ended about 1525, or in 1527 with the Sack of Rome by the mutinous army of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, or about 1530. The best-known exponents of painting, sculpture and architecture of the High Renaissance include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Bramante. In the 21st century, the use of the term has been frequently criticized by some academic art historians for oversimplifying artistic developments, ignoring historical context, and focusing only on a few iconic works. The art historian Jill Burke was the first to trace the historical origins of the term High Renaissance. It was first coined in German by Jacob Burckhardt in German in 1855 and has its origins in the "High Style" of painting and sculpture of the time period around the early 16th century described by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in 1764. Extending the general rubric of Renaissance culture, the visual arts of the High Renaissance were marked by a renewed emphasis upon the classical tradition, the expansion of networks of patronage, and a gradual attenuation of figural forms into the style later termed Mannerism. Alexander Raunch in The Art of the High Renaissance and Mannerism in Rome and Central Italy, 2007, states the High Renaissance began in 1490, while Marilyn Stokstad in Art History, 2008, states it began in the 1490s. Frederick Hartt states that Leonardo's The Last Supper, the painting of which began in 1495 and concluded in 1498, makes a complete break with the Early Renaissance and created the world in which Michelangelo and Raphael worked, while Christoph Luitpold Frommel, in his 2012 article "Bramante and the Origins of the High Renaissance," states The Last Supper is the first High Renaissance work but adds that the peak period of the High Renaissance was actually 1505 to 1513. David Piper in The Illustrated History of Art, 1991, also cites The Last Supper writing the work announced the High Renaissance and was one of the most influential paintings of the High Renaissance, but contradictorily states that the High Renaissance began just after 1500. Burchkardt stated the High Renaissance started at the close of the 15th century, while Franz Kugler, who wrote the first "modern" survey text, Handbook of Art History in 1841, and Hugh Honour and John Fleming in The Visual Arts: A History, 2009, state the High Renaissance started at the beginning of the 16th century. Another seminal work of art which was created in the 1495-1500 timeframe was Michelangelo's Pieta, housed in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, which was executed in 1498-99. In contrast to most of the other art historians, Manfred Wurdram, in Masterpieces of Western Art, 2007, actually states that the dawn of the High Renaissance was heralded by Leonardo's Adoration of the Magi of 1481, for which only the underpainting was completed. Philosophy is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions. Historically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic-Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic-Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation. Major branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods. Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications. Inaugurated in 1878, the gallery displays over 230 artworks, which include masterpieces by Titian, Andrea Mantegna, Canaletto, Antonello da Messina, Pisanello, Vincenzo Foppa, Giovanni Bellini, Correggio, Bernardino Luini, Lorenzo Lotto, Tintoretto and others. The complete collection of the museum, enriched in the last two centuries by donations of illustrious citizens and collectors, now has more than 1,500 artworks. The first rooms of the Pinacoteca are dedicated to religious paintings of the 15th and 16th centuries, with artworks by Vincenzo Foppa, Bergognone, Bramantino, Carlo Crivelli, Bernardino Luini and other Lombard and Italian Renaissance painters. This part of the museum includes the Trivulzio Madonna by Andrea Mantegna, dating from 1497. The second half of the Pinacoteca displays artworks from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. This includes both secular and religious works from artists such as Canaletto, Giambattista Tiepolo, Bernardo Bellotto, Titian and Tintoretto. </Text>

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<Text> :The German publishing company Bibliographisches Institut was founded 1826 in Gotha by Joseph Meyer, moved 1828 to Hildburghausen and 1874 to Leipzig. Its production over the years includes such well-known titles as Meyers Lexikon , Brehms Tierleben ; Duden ; Meyers Reisebucher ; Meyers Klassiker ; atlases , newspapers and others. The buildings of the company were completely destroyed by the bombing raids on Leipzig 1943/1944; the company itself expropriated by the communist regime of East Germany in 1946 and turned into a Volkseigener Betrieb. The shareholders moved the company to Mannheim in West Germany in 1953 . Titles like Meyers Lexikon, Der Grosse Duden, Schlag Nach! and Meyers Grosser Weltatlas appeared again. In Leipzig remained the VEB Bibliographisches Institut, operating in the same field, publishing Meyers Neues Lexikon", Duden etc. In 1984 Bibliographisches Institut AG amalgamated with its biggest competitor in the market of reference works, F. A. Brockhaus of Wiesbaden to Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG, having their seat in Mannheim. After the German reunification the company regained its former properties in Leipzig in 1991. A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a social or political one. This may be to carry out a social change, or to resist or undo one. It is a type of group action and may involve individuals, organizations, or both. Social movements have been described as "organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites". They represent a method of social change from the bottom within nations. On the other hand, some social movements do not aim to make society more egalitarian, but to maintain or amplify existing power relationships. For example, scholars have described fascism as a social movement. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements. For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics. Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame. Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products--particularly in diet--and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A person who follows the diet or philosophy is known as a vegan. Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans, also known as "strict vegetarians", refrain from consuming meat, eggs, dairy products, and any other animal-derived substances. An ethical vegan is someone who not only excludes animal products from their diet but also tries to avoid using animals, animal products, and animal-tested products when practical. Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the grounds that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable. Another motivation for veganism is concern about animal welfare. Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron, and phytochemicals, and lower in dietary energy, saturated fat, cholesterol, omega-3 fatty acid, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12. As a result of the elimination of all animal products, a poorly planned vegan diet can lead to nutritional deficiencies that counteract its beneficial effects and cause serious health issues, some of which can only be prevented with fortified foods or dietary supplements. Vitamin B12 supplementation is important because its deficiency can cause blood disorders and potentially irreversible neurological damage; this danger is also one of the most common in poorly planned non-vegan diets. The term "vegetarian" has been in use since around 1839 to refer to what was previously called a vegetable regimen or diet. Its origin is an irregular compound of vegetable and the suffix -arian . The earliest known written use is attributed to actress, writer and abolitionist Fanny Kemble, in her Journal of a Residence on a Georgian plantation in 1838-1839. Vegetarian cuisine includes consumption of foods containing vegetable protein, vitamin B12, and other nutrients. Food regarded as suitable for all vegetarians typically includes: Vegetarians by definition cannot consume meat or animal tissue products, with no other universally adopted change in their diet. However, in practice, compared to non-vegetarians, vegetarians on average have an increased consumption of: This difference is observed, but is not required to be vegetarian. Nevertheless, it is relevant when considering research into the health effects of adopting a vegetarian diet. A diet consisting only of sugar candies, for example, while technically also vegetarian, would be expected to have a much different outcome for health compared to what is called "a vegetarian diet" culturally and what is most commonly adopted by vegetarians. It is also important to note that overeating occurs because of a misconception of hunger. By changing your perspective on calories verses nutrients, it becomes much easier to adapt to the healthier lifestyle of vegetarianism. Most desserts, including pies, cobblers, cakes, brownies, cookies, truffles, Rice Krispie treats , peanut butter treats, pudding, rice pudding, ice cream, creme brulee, etc., are free of meat and fish and are suitable for ovo-lacto vegetarians. Eastern confectionery and desserts, such as halva and Turkish delight, are mostly vegan, while others such as baklava are lacto vegetarian. Indian desserts and sweets are mostly vegetarian like peda, barfi, gulab jamun, shrikhand, basundi, kaju katri, rasgulla, cham cham, rajbhog, etc. Indian sweets are mostly made from milk products and are thus lacto vegetarian; dry fruit-based sweets are vegan. A flexitarian diet, also called a semi-vegetarian diet, is one that is centered on plant foods with limited or occasional inclusion of meat. For example, a flexitarian might eat meat only some days each week. Flexitarian is a portmanteau of the words flexible and vegetarian, signifying its followers' less strict diet pattern when compared to vegetarian pattern diets. Different definitions of flexitarianism are used. According to the Dutch environmental organisation Natuur & Milieu, a flexitarian eats no meat, fish or lunch meat for at least one day a week. The Dutch research agency I&O Research calls people flexitarian when they do not eat meat one or more days a week. The Dutch Food Health authority Voedingscentrum states that flexitarians do not eat meat three or more days a week in between or with a hot meal. Vegetarianism is the strict practice of abstaining from consuming meat or any other animal tissue. Flexitarianism is a neoteric term that gained a considerable increase in usage in both science and public sectors in the 2010s. Flexitarian was listed in the mainstream Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary in 2012. In 2003, the American Dialect Society voted flexitarian as the year's most useful word. In 2015, according to the Voedingscentrum, 55% of Dutch people were flexitarians. According to Natuur & Milieu, in 2016, 67% of the Dutch were flexitarian. According to research by Wageningen University & Research, the number of Dutch people who call themselves flexitarians increased from 14% in 2011 to 43% in 2019. However, the number of days that self-proclaimed flexitarians ate meat increased over that period from 2.9 days a week to 3.7 days. The researchers suspected that this was mainly due to the inflation of this term among the Dutch. An individual's diet is the sum of food and drink that one habitually consumes. Dieting is the practice of attempting to achieve or maintain a certain weight through diet. People's dietary choices are often affected by a variety of factors, including ethical and religious beliefs, clinical need, or a desire to control weight. Not all diets are considered healthy. Some people follow unhealthy diets through habit, rather than through a conscious choice to eat unhealthily. Terms applied to such eating habits include "junk food diet" and "Western diet". Many diets are considered by clinicians to pose significant health risks and minimal long-term benefit. This is particularly true of "crash" or "fad" diets - short-term, weight-loss plans that involve drastic changes to a person's normal eating habits. A desire to lose weight is a common motivation to change dietary habits, as is a desire to maintain an existing weight. Many weight loss diets are considered by some to entail varying degrees of health risk, and some are not widely considered to be effective. This is especially true of "crash" or "fad" diets. Crash diets are very-low-calorie diets used for the purpose of very fast weight loss. They describe diet plans that involve making extreme, rapid changes to food consumption, but are also used as disparaging terms for common eating habits which are considered unhealthy. This diet is dangerous and can lead to sudden death when not done in a medically supervised setting. Several diets listed here are weight-loss diets which would also fit into other sections of this list. Where this is the case, it will be noted in that diet's entry. </Text>

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<Text> :Vegan nutrition refers to the nutritional and human health aspects of vegan diets. A well-planned, balanced vegan diet is suitable to meet all recommendations for nutrients in every stage of human life. Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, and phytochemicals; and lower in calories, saturated fat, iron, cholesterol, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12. The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada state that properly planned vegan diets are appropriate for all life stages, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council similarly recognizes a well-planned vegan diet as viable for any age, as does the Victoria Department of Health, British Dietetic Association, British National Health Service, British Nutrition Foundation, Mayo Clinic, Finnish Food Safety Authority, Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, Italian Society of Human Nutrition, Norwegian Directorate for Health, and the Portuguese Directorate-General of Health. The British National Health Service's Eatwell Plate allows for an entirely plant-based diet, as does the United States Department of Agriculture's MyPlate. The USDA allows tofu to replace meat in the National School Lunch Program. The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics adds that well-planned vegan diets are also appropriate for older adults and athletes. In 2016, the German Society for Nutrition cautioned against a vegan diet for babies, children, and adolescents, and during pregnancy and breastfeeding, due to insufficient data. In 2020, the German Society for Nutrition issued an update stating that they do not recommend a vegan diet for babies, children and adolescents, or for pregnancy or breastfeeding, citing insufficient data for these subpopulations. Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat . It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons. Many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient animal life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs as well as animal rights advocacy. Other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, taste-related, or relate to other personal preferences. There are many variations of the vegetarian diet: an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products, an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products, and a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs. As the strictest of vegetarian diets, a vegan diet excludes all animal products, and can be accompanied by abstention from the use of animal-derived products, such as leather shoes. Vegetarian diets pose some difficulties. For vitamin B12, depending on the presence or absence of eggs and dairy products in the diet or other reliable B12 sources, vegetarians may incur a nutritional deficiency. Packaged and processed foods may contain minor quantities of animal ingredients. While some vegetarians scrutinize product labels for such ingredients, others do not object to consuming them, or are unaware of their presence. The figures tabulated below do not represent per capita amounts of meat eaten by humans. Instead, they represent FAO figures for carcass mass availability , divided by population. The amount eaten by humans differs from carcass mass availability because the latter does not account for losses, which include bones, losses in retail and food service or home preparation , spoilage and "downstream" waste, and amounts consumed by pets . As an example of the difference, for 2002, when the FAO figure for US per capita meat consumption was 124.48 kg , the USDA estimate of US per capita loss-adjusted meat consumption was 62.6 kg . Additionally, the 2002 FAO study was potentially misleading for countries with high levels of meat export compared to their population, as it relied on production data using full carcass mass availability, whereas exports generally contain less bones, cartilage and other things not typically used for human consumption. For example, the FAO figure for Denmark, which has one of the highest meat export rates compared to its population, was 145.9 kg . More recent FAO figures have taken the earlier discrepancy into account, resulting in a significantly lower 95.2 kg for Denmark . When further adjusted for loss, calculations by DTU Fodevareinstituttet suggest the actual consumption was 48 kg per adult. A building or edifice is an enclosed structure with a roof and walls, usually standing permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for numerous factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, land prices, ground conditions, specific uses, prestige, and aesthetic reasons. To better understand the concept, see Nonbuilding structure for contrast. Buildings serve several societal needs - occupancy, primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a physical separation of the human habitat from the outside . Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have been objects or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in sustainable planning and building practices has become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings and other structures, usually green buildings. A building is 'a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place'; "there was a three-storey building on the corner"; "it was an imposing edifice". In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building. However, the word structure is used more broadly than building, to include natural and human-made formations and ones that do not have walls; structure is more often used for a fence. Sturgis' Dictionary included that " differs from architecture in excluding all idea of artistic treatment; and it differs from construction in the idea of excluding scientific or highly skilful treatment." Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was the husband and consort of the British monarch, Queen Victoria. They were married from 10 February 1840 until his death in 1861. Albert was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europe's ruling monarchs. At the age of 20, he married Victoria, his cousin, with whom he went on to have nine children. Initially, he felt constrained by his role as consort, which did not afford him power or responsibilities. He gradually developed a reputation for supporting public causes, such as educational reform and the abolition of slavery worldwide, and he was entrusted with running the Queen's household, office and estates. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, which was a resounding success. Victoria came to depend more and more on Albert's support and guidance. He aided the development of Britain's constitutional monarchy by persuading his wife to be less partisan in her dealings with the British Parliament, but he actively disagreed with the interventionist foreign policy pursued during Lord Palmerston's tenure as Foreign Secretary. Albert died in 1861 at age 42, devastating Victoria so much that she entered into a deep state of mourning and wore black for the rest of her life. On her death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, the first British monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, named after the ducal house to which Albert belonged. Prince Albert was born on 26 August 1819 at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. His first cousin and future wife, Victoria, had been born earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife, Charlotte von Siebold. He was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau, with water taken from the local river, the Itz. His godparents were his paternal grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld; his maternal grandfather, the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg; the Emperor of Austria; the Duke of Teschen; and Emanuel, Count of Mensdorff-Pouilly. In 1825, Albert's great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died, which led to a realignment of the Saxon duchies the following year; and Albert's father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. </Text>

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Victoria and Albert Museum </Graph>

<Text> :The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea is an Inner London borough with royal status. It is the smallest borough in London and the second smallest district in England; it is one of the most densely populated administrative regions in the United Kingdom. It includes affluent areas such as Notting Hill, Kensington, South Kensington, Chelsea, and Knightsbridge. The borough is immediately west of the City of Westminster and east of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. It contains major museums and universities in Albertopolis, department stores such as Harrods, Peter Jones and Harvey Nichols, and embassies in Belgravia, Knightsbridge and Kensington Gardens. The borough is home to the Notting Hill Carnival, Europe's largest, and contains many of the most expensive residential properties in the world, as well as Kensington Palace, a British royal residence. The local authority is Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council. Its motto, adapted from the opening words of Psalm 133, is Quam bonum in unum habitare, which translates roughly as 'How good it is to dwell in unity'. The borough was formed by the merger of the Royal Borough of Kensington and the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea, under the London Government Act 1963, which reorganised 86 boroughs and urban districts into 32 London boroughs on 1 April 1965 together with the creation of the Greater London Council. Sir Aston Webb, GCVO, CB, RA, FRIBA was a British architect who designed the principal facade of Buckingham Palace and the main building of the Victoria and Albert Museum, among other major works around England, many of them in partnership with Ingress Bell. He was President of the Royal Academy from 1919 to 1924. He was also the founding Chairman of the London Society. The son of a watercolourist , Edward Webb, Aston Webb was born in Clapham, South London, on 22 May 1849 and received his initial architectural training articled in the firm of Banks and Barry from 1866 to 1871, after which he spent a year travelling in Europe and Asia. He returned to London in 1874 to set up his own practice. From the early 1880s, he joined the Royal Institute of British Architects and began working in partnership with Ingress Bell . Their first major commission was a winning design for the Victoria Law Courts in Birmingham , the first of numerous public building schemes the pair designed over the next 23 years. Towards the end of his career Webb was assisted by his sons, Maurice and Philip. Ralph Knott, who designed London's County Hall, began his work as an apprentice to Webb executing the drawings for his competition entries. He served as RIBA President and, having been elected as a full member of the Royal Academy in 1903, served as acting president from 1919 to 1924. He received the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture in 1905 and was the first recipient of the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal in 1907. He was the first chairman of the London Society in 1912. Tristram Julian William Hunt, FRHistS is a British historian, broadcast journalist and former politician who has been Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum since 2017. He served as the Labour Member of Parliament for Stoke-on-Trent Central from 2010 to 2017, and Shadow Secretary of State for Education from 2013 to 2015. Hunt was born in Cambridge, the son of Julian Hunt, a meteorologist and leader of the Labour Party group on Cambridge City Council in 1972-73, who in 2000 was awarded a life peerage as Baron Hunt of Chesterton, and the grandson of Roland Hunt, a British diplomat. The Hunt family were goldsmiths and silversmiths in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; John Samuel Hunt being in business with his uncle-by-marriage, Paul Storr; also descended from John Samuel Hunt was John Hunt, Baron Hunt of Fawley. Hunt is the great-grandson of Maxwell Garnett, barrister and educationist, and great-great-grandson of William Garnett, an academic and professor in physics. As such he is a cousin of Virginia Bottomley, Baroness Bottomley of Nettlestone, and of Peter Jay, former son-in-law of the late Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan. Through Bottomley, he is related by marriage to Sir Peter Bottomley and former Labour MP and economist Kitty Ussher. Tristram Hunt was educated at University College School, an all-boys' private school in Hampstead, north London. There, he achieved two As and a B at A-Level. He took a First in History at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1995. Young V&A, formerly the V&A Museum of Childhood, is a branch of the Victoria and Albert Museum , which is the United Kingdom's national museum of applied arts. It is in Bethnal Green in the East End of London, and specialises in objects by and for children. The museum was founded in 1872 as the Bethnal Green Museum. The iron structure reused a prefabricated building from Albertopolis which was replaced with some early sections of the modern V&A complex. The exterior of the building was designed by James William Wild in red brick in a Rundbogenstil style very similar to that in contemporary Germany. The building was used to display a variety of collections at different times. In the 19th century, it contained food and animal products, and various pieces of art including the works which can now be seen at the Wallace Collection. It was remodelled as an art museum following World War I, with a children's section which subsequently grew in size. In 1974 the director of the V&A, Sir Roy Strong, defined it as a specialist museum of childhood. The mission of the museum is "To enable everyone, especially the young, to explore and enjoy the designed world, in particular objects made for and made by children." It has extensive collections of toys, childhood equipment and costumes, and stages a programme of temporary exhibitions. A design museum is a museum with a focus on product, industrial, graphic, fashion and architectural design. Many design museums were founded as museums for applied arts or decorative arts and started only in the late 20th century to collect design. The first museum of this kind was the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. In Germany the first museum of decorative arts was the Deutsches-Gewerbe-Museum zu Berlin , founded in 1868 in Berlin. Also some museums of contemporary or modern art have important design collections, like the MoMA in New York, the Centre Pompidou in Paris. A special concept has been realised in the Pinakothek der Moderne in Munich, in which four independent museums cooperate, one of them being Die Neue Sammlung - the largest design museum in the world. </Text>

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<Text> :Cromwell Road is a major London road in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, designated as part of the A4. It was created in the 19th century and is said to be named after Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver Cromwell, who once owned a house there. Cromwell Road was not always the main traffic route it is now, as when it was built, it ended at Earl's Court. The Cromwell Road extension, across the West London railway line and towards Hammersmith, was authorised as a bridge across the railway in 1884 but completed only in 1941. Thus, it was only after the Second World War that it became the main A4 route into London. The large traffic increase brought much demolition and road rearrangement beyond Earls Court Road in 1967 to 1972, but the main part of Cromwell Road has not had its basic building line changed. The Cromwell Road Extension was a mid-late 1950s roadlaying program involving widening and demolition from Hammersmith Broadway to the Great West Road at Chiswick Roundabout as part of the A4 route for Heathrow and the West. The Hammersmith flyover, avoiding Hammersmith Broadway, complemented these works which eventually fed the M4 Motorway . Some of the streets widened by demolition in Chiswick to form the route have retained their former names. The 1.5 miles road begins as West Cromwell Road, near West Kensington Underground station, and continues eastwards from Talgarth Road. It becomes Cromwell Road proper as it crosses Earl's Court Road. It goes just south of Cromwell Hospital and then past Gloucester Road and Gloucester Road Underground station. The Kensington Forum hotel, designed by Richard Seifert and built in 1971-1972 as Penta hotel, is located across the road from the West London Air Terminal , which is no longer operational, and is situated next to the Gloucester Road station. The Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum is the head of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, a post currently held by Tristram Hunt, who succeeded Martin Roth, who died in August 2017, months after he announced he would resign in January. The postholder is responsible for that institution's general administration and reports its accounts to the British Government. The actual governance of the Museum, however, is delegated to its board of trustees; these are appointed individually by the British Prime Minister. The National Heritage Act 1983, which established the Museum's board of trustees, provides the prime minister's power to appoint the members and the chair of the board of trustees, and provides for the Director to be appointed by this board, with the approval of the prime minister. Cromwell Gardens is a short but major road in South Kensington, within the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, London, England. It joins the Cromwell Road at the junction with Exhibition Road to the west with the Brompton Road to the east. To the north, the main facade and entrance of the Victoria and Albert Museum is a dominant feature. To the south, on the corner with Exhibition Road, is the Ismaili Centre, a religious, social, and cultural meeting place for the UK Ismaili community. To the north at the junction with Brompton Road is the Brompton Oratory. For most Christians, Sunday is observed as a day of worship and rest, holding it as the Lord's Day and the day of Christ's resurrection; in the United States, Canada, China, Japan, as well as in parts of South America, Sunday is the first day of the week. According to the Islamic calendar, Hebrew calendar and traditional calendars Sunday is the first day of the week; Quaker Christians call Sunday the "first day" in accordance with their testimony of simplicity. The International Organization for Standardization ISO 8601, which is based in Switzerland, calls Sunday the seventh day of the week. The name "Sunday", the day of the Sun, is derived from Hellenistic astrology, where the seven planets, known in English as Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon, each had an hour of the day assigned to them, and the planet which was regent during the first hour of any day of the week gave its name to that day. During the 1st and 2nd centuries, the week of seven days was introduced into Rome from Egypt, and the Roman names of the planets were given to each successive day. Germanic peoples seem to have adopted the week as a division of time from the Romans, but they changed the Roman names into those of corresponding Teutonic deities. Hence, the dies Solis became Sunday . The English noun Sunday derived sometime before 1250 from sunedai, which itself developed from Old English Sunnandaeg , which is cognate to other Germanic languages, including Old Frisian sunnandei, Old Saxon sunnundag, Middle Dutch sonnendach , Old High German sunnun tag , and Old Norse sunnudagr . The Germanic term is a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis , which is a translation of the ancient Greek Eliou emera" . Spain , or the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in Southwestern Europe, with parts of its territory in the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea and Africa. It is the largest country in Southern Europe and the fourth-most populous European Union member state. Spanning across the majority of the Iberian Peninsula, its territory also includes the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla in Africa. Peninsular Spain is bordered to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar; and to the west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid, and other major urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Zaragoza, Seville, Malaga, Murcia, Palma de Mallorca, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and Bilbao. In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by Celtic and Iberian tribes, along with other local pre-Roman peoples. With the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the province of Hispania was established. Following the Romanization and Christianization of Hispania, the fall of the Western Roman Empire ushered in the inward migration of tribes from Central Europe, including the Visigoths, who formed the Visigothic Kingdom centred on Toledo. In the early eighth century, most of the peninsula was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate, and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus became a dominant peninsular power centred in Cordoba. Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them Asturias, Leon, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal; made an intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation, known as the Reconquista, repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492. The dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 under the Catholic Monarchs is often considered the de facto unification of Spain as a nation-state. Spain led the Age of Discovery, in which It pioneered the exploration and colonization of the New World, made the first circumnavigation of the globe, and formed one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire eventually reached a global scale spreading across all continents, and the need for financing, along the transatlantic trade, underpinned the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily by precious metals. The 18th century was marked by extensive reforms and, notably, the Bourbon reforms centralized mainland Spain. In the 19th century, after the victory in the Peninsular War, the following political divisions between liberals and absolutists led to the independence of most of the American colonies. These political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with the Spanish Civil War, giving rise to the Francoist dictatorship that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy and its entry into the European Union, the country experienced an economic boom that profoundly transformed it socially and politically. Since the Siglo de Oro, Spanish art, architecture, music, poetry, painting, literature, and cuisine have been influential worldwide, particularly in Western Europe and the Americas. Spain is considered one of the major Latin countries of Europe and a cultural superpower. As a reflection of its large cultural wealth, Spain has one of the world's largest numbers of World Heritage Sites, it is the world's second-most visited country and the most popular destination for European students. Its cultural influence extends to over 600 million Hispanophones, making Spanish the world's second-most spoken native language and the world's most widely spoken Romance language. Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with King Felipe VI as head of state. It is a major advanced capitalist economy, with the world's fifteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the fifteenth-largest by PPP. Spain is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization , a permanent guest of the G20, and is part of many other international organizations such as the Council of Europe , the Organization of Ibero-American States , the Union for the Mediterranean, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , and the World Trade Organization . A tourist attraction is a place of interest that tourists visit, typically for its inherent or an exhibited natural or cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, offering leisure and amusement. Places of natural beauty such as beaches, tropical island resorts, national parks, mountains, deserts and forests, are examples of traditional tourist attractions which people may visit. Cultural tourist attractions can include historical places, sites of significant historic event, monuments, ancient temples, zoos, aquaria, museums and art galleries, botanical gardens, buildings and structures , theme parks and carnivals, living history museums, public art , ethnic enclave communities, historic trains and cultural events. Factory tours, industrial heritage, creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks. But sports events such as a soccer game, Formula 1 race or sailing regatta can also attract tourists. Tourists' expectations when visiting a particular place are related to several features of the chosen destination: culture, architecture, gastronomy, infrastructure, landscape, events, shopping, etc. These features attract people to the destination and contribute to the overall experience of the trip. The ultimate primary purpose of attractions is to attract the customer's attention so that they can come to a specific location and explore the various attractions on vacation. In the travel and tourism industry, attractions therefore play a particularly important role as this attracts tourists from all over the world. Tourist attractions are also created to capitalize on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland. Ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighborhood of Brixton in London, England. Tourists also look for special local culinary experiences such as street kitchens in Asian metropolises or the coffeehouse culture in Central Europe. In particular, cultural property and the individual places of the UNESCO World Heritage Site have developed into tourist attractions. If too many tourists frequent individual places, this can lead to environmental pollution and resistance from the local population, such as in Barcelona or Venice. With regard to this whole subject, there are already lists of destinations that are not recommended to tourists. Madrid is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union , and its monocentric metropolitan area is the second-largest in the EU. The municipality covers 604.3 km2 geographical area. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the central part of the Iberian Peninsula at about 650 meters above mean sea level. The capital city of both Spain and the surrounding autonomous community of Madrid , it is also the political, economic, and cultural centre of the country. The climate of Madrid features hot summers and cool winters. The Madrid urban agglomeration has the second-largest GDP in the European Union and its influence in politics, education, entertainment, environment, media, fashion, science, culture, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities. Due to its economic output, high standard of living, and market size, Madrid is considered the major financial centre and the leading economic hub of the Iberian Peninsula and of Southern Europe. The metropolitan area hosts major Spanish companies such as Telefonica, Iberia, BBVA and FCC. It concentrates the bulk of banking operations in the country and it is the Spanish-speaking city generating the largest amount of webpages. For innovation, Madrid is ranked 19th in the world and 7th in Europe from 500 cities, in the 2022-2023 annual analysts Innovation Cities Index, published by 2ThinkNow. Madrid houses the headquarters of the UN's World Tourism Organization , the Ibero-American General Secretariat , the Organization of Ibero-American States , and the Public Interest Oversight Board . It also hosts major international regulators and promoters of the Spanish language: the Standing Committee of the Association of Spanish Language Academies, headquarters of the Royal Spanish Academy , the Instituto Cervantes and the Foundation of Urgent Spanish . Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI and the Madrid Fashion Week. Madrid is home to two world-famous football clubs, Real Madrid and Atletico Madrid. While Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Its landmarks include the Plaza Mayor, the Royal Palace of Madrid; the Royal Theatre with its restored 1850 Opera House; the Buen Retiro Park, founded in 1631; the 19th-century National Library building containing some of Spain's historical archives; many national museums, and the Golden Triangle of Art, located along the Paseo del Prado and comprising three art museums: Prado Museum, the Reina Sofia Museum, a museum of modern art, and the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, which complements the holdings of the other two museums. Cibeles Palace and Fountain has become one of the monument symbols of the city. The mayor is Jose Luis Martinez-Almeida from the People's Party. </Text>

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<Text> :</Text>

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<Text> :The term literally means a "good of cultural interest" . It includes not only material heritage , like monuments or movable works of art, but also intangible cultural heritage, such as the Silbo Gomero language. In Spain, the Bien de Interes Cultural category dates from 1985 when it replaced the former heritage category of Monumento nacional to extend protection to a wider range of cultural property. The category has been translated as "Cultural Interest Asset." Monumentos are now identified as one of the sub-categories of Bien de Interes Cultural. The movable heritage designated as Bienes de Interes Cultural includes archeological artfacts, archives and large works of art. Such protected objects may well be kept in a building which is itself a BIC. Under the Spanish system, regions maintain their registers of cultural heritage . There have been some differences in approach between autonomous communities. An example is bullfighting . Madrid's regional government considers that bullfighting events should be protected as cultural heritage. In contrast, in Catalonia a ban on bullfighting came into effect in 2012, although this was later overturned by the Supreme Court. The Philadelphia Museum of Art is an art museum originally chartered in 1876 for the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The main museum building was completed in 1928 on Fairmount, a hill located at the northwest end of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway at Eakins Oval. The museum administers collections containing over 240,000 objects including major holdings of European, American and Asian origin. The various classes of artwork include sculpture, paintings, prints, drawings, photographs, armor, and decorative arts. The Philadelphia Museum of Art administers several annexes including the Rodin Museum, also located on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, and the Ruth and Raymond G. Perelman Building, which is located across the street just north of the main building. The Perelman Building, which opened in 2007, houses more than 150,000 prints, drawings and photographs, 30,000 costume and textile pieces, and over 1,000 modern and contemporary design objects including furniture, ceramics, and glasswork. The museum also administers the historic colonial-era houses of Mount Pleasant and Cedar Grove, both located in Fairmount Park. The main museum building and its annexes are owned by the City of Philadelphia and administered by a registered nonprofit corporation. Several special exhibitions are held in the museum every year, including touring exhibitions arranged with other museums in the United States and abroad. The museum had 437,348 visitors in 2021, making it the 65th most-visited art museum worldwide. An organization or organisation , is an entity--such as a company, an institution, or an association--comprising one or more people and having a particular purpose. There are a variety of legal types of organizations, including corporations, governments, non-governmental organizations, political organizations, international organizations, armed forces, charities, not-for-profit corporations, partnerships, cooperatives, and educational institutions, etc. A voluntary association is an organization consisting of volunteers. Such organizations may be able to operate without legal formalities, depending on jurisdiction, including informal clubs or coordinating bodies with a goal in mind which they may express in the form of an manifesto, mission statement, or implicitly through the organization's actions. Organizations may also operate secretly or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations, and resistance movements. And in some cases may have obstacles from other organizations . He entered the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando as a pupil when he was eleven years old. In 1758, he travelled to Rome to become a grant holder of the Academy to complete his studies. In 1765, he returned to Spain. A year later, he travelled through Cordoba and Granada, where he, together with Jose de Hermosilla, went to draw the "Arab antiquities." The drawings from these travels were published in 1804. He settled in Madrid, where he was appointed Academic of the Academy of San Fernando. In 1777, Charles III appointed him Architect of the Prince and the Infants. From then to the end of his life he would work almost exclusively for the Royal House. In 1781, he was appointed Architect of the Royal Monastery of El Escorial, and Charles IV appointed him Major Architect. He was going to construct several pavilions for the royal disposal: in 1771, he built the Casa de Infantes in the Royal Site of Aranjuez; in 1772, the Casita del Principe, at El Pardo; in 1773, the Casita de Arriba and the Casita de Abajo or del Principe, both in El Escorial, where he also constructed the Casas de Oficios, a group of houses, according to the sober Herrerian style of the Monastery. Nevertheless, his undisputed masterpiece is the Prado Museum, projected in 1785 and 1787. It was constructed as a Museum of Natural History, a School of Natural History, and an auditorium for conferences and lectures. It was transformed into the Museum of Art in 1814, and today it is also known as Edificio Villanueva. </Text>

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<Text> :Charles III was King of Spain in the years 1759 to 1788. He was also Duke of Parma and Piacenza, as Charles I ; King of Naples, as Charles VII; and King of Sicily, as Charles III . He was the fourth son of Philip V of Spain and the eldest son of Philip's second wife, Elisabeth Farnese. He was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and regalism. In 1731, the 15-year-old Charles became Duke of Parma and Piacenza following the death of his childless grand-uncle Antonio Farnese. In 1734, at the age of 18, he led Spanish troops in a bold and almost entirely bloodless march down Italy to seize the Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily and enforce the Spanish claim to their thrones. In 1738, he married the Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony, daughter of Augustus III of Poland, who was an educated, cultured woman. The couple had 13 children, eight of whom reached adulthood. They resided in Naples for 19 years. Charles gained valuable experience in his 25-year rule in Italy, so that he was well prepared as monarch of the Spanish Empire. His policies in Italy prefigured ones he would put in place in his 30-year rule of Spain. Charles succeeded to the Spanish throne in 1759 upon the death of his childless half-brother Ferdinand VI. As king of Spain, Charles III made far-reaching reforms to increase the flow of funds to the crown and defend against foreign incursions on the empire. He facilitated trade and commerce, modernized agriculture and land tenure, and promoted science and university research. He implemented regalist policies to increase the power of the state regarding the church. During his reign, he expelled the Jesuits from the Spanish Empire and fostered the Enlightenment in Spain. Charles launched enquiries into the Iberian peninsula's Muslim past, even after succeeding to the Spanish throne. He strengthened the Spanish army and navy. Although he did not achieve complete control over Spain's finances, and was sometimes obliged to borrow to meet expenses, most of his reforms proved successful in providing increased revenue to the crown and expanding state power, leaving a lasting legacy. In the Spanish Empire his regime enacted a series of sweeping reforms with the aim of bringing the overseas territories under firmer control by the central government, reversing the trend toward local autonomy, and gaining more control over the Church. Reforms including the establishment of two new viceroyalties, realignment of administration into intendancies, creating a standing military, establishing new monopolies, revitalizing silver mining, excluding American-born Spaniards from high civil and ecclesiastical offices, and eliminating many privileges of clergy. Historian Stanley Payne writes that Charles "was probably the most successful European ruler of his generation. He had provided firm, consistent, intelligent leadership. He had chosen capable ministers.... personal life had won the respect of the people." John Lynch's assessment is that in Bourbon Spain "Spaniards had to wait half a century before their government was rescued by Charles III." A civic holiday, also known as a civil or work holiday, is a day that is legally recognized and celebrated as a holiday in a particular sovereign state or jurisdictional subdivision of such, e.g., a state or a province. It is usually a day that the legislature, parliament, congress or sovereign has declared by statute, edict or decree as a non-working day when the official arms of government such as the court system are closed. In federal states there may also be different holidays for the constituent states or provinces, as in the United States where holidays that were established by the federal government are called federal holidays. Such days may or may not be counted in calculating the statute of limitations in legal actions and are usually days when non-custodial parents are given alternating visitation or access to their children from a prior marriage or relationship according to a parenting schedule. The term may also be used to distinguish between days that may be celebrated as secular holidays rather than religious holidays such as the celebration of New Year's Day on January 1 and January 14 in certain eastern Orthodox Christian countries such as Russia. In the British Isles, the term bank holiday is used to refer to days established as public holidays in statute law. In England and Wales, Good Friday and Christmas Day are known as common law holidays, as they have been celebrated by custom since time immemorial. Bank holidays were introduced in the late 19th century to extend the labour rights citizens have on common law holidays to four additional days. The major social function of public holidays is the co-ordination of leisure time. This co-ordination has costs, such as congestion and overcrowding and benefits . A museum shop or museum store is a gift shop in a museum. Typical offerings include reproductions of works in the museum, picture postcards, books related to the museum's collections, and various kinds of souvenirs. Art museums often include clothing and decorative objects inspired by or copying artwork. Museum shops are often placed near the entrance or the exit. Temporary special exhibitions often have their own gift shops. Museum shops are often important sources of revenue for museums as public funding diminishes, and museum professionals often consider them as important elements of visitor education. The New York Metropolitan Museum of Art is said to have established the world's first museum shop in 1908. In the United States, museum shops developed after the Second World War. At first, they were often small and not professionally managed. They became important revenue generators in the 1980s. Museum shops have become an important element of visitors' perceptions of museums. Indeed, some studies show that visitors spend more time at the shop, the cafe, and so on, than with the exhibits. The Prado Museum , officially known as Museo Nacional del Prado, is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It houses collections of European art, dating from the 12th century to the early 20th century, based on the former Spanish royal collection, and the single best collection of Spanish art. Founded as a museum of paintings and sculpture in 1819, it also contains important collections of other types of works. The numerous works by Francisco Goya, the single most extensively represented artist, as well as by Hieronymus Bosch, El Greco, Peter Paul Rubens, Titian, and Diego Velazquez, are some of the highlights of the collection. Velazquez and his keen eye and sensibility were also responsible for bringing much of the museum's fine collection of Italian masters to Spain, now one of the largest outside of Italy. The collection currently comprises around 8,200 drawings, 7,600 paintings, 4,800 prints, and 1,000 sculptures, in addition to many other works of art and historic documents. As of 2012, the museum displayed about 1,300 works in the main buildings, while around 3,100 works were on temporary loan to various museums and official institutions. The remainder were in storage. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2020 attendance plunged by 76 percent to 852,161. Nonetheless, the Prado was ranked as the 16th most-visited museum in the list of most-visited art museums in the world in 2020. It is one of the largest museums in Spain. The building that is now the home of the Museo Nacional del Prado was designed in 1785 by architect of the Enlightenment in Spain Juan de Villanueva on the orders of Charles III to house the Natural History Cabinet. Nonetheless, the building's final function was not decided until the monarch's grandson, Ferdinand VII, encouraged by his wife, Queen Maria Isabel de Braganza, decided to use it as a new Royal Museum of Paintings and Sculptures. The royal museum, which would soon become known as the National Museum of Painting and Sculpture, and subsequently the Museo Nacional del Prado, opened to the public for the first time in November 1819. It was created with the double aim of showing the works of art belonging to the Spanish Crown and to demonstrate to the rest of Europe that Spanish art was of equal merit to any other national school. Also, this museum needed several renovations during the 19th and 20th centuries, because of the increase of the collection as well as the increase of the public who wants to see all the collection that the museum hosted. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in the western region of Central Europe. It is the second-most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany lies between the Baltic and North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its 16 constituent states have a total population of over 84 million, cover a combined area of 357,600 km2 and are bordered by Denmark to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria and Switzerland to the south, and France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands to the west. The nation's capital and most populous city is Berlin and its main financial centre is Frankfurt; the largest urban area is the Ruhr. Settlement in what is now Germany began in the Lower Paleolithic, with various tribes inhabiting it from the Neolithic onward, chiefly the Celts. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity. A region named Germania was documented before AD 100. In 962, the Kingdom of Germany formed the bulk of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. Following the Napoleonic Wars and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the German Confederation was formed in 1815. Formal unification of Germany into the modern nation-state commenced on 18 August 1866 with the North German Confederation Treaty establishing the Prussia-led North German Confederation later transformed in 1871 into the German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918-1919, the Empire was in turn transformed into the semi-presidential Weimar Republic. The Nazi seizure of power in 1933 led to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship, World War II, and the Holocaust. After the end of World War II in Europe and a period of Allied occupation, in 1949, Germany as a whole was organized into two separate polities with limited sovereignty: the Federal Republic of Germany, generally known as West Germany, and the German Democratic Republic, known as East Germany, while Berlin continued its de jure Four Power status. The Federal Republic of Germany was a founding member of the European Economic Community and the European Union, while the German Democratic Republic was a communist Eastern Bloc state and member of the Warsaw Pact. After the fall of the communist led-government in East Germany, German reunification saw the former East German states join the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990. Germany has been described as a great power with a strong economy; it has the largest economy in Europe. As a global power in industrial, scientific and technological sectors, it is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer. As a developed country it offers social security, a universal health care system, and tuition-free university education. Germany is a member of the United Nations, European Union, NATO, Council of Europe, G7, G20, and OECD. It has the third-greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. </Text>

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<Text> :Munich ; German: Munchen i; Bavarian: Minga i) is the capital and most populous city of the Free State of Bavaria. With a population of 1,578,132 inhabitants as of 31 May 2022, it is the third-largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, and thus the largest which does not constitute its own state, as well as the 11th-largest city in the European Union. The city's metropolitan region is home to about 6.2 million people and the third biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union. Straddling the banks of the river Isar north of the Alps, Munich is the seat of the Bavarian administrative region of Upper Bavaria, while being the most densely populated municipality in Germany with 4,500 people per km2. Munich is the second-largest city in the Bavarian dialect area, after the Austrian capital of Vienna. The city was first mentioned in 1158. Catholic Munich strongly resisted the Reformation and was a political point of divergence during the resulting Thirty Years' War, but remained physically untouched despite an occupation by the Protestant Swedes. Once Bavaria was established as the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1806, Munich became a major European centre of arts, architecture, culture and science. In 1918, during the German Revolution of 1918-19, the ruling House of Wittelsbach, which had governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich and a short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic was declared. In the 1920s, Munich became home to several political factions, among them the Nazi Party. After the Nazis' rise to power, Munich was declared their "Capital of the Movement". The city was heavily bombed during World War II, but has restored most of its old town. After the end of postwar American occupation in 1949, there was a great increase in population and economic power during the years of Wirtschaftswunder. The city hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics. Today, Munich is a global centre of science, technology, finance, innovation, business, and tourism. Munich enjoys a very high standard and quality of living, reaching first in Germany and third worldwide according to the 2018 Mercer survey, and being rated the world's most liveable city by the Monocle's Quality of Life Survey 2018. Munich is consistently ranked as one of the most expensive cities in Germany in terms of real estate prices and rental costs. It consists of the three "Pinakotheken" galleries , the Glyptothek, the Staatliche Antikensammlungen , the Lenbachhaus, the Museum Brandhorst and several galleries. Also the Staatliche Sammlung fur Agyptische Kunst was moved to the Kunstareal in 2013. The history of the museums in this area of Munich began in 1816 with the erection of the Glyptothek at Konigsplatz and was completed with the new building for the Egyptian Museum and the extension of the Lenbachhaus . Close to the Pinakothek der Moderne the neo-classical Palais Durckheim served at times as a building dedicated to bringing art closer to the visitors, while the adjoining Turkentor , the gate of a demolished royal caserne, is set to become a display window for temporary contemporary art. As of 2009 a general project plan is under discussion to ensure the integration of the different museum buildings and to improve the access to the art district from the inner city. The Alte Pinakothek's rather monolithic structure contains a treasure trove of the works of European masters between the 14th and 18th centuries. The collection reflects the eclectic tastes of the Wittelsbachs over four centuries, and is sorted by schools over two sprawling floors. Major displays include Albrecht Durer's Christ-like Self-Portrait, his The Four Apostles, Raphael's paintings The Canigiani Holy Family and Madonna Tempi as well as Peter Paul Rubens self-portrait Honeysuckle Bower and his two-storey-high Judgment Day. The gallery houses one of the world's most comprehensive Rubens collections. The Madonna of the Carnation is the only painting of Leonardo da Vinci in a German gallery. The Neue Pinakothek is especially famous for its comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionism from Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Paul Cezanne, Paul Gauguin, Edgar Degas, Vincent van Gogh and many others. Von Klenze studied architecture and public building finance under Friedrich Gilly in Berlin, and worked as an apprentice to Charles Percier and Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine in Paris. Between 1808 and 1813, he was a court architect of Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia. He later moved to Bavaria and began work as court architect of Ludwig I in 1816. Ludwig I's passion for Hellenism shaped the architectural style of von Klenze. He built many neoclassical buildings in Munich, including the Ruhmeshalle and Monopteros temple. He designed the layout of Konigsplatz, a neoclassical square in Munich. Near Regensburg, he built the Walhalla temple, named after Valhalla. Von Klenze designed and arranged museum galleries in Munich, including the Glyptothek, Ludwig I's museum for antique sculpture, and the Alte Pinakothek, a painting gallery for the pictures of the Wittelsbach collection that opened in 1836. The Alte Pinakothek was situated in an open park land, the Kunstareal, and became a national gallery. The functional logic and the modernity of the Alte Pinakothek were much admired. The Alte Pinakothek was acknowledged as the most advanced museum building in Europe and von Klenze was invited to London in 1836 by the House of Commons. There, was interviewed about Bavarian cultural policies and the Alte Pinakothek. Von Klenze detailed the educational and political aspects of the Munich museums, which were free to the public. When Greece won its independence, Ludwig I's son Otto became the country's first king. Von Klenze was invited to Athens to submit plans of city reconstruction in the style of Ancient Greece. In 1838, Nicholas I of Russia commissioned von Klenze to design a building for the Hermitage Museum, a public museum to display the collection of antiquities, paintings, coins and medals, cameos, prints and drawings, and books that had been assembled by the House of Romanov. Ludwig I or Louis I was King of Bavaria from 1825 until the 1848 revolutions in the German states. When he was crown prince, he was involved in the Napoleonic Wars. As king, he encouraged Bavaria's industrialization, initiating the Ludwig Canal between the rivers Main and the Danube. In 1835, the first German railway was constructed in his domain, between the cities of Furth and Nuremberg, with his Bavaria joining the Zollverein economic union in 1834. After the July Revolution of 1830 in France, Ludwig's previous liberal policy became increasingly repressive; in 1844, Ludwig was confronted during the Beer riots in Bavaria. During the revolutions of 1848 the king faced increasing protests and demonstrations by students and the middle classes. On 20 March 1848, he abdicated in favour of his eldest son, Maximilian. Ludwig lived for another twenty years after his abdication and remained influential. An admirer of ancient Greece and the Italian Renaissance, Ludwig patronized the arts and commissioned several neoclassical buildings, especially in Munich. He was an avid collector of arts, amassing paintings from the Early German and Early Dutch periods as well as Graeco-Roman sculptures. Born in the Zweibrucker Hof in Strassburg as Ludwig Karl August von Pfalz-Birkenfeld-Zweibrucken, he was the son of Count Palatine Maximilian Joseph of Zweibrucken by his first wife Princess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt. At the time of his birth, his father was an officer in the French army stationed at Strasbourg. He was the godson and namesake of Louis XVI of France. On 1 April 1795 his father succeeded Ludwig's uncle, Charles II, as duke of Zweibrucken, and on 16 February 1799 became Elector of Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Arch-Steward of the Empire, and Duke of Berg on the extinction of the Sulzbach line with the death of the elector Charles Theodore. His father assumed the title of King of Bavaria on 1 January 1806. Willem van Heythuysen posing with a sword is an oil-on-canvas painting by the Dutch Golden Age painter Frans Hals, painted in 1625-1630, and now in the Alte Pinakothek, in Munich. It shows the Haarlem cloth merchant Willem van Heythuysen in a theatrical pose with a rapier. The painting shows a proud man standing in front of a neoclassical architectural element with drapery, leaning on a sword. In the distance a garden with a couple can be seen, and in the foreground some roses lie on the ground. It was first documented by Adriaan Loosjes, who mentioned it in his tribute to Hals in 1789 as being in the collection Gerrit Willem van Oosten de Bruyn. Much later Ernst Wilhelm Moes included it in his Iconographia Batavia, and Hofstede de Groot documented it again with the following description: WILLEM VAN HEYTHUYSEN. B. 123; M. 44. Full-length; life size. He stands with the left foot forward and the right drawn back. His figure is turned three-quarters left; his head almost faces the spectator, at whom he is looking. His left hand is pressed to his side; his right hand clasps the hilt of a sword with its point on the ground. He has a moustache and pointed beard. He wears a broad-brimmed hat, a white collar like a ruff trimmed with lace, and a very richly trimmed costume of dark blue with broad lace-trimmed cuffs. Behind him a lilac- brown drapery hangs on a fantastic piece of architecture; to the left is a view of a French garden; on the ground lie roses. Painted about 1635. The painting served as inspiration to many, not just the poetry of Loosjes. Judith Leyster made a period copy, though she exchanged the rapier for a walking stick. Several people have posed in this stance in costume, most recently Kehinde Wiley who made a painting of a young black man in the same pose. In his 1989 catalog of the international Frans Hals exhibition Slive claimed it was previously incorrectly dated as 1635 but was actually painted 10 years earlier. The art historian Claus Grimm seemed to recognize that the drapery behind him looked similar to the iridescent dress of Hals' portrait of Aletta Hannemans, discussing these paintings after each other and placing them as painted in the same year. Possibly, as Heythuyzen was a cloth merchant, both were from workshops under his control and this portrait shows the source of his wealth as well as a romantic vision of himself as a bachelor. Because he is positioned facing left, we know that this is not a wedding pendant, as Hals always placed the woman on the right facing left. Heythuizen never married and died a bachelor. </Text>

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<Text> :Baggage or luggage consists of bags, cases, and containers which hold a traveler's personal articles while the traveler is in transit. A modern traveler can be expected to have packages containing clothing, toiletries, small possessions, trip necessities. On the return trip, travelers may have souvenirs and gifts. For some people, luggage and the style thereof is representative of the owner's wealth and status. Luggage is constructed to protect the items during travel either with a hard shell or a durable soft material. Luggage often has internal subdivisions or sections to aid in securing items. Handles are typically provided to facilitate carrying, and some luggage may have wheels and/or telescoping handles or leashes to make moving them easier. Luggage has changed over time. Historically the most common types of luggage were chests or trunks made of wood or other heavy materials. These would be shipped by professional movers. Since the Second World War smaller and more lightweight suitcases and bags that can be carried by an individual have become the main form of luggage. Luggage carriers - light-weight wheeled carts on which luggage could be temporarily placed or that can be temporarily attached to luggage - date at least to the 1930s, such as in US patent 2,132,316 "Luggage carrier" by Anne W. Newton . These were refined over the following decades, as reflected in patents such as a 1948 US patent by Herbert Ernest Mingo, for a "device for the handling of trunks, suitcases, and the like". A US patent for a "luggage carriage" filed in 1949 , and another for a "luggage carriage harness", were both made by Kent R. Costikyan. However, the wheels were external to the suitcases. Patents had been published for wheeled luggage - a wheeled trunk in 1887, and a wheeled suitcase in 1945 - but these were not successfully commercialized. Scientific knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions. This verifiability may well vary even within a scientific discipline. Natural, social, and formal science make up the fundamental sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinarity - and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises. The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics. Unlike other branches, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world , but rather with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal sciences actually constitute as a science. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality, and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences. Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during reactions with other substances. Chemistry also addresses the nature of chemical bonds in chemical compounds. In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology. It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth , the formation of igneous rocks , how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded , the properties of the soil on the Moon , how medications work , and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene . Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times. It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the chemical industry. The word chemistry comes from a modification during the Renaissance of the word alchemy, which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism, and medicine. Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though alchemists were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry. Physics is the natural science of matter, involving the study of matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, with its main goal being to understand how the universe behaves. A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps the oldest. Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were a part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century these natural sciences emerged as unique research endeavors in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy. Advances in physics often enable new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism, solid-state physics, and nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus. The word physics comes from the Latin physica , which itself is a borrowing of the Greek phusike , a term derived from phusis . </Text>

<Graph> : <s> list of engineering branches <p> is a list of <o> technical sciences <s> list of engineering branches <p> instance of <o> Wikimedia list article <s> list of engineering branches <p> category related to list <o> Category:Engineering disciplines <s> engineering <p> is the study of <o> engineering <s> engineering <p> instance of <o> academic discipline <s> engineering <p> instance of <o> academic major <s> Portal:Engineering <p> Wikimedia portal's main topic <o> engineering <s> Portal:Engineering <p> instance of <o> Wikimedia portal <s> Portal:Engineering <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Engineering portal <s> technology <p> instance of <o> industry <s> technology <p> instance of <o> academic discipline <s> technology <p> has characteristic <o> technological singularity <s> technology <p> history of topic <o> history of technology <s> technology <p> subclass of <o> applied science <s> technology <p> studied in <o> technology assessment <s> technology <p> studied in <o> sociotechnology <s> technology <p> part of <o> technical system <s> technology <p> part of <o> science, technology, engineering, and mathematics <s> technology <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:List of articles all languages should have <s> technology <p> described by source <o> The Verge <s> technology <p> has effect <o> convenience <s> technology <p> is the study of <o> technique <s> technology <p> described by source <o> Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> technology <p> studied in <o> science and technology studies <s> technology <p> uses <o> technique <s> technology <p> Wikimedia outline <o> outline of technology <s> technology <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/4 <s> technology <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Technology <s> technology <p> topic's main template <o> Template:Technology topics <s> technology <p> history of topic <o> history of technology in Ukraine <s> technology <p> practiced by <o> technologist <s> technology <p> topic's main Wikimedia portal <o> Portal:Technology <s> technology <p> has characteristic <o> type of technology <s> technology <p> has characteristic <o> technological maturity <s> technology <p> maintained by WikiProject <o> WikiProject Technology <s> technology <p> described by source <o> Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition (1885–1890) <s> technology <p> union of <o> list of values as qualifiers <s> technique <p> part of <o> technology <s> technique <p> properties for this type <o> used by <s> technique <p> studied in <o> technology <s> technique <p> Wikidata property <o> determination method <s> technique <p> said to be the same as <o> method <s> technique <p> subclass of <o> method <s> technique <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Tech <s> technique <p> practiced by <o> technician <s> technique <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Techniques <s> technique <p> described by source <o> Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition (1885–1890) <s> technique <p> named after <o> techne <s> technique <p> different from <o> means <s> technique <p> partially coincident with <o> means <s> technique <p> different from <o> Technika <s> course of study <p> subclass of <o> field of study <s> course of study <p> subclass of <o> university course <s> course of study <p> subclass of <o> studies <s> Candidate of Technical Sciences <p> instance of <o> academic degree <s> Candidate of Technical Sciences <p> followed by <o> Doctor in Engineering <s> Candidate of Technical Sciences <p> subclass of <o> Candidate of Sciences <s> engineering scientist <p> subclass of <o> scientist <s> engineering scientist <p> field of this occupation <o> engineering <s> engineering scientist <p> instance of <o> profession <s> Doctor in Engineering <p> country <o> Ukraine <s> Doctor in Engineering <p> country <o> Romania <s> Doctor in Engineering <p> country <o> Russia <s> Doctor in Engineering <p> country <o> Soviet Union <s> Doctor in Engineering <p> follows <o> Candidate of Technical Sciences <s> Doctor in Engineering <p> field of this occupation <o> engineering <s> Doctor in Engineering <p> instance of <o> academic degree <s> Doctor in Engineering <p> subclass of <o> Doctor of Sciences <s> engineering student <p> field of this occupation <o> engineering <s> engineering student <p> subclass of <o> student <s> engineering student <p> instance of <o> activity </Graph>

<Text> : Engineering is the discipline and profession that applies scientific theories, mathematical methods, and empirical evidence to design, create, and analyze technological solutions cognizant of safety, human factors, physical laws, regulations, practicality, and cost. In the contemporary era, engineering is generally considered to consist of the major primary branches of chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. There are numerous other engineering sub-disciplines and interdisciplinary subjects that may or may not be part of these major engineering branches. Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure, machinery, vehicles, electronics, materials, and energy systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. See glossary of engineering. The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property. The term engineering is derived from the word engineer, which itself dates back to the 14th century when an engine'er referred to "a constructor of military engines". In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war . Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure, machinery, vehicles, electronics, materials, and energy systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. See glossary of engineering. Engineers, as practitioners of engineering, are professionals who invent, design, analyze, build and test machines, complex systems, structures, gadgets and materials to fulfill functional objectives and requirements while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium . The foundational qualifications of a licensed professional engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice and passage of engineering board examinations. Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground by mining the oil shale and then treating it in processing facilities. Other modern technologies perform the processing underground by applying heat and extracting the oil via oil wells. Technology is the application of conceptual knowledge for achieving practical goals, especially in a reproducible way. The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts, including both tangible tools such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones such as software. Technology plays a critical role in science, engineering, and everyday life. Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used during prehistoric times, followed by the control of fire, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language during the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines. More recent technological inventions, including the printing press, telephone, and the Internet, have lowered barriers to communication and ushered in the knowledge economy. While technology contributes to economic development and improves human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution and resource depletion, and can cause social harms like technological unemployment resulting from automation. As a result, there are ongoing philosophical and political debates about the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and ways to mitigate its downsides. Technology is a term dating back to the early 17th century that meant 'systematic treatment' . It is predated in use by the Ancient Greek word tekhne, used to mean 'knowledge of how to make things', which encompassed activities like architecture. An academic major is the academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits. A student who successfully completes all courses required for the major qualifies for an undergraduate degree. The word major is also sometimes used administratively to refer to the academic discipline pursued by a graduate student or postgraduate student in a master's or doctoral program. An academic major typically involves completion of a combination of required and elective courses in the chosen discipline. The latitude a student has in choosing courses varies from program to program. An academic major is administered by select faculty in an academic department. A major administered by more than one academic department is called an interdisciplinary major. In some settings, students may be permitted to design their own major, subject to faculty approval. In the United States, students are usually not required to choose their major discipline when first enrolling as an undergraduate. In addition, most colleges and universities require that all students take a general core curriculum in the liberal arts. Normally students are required to commit by the end of their second academic year at latest, and some schools even disallow students from declaring a major until this time. A student who declares two academic majors is said to have a double major. A coordinate major is an ancillary major designed to complement the primary one. A coordinate major requires fewer course credits to complete. Many colleges also allow students to declare a minor field, a secondary discipline in which they also take a substantial number of classes, but not so many as would be necessary to complete a major. The roots of the academic major as we now know it first surfaced in the 19th century as "alternative components of the undergraduate degree". Before that, all students receiving an undergraduate degree would be required to study the same slate of courses geared at a comprehensive "liberal education". Engineering education is the activity of teaching knowledge and principles to the professional practice of engineering. It includes an initial education , and any advanced education and specializations that follow. Engineering education is typically accompanied by additional postgraduate examinations and supervised training as the requirements for a professional engineering license. The length of education, and training to qualify as a basic professional engineer, is typically five years, with 15-20 years for an engineer who takes responsibility for major projects. Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education in primary and secondary schools often serves as the foundation for engineering education at the university level. In the United States, engineering education is a part of the STEM initiative in public schools. Service-learning in engineering education is gaining popularity within the variety of disciplinary focuses within engineering education including chemical engineering, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, industrial engineering, computer engineering, electrical engineering, architectural engineering, and other engineering education. Engineering training in Kenya is typically provided by the universities. Registration of engineers is governed by the Engineers Registration Act. A candidate stands to qualify as a registered engineer, R.Eng., if they are a holder of a minimum of four years of post-secondary Engineering Education and a minimum of three years of postgraduate work experience. All registrations are undertaken by the Engineers Registration Board which is a statutory body established through an Act of the Kenyan Parliament in 1969. A minor revision was done in 1992 to accommodate Technician Engineer grade. The board has been given the responsibility of regulating the activities and conduct of Practicing Engineers in the Republic of Kenya in accordance with the functions and powers conferred upon it by the Act. Under CAP 530 of the Laws of Kenya, it is illegal for an engineer to practice or call themself an engineer if not registered with the board. Registration with the board is thus a license to practice engineering in Kenya. </Text>

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<Text> :Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tamaki is the principal public gallery in Auckland, New Zealand. It has the most extensive collection of national and international art in New Zealand and frequently hosts travelling international exhibitions. The building originally housed both the Auckland Art Gallery and the Auckland public library, and opened with collections donated by benefactors Governor Sir George Grey and James Tannock Mackelvie. This was the second public art gallery in New Zealand, after the Dunedin Public Art Gallery, which opened three years earlier in 1884. Wellington's New Zealand Academy of Fine Arts opened in 1892 and a Wellington Public Library in 1893. In 2009, it was announced that the museum received a donation from American businessman Julian Robertson, valued at over $100 million, the largest ever of its kind in the region. The works will be received from the owner's estate. Throughout the 1870s many people in Auckland felt the city needed a municipal art collection but the newly established Auckland City Council was unwilling to commit funds to such a project. Following pressure by such eminent people as Sir Maurice O'Rorke and others, the building of a combined Art Gallery & Library was made necessary by the promise of significant bequests from two major benefactors, former colonial governor Sir George Grey and James Tannock Mackelvie. Grey had promised books for a municipal library as early as 1872, and eventually donated a large number of manuscripts, rare books and paintings from his collection to the Auckland Gallery & Library . He also gave material to Cape Town, where he had also been Governor. The Grey bequest includes works by Caspar Netscher, Henry Fuseli, William Blake and David Wilkie. Zoology is the scientific study of animals. Its studies include the structure, embryology, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. Zoology is one of the primary branches of biology. The term is derived from Ancient Greek zoon, zoion , and logos, logos . Although humans have always been interested in the natural history of the animals they saw around them, and used this knowledge to domesticate certain species, the formal study of zoology can be said to have originated with Aristotle. He viewed animals as living organisms, studied their structure and development, and considered their adaptations to their surroundings and the function of their parts. Modern zoology has its origins during the Renaissance and early modern period, with Carl Linnaeus, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel and many others. The study of animals has largely moved on to deal with form and function, adaptations, relationships between groups, behaviour and ecology. Zoology has increasingly been subdivided into disciplines such as classification, physiology, biochemistry and evolution. With the discovery of the structure of DNA by Francis Crick and James Watson in 1953, the realm of molecular biology opened up, leading to advances in cell biology, developmental biology and molecular genetics. The history of zoology traces the study of the animal kingdom from ancient to modern times. Prehistoric people needed to study the animals and plants in their environment in order to exploit them and survive. There are cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating back 15,000 years showing bison, horses and deer in carefully rendered detail. Similar images from other parts of the world illustrated mostly the animals hunted for food, but also the savage animals. Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. Sculpture is the three-dimensional art work which is physically presented in the dimensions of height, width and depth. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving and modelling , in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials but, since Modernism, there has been almost complete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or moulded or cast. Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art in perishable materials, and often represents the majority of the surviving works from ancient cultures, though conversely traditions of sculpture in wood may have vanished almost entirely. However, most ancient sculpture was brightly painted, and this has been lost. Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in many cultures, and until recent centuries, large sculptures, too expensive for private individuals to create, were usually an expression of religion or politics. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, as well as many in Central and South America and Africa. The Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith. The revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelo's statue of David. Modernist sculpture moved away from traditional processes and the emphasis on the depiction of the human body, with the making of constructed sculpture, and the presentation of found objects as finished artworks. Encyclopedia Americana is a general encyclopedia written in American English. It was the first general encyclopedia of any magnitude to be published in North America.: 31 With Collier's Encyclopedia and Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana became one of the three major and large English-language general encyclopedias; the three were sometimes collectively called "the ABCs of encyclopedias".: 23 Following the acquisition of Grolier in 2000, the encyclopedia has been produced by Scholastic. The encyclopedia has more than 45,000 articles, most of them more than 500 words and many running to considerable length . Americana is international in scope and is known for its detailed coverage of American and Canadian geography and history. Americana is also known for its strong coverage of biographies, as well as scientific and technical subjects. Written by 6,500 contributors, the Encyclopedia Americana includes over 9,000 bibliographies, 150,000 cross-references, 1,000+ tables, 1,200 maps, and almost 4,500 black-and-white line art and color images. It also has 680 fact boxes. Major articles are signed by their contributors, many being scholars pre-eminent in their field. Long available as a 30-volume print set, the Encyclopedia Americana is now marketed as an online encyclopedia requiring a subscription. In March 2008, Scholastic said that print sales remained good but that the company was still deciding on the future of the print edition. The company's final print edition was released in 2006. The online version of the Encyclopedia Americana, first introduced in 1996, continues to be updated and sold. This work, like the print set from which it is derived, is designed for high school and first-year college students along with public library users. It is available to libraries as one of the databases in the Scholastic GO! reference service , which also includes the Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, an encyclopedia for middle and high school students, The New Book of Knowledge, an encyclopedia for ages 7-14 and particularly grades 3-6, America the Beautiful, Lands and Peoples, Amazing Animals of the World, and The New Book of Popular Science.: 31 According to The New York Public Library, Scholastic GO! also includes the La Nueva Enciclopedia Cumbre, a Spanish-language general encyclopedia for students in middle through high school. However, the previously mentioned Scholastic blog does not show that. It is possible that La Nueva Enciclopedia Cumbre is only included in the Spanish version of Scholastic GO!, though the existense of that in itself is unsure due to the same New York Public Library link saying that the language of Scholastic GO! is English. Scholastic GO! is not available to individual subscribers. The Lives of Dutch painters and paintresses, or De levens-beschryvingen der Nederlandsche konst-schilders en konst-schilderessen, as it was originally known in Dutch, is a series of artist biographies with engraved portraits written by the 18th-century painter Jacob Campo Weyerman. It was published in four volumes as a sequel to Arnold Houbraken's own list of biographies known as the Schouburgh. The first volume appeared in 1729, and the last volume was published in 1769. This work is considered to be a very important source of information on 17th-century artists of the Netherlands, specifically those artists who worked in The Hague and in London. The engraved portraits included as illustrations in Volume III are below, including one of the "Vignettes", an engraving after a butterfly by Maria Sibylle Merian. The engravings are followed by the artists listed in order of appearance in the text. The portrait illustrations are all copied from Houbraken. Volume IV is split into two parts. After a long introduction mentioning several artists and ending with Francisque Millet, a list of painters follows beginning with Adriaen Hanneman, who took lessons at the Hague Academy and were members of the Confrerie Pictura. At the end of the Hague list, the book continues with new page numbering. Anatomy 'dissection') is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine. Anatomy is a complex and dynamic field that is constantly evolving as new discoveries are made. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of advanced imaging techniques, such as MRI and CT scans, which allow for more detailed and accurate visualizations of the body's structures. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic parts. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers to 20th-century medical imaging techniques, including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. </Text>

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<Text> :The concept of engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley, lever, and wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects. The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer, which itself dates back to 1325, when an engine'er originally referred to "a constructor of military engines." In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i. e., a mechanical contraption used in war . The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium , meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention." Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering . The ziggurats of Mesopotamia, the pyramids and Pharos of Alexandria in ancient Egypt, cities of the Indus Valley civilization, the Acropolis and Parthenon in ancient Greece, the aqueducts, Via Appia and Colosseum in the Roman Empire, Teotihuacan, the cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, and the Great Wall of China, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers. Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge obtained via conclusions from the method to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena. Applied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology. Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods. Applied science can also apply social science, such as application of psychology in applied psychology, criminology, and law. Historians would want to see how applied science has evolved over time. In particular, how societies started applying scientific principles to practical problems, and how this practice changed over centuries. Exploring historical examples of applied science, such as the development of engineering techniques in ancient civilisations or the emergence of modern medical practices, would be valuable. Applied research is the practical application of science. It accesses and uses accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific state-, business-, or client-driven purpose. In contrast to engineering, applied research does not include analyses or optimization of business, economics, and costs. Applied research can be better understood in any area when contrasting it with, basic, or pure, research. Basic geography research strives to create new theories and methods that aid in the explanation of the processes that shape the spatial structure of physical or human environments. Rather, applied research utilizes the already existing geographical theories and methods to comprehend and address particular empirical issues. Applied research usually has specific commercial objectives related to products, procedures, or services. The comparison of pure research and applied research provides a basic framework and direction for businesses to follow. Engineering is the scientific discipline and profession that applies scientific theories, mathematical methods, and empirical evidence to design, create, and analyze technological solutions cognizant of safety, human factors, physical laws, regulations, practicality, and cost. Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics is an umbrella term used to group together the distinct but related technical disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The term is typically used in the context of education policy or curriculum choices in schools. It has implications for workforce development, national security concerns , and immigration policy, with regard to admitting foreign students and tech workers. There is no universal agreement on which disciplines are included in STEM; in particular, whether or not the science in STEM includes social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, economics, and political science. In the United States, these are typically included by organizations such as the National Science Foundation , the Department of Labor's O*Net online database for job seekers, and the Department of Homeland Security. In the United Kingdom, the social sciences are categorized separately and are instead grouped with humanities and arts to form another counterpart acronym HASS , rebranded in 2020 as SHAPE . Some sources also use HEAL as the counterpart of STEM. Previously referred to as SMET by the NSF, in the early 1990s the acronym STEM was used by a variety of educators, including Charles E. Vela, the founder and director of the Center for the Advancement of Hispanics in Science and Engineering Education . Moreover, the CAHSEE started a summer program for talented under-represented students in the Washington, D.C., area called the STEM Institute. Based on the program's recognized success and his expertise in STEM education, Charles Vela was asked to serve on numerous NSF and Congressional panels in science, mathematics, and engineering education; it is through this manner that NSF was first introduced to the acronym STEM. One of the first NSF projects to use the acronym was STEMTEC, the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math Teacher Education Collaborative at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, which was founded in 1998. In 2001, at the urging of Dr. Peter Faletra, the Director of Workforce Development for Teachers and Scientists at the Office of Science, the acronym was adopted by Rita Colwell and other science administrators in the National Science Foundation . The Office of Science was also an early adopter of the STEM acronym. The Australian Curriculum, Assessment, and Reporting Authority 2015 report entitled, National STEM School Education Strategy, stated that "A renewed national focus on STEM in school education is critical to ensuring that all young Australians are equipped with the necessary STEM skills and knowledge that they must need to succeed." Its goals were to: Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. It is usually considered an independent academic discipline, but may also be classified as part of anthropology , history or geography. Archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology is distinct from palaeontology, which is the study of fossil remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for which, by definition, there are no written records. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies around the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. Derived from the Greek, the term archaeology means "the study of ancient history". Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced around the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology, and archaeoastronomy, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains. In Ancient Mesopotamia, a foundation deposit of the Akkadian Empire ruler Naram-Sin was discovered and analysed by king Nabonidus, c. 550 BCE, who is thus known as the first archaeologist. Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of Samas the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu , and the sanctuary that Naram-Sin built to the moon god, located in Harran, but he also had them restored to their former glory. He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it. Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time. </Text>

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<Text> :Specialists, known as numismatists, are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, but the discipline also includes the broader study of money and other means of payment used to resolve debts and exchange goods. The earliest forms of money used by people are categorised by collectors as "odd and curious", but the use of other goods in barter exchange is excluded, even where used as a circulating currency . As an example, the Kyrgyz people used horses as the principal currency unit, and gave small change in lambskins; the lambskins may be suitable for numismatic study, but the horses are not. Many objects have been used for centuries, such as cowry shells, precious metals, cocoa beans, large stones, and gems. First attested in English in 1829, the word numismatics comes from the adjective numismatic, meaning "of coins". It was borrowed in 1792 from French numismatique, itself a derivation from Late Latin numismatis, genitive of numisma, a variant of nomisma meaning "coin". Nomisma is a latinisation of the Greek nomisma which means "current coin/custom", which derives from nomizein , "to hold or own as a custom or usage, to use customarily", in turn from nomos , "usage, custom", ultimately from nemein , "to dispense, divide, assign, keep, hold". Throughout its history, money itself has been made to be a scarce good, although it does not have to be. Many materials have been used to form money, from naturally scarce precious metals and cowry shells through cigarettes to entirely artificial money, called fiat money, such as banknotes. Many complementary currencies use time as a unit of measure, using mutual credit accounting that keeps the balance of money intact. The Vatican Museums are the public museums of Vatican City, enclave of Rome. They display works from the immense collection amassed by the Catholic Church and the papacy throughout the centuries, including several of the most well-known Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display, and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments. Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century. The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling and altar wall decorated by Michelangelo, and the Stanze di Raffaello are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2022, the Vatican Museums were visited by 5,080,866 persons, 215 percent more than in 2021, but still below pre-COVID attendance. They ranked second in the List of most-visited art museums in the world after the Louvre, third on the list of most-visited museums and sixth on the list of largest art museums. The Vatican Museums trace their origin to a single marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoon and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the Pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The Pope put the sculpture, which represents the Trojan priest Laocoon and his two sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery. Philately is the study of postage stamps and postal history. It also refers to the collection and appreciation of stamps and other philatelic products. While closely associated with stamp collecting and the study of postage, it is possible to be a philatelist without owning any stamps. For instance, the stamps being studied may be very rare or reside only in museums. The word "philately" is the English transliteration of the French "philatelie", coined by Georges Herpin in 1864. Herpin stated that stamps had been collected and studied for the previous six or seven years and a better name was required for the new hobby than timbromanie , which was disliked. The alternative terms "timbromania", "timbrophily", and "timbrology" gradually fell out of use as philately gained acceptance during the 1860s. Herpin took the Greek root word phil- phil-, meaning "an attraction or affinity for something", and ateleia ateleia, meaning "exempt from duties and taxes", to form the neologism "philatelie". As a collection field, philately appeared after the introduction of the postage stamps in 1840, but did not gain large attraction until the mid-1850s. In the U.S., early collectors of stamps were known as "stamp gatherers". The United States Postal Service re-issued stamps in 1875 due to public demand for 'old stamps', including those from before the American Civil War. Some authors believe that the first philatelist appeared on the day of the release of the world's first postage stamp, dated to 6 May 1840, when the Liverson, Denby and Lavie London law office sent a letter to Scotland franked with ten uncut Penny Blacks, stamped with the postmark "LS.6MY6. 1840." In 1992 at an auction in Zurich, this envelope was sold for 690,000 francs. Already in 1846, cases of collecting stamps in large numbers were known in England. However, without reason for collection, stamps at this time were used for pasting wallpaper. The first philatelist is considered to be a postmaster going by the name Mansen, who lived in Paris, and in 1855 had sold his collection, which contained almost all the postage stamps issued by that time. The stamp merchant and second-hand book dealer Edard de Laplante bought it, recognizing the definitive collector's worth of the postage stamp. Due to the boom in popularity and news of this transaction, stamp merchants like Laplante began to emerge. Pope Julius II was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1503 to his death, in February 1513. Nicknamed the Warrior Pope, Battle Pope or the Fearsome Pope, he chose his papal name not in honour of Pope Julius I but in emulation of Julius Caesar. One of the most powerful and influential popes, Julius II was a central figure of the High Renaissance and left a significant cultural and political legacy. As a result of his policies during the Italian Wars, the Papal States increased their power and centralization, and the office of the papacy continued to be crucial, diplomatically and politically, during the entirety of the 16th century in Italy and Europe. In 1506, Julius II established the Vatican Museums and initiated the rebuilding of the St. Peter's Basilica. The same year he organized the famous Swiss Guard for his personal protection and commanded a successful campaign in Romagna against local lords. The interests of Julius II lay also in the New World, as he ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas, establishing the first bishoprics in the Americas and beginning the Catholicization of Latin America. In 1508, he commissioned the Raphael Rooms and Michelangelo's paintings in the Sistine Chapel. Julius II was described by Machiavelli in his works as an ideal prince. Pope Julius II allowed people seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church, which would be used for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. He was fiercely satirized after his death by Erasmus of Rotterdam in Julius Excluded from Heaven, in which the drunken pope, denied entry by St Peter, justifies his worldly life and threatens to found his own paradise. Julius II became pope in the context of the Italian Wars, a period in which the major powers of Europe fought for primacy in the Italian peninsula. Louis XII of France controlled the Duchy of Milan, previously held by the Sforzas, and French influence had replaced that of the Medici in the Republic of Florence. The Kingdom of Naples was under Aragonese rule, and the Borja family from Spain was a major political faction in the Papal States following the reign of Alexander VI. Archduke Maximilian I of Austria was hostile to France and Venice, and desired to descend into Italy in order to be crowned Holy Roman emperor by the pope. The conclave capitulation preceding his election included several terms, such as the opening of an ecumenical council and the organization of a crusade against the Ottoman Turks. Once crowned, Julius II proclaimed instead his goal to centralize the Papal States and "free Italy from the barbarians". The anima mundi or world soul is, according to several systems of thought, an intrinsic connection between all living beings, which relates to the world in much the same way as the soul is connected to the human body. Although the concept of the anima mundi originated in classical antiquity, similar ideas can be found in the thoughts of later European philosophers such as those of Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Schelling, and Georg W.F. Hegel . Thus, then, in accordance with the likely account, we must declare that this Cosmos has verily come into existence as a Living Creature endowed with soul and reason a Living Creature, one and visible, containing within itself all the living creatures which are by nature akin to itself. Plato's Timaeus describes this living cosmos as being built by the demiurge constructed as to be self-identical and intelligible to reason, according to a rational pattern expressed in mathematical principles and Pythagorean ratios describing the structure of the cosmos, and particularly the motions of the seven classical planets. The living universe is also a god titled Ouranos and Kosmos, which shows, as scholars have argued, that Plato mediates between the poetic and presocratic traditions. </Text>

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<Text> :The Vatican Historical Museum is one of the sections of the Vatican Museums. It was founded in 1973 at the behest of Pope Paul VI, and was initially hosted in environments under the Square Garden. In 1987 it was moved to the main floor of the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran and opened in March 1991. The Vatican Historical Museum has a unique collection of portraits of the Popes from the sixteenth century to date, the memorable items of the Papal Military Corps of the 16-17th centuries and old religious paraphernalia related to rituals of the papacy. Also on display on the lower floor are the papamobili ; carriages and motorcars of Popes and Cardinals, including the first cars used by Popes. The Lateran Palace, which is next to the Basilica of Saint John Lateran to its left within the courtyard of the church with a common entry gate, is a large apartment complex of the Pope. Domenico Fontana was the architect of this palace which was built to his design in 1586. Right at the entrance the staircase is a massive and impressive structure with the ceiling decorated with frescoes. It had been refurbished by Pope Paul IV into ten halls; each of these halls had frescoes of the Mannerist Age. The hall known as the Conciliation, and was provided with allegories related to the papacy of Sixtus V. The other halls were named Constantine, Hall of Apostles, Emperors Room, Popes Room and so forth. The fresco decorations were on themes of the History of Rome, episodes of the Bible related to Daniel, David, Solomon, Samuel and others, and also related to the Gospel. Several colourful tapestries and Gobelins added to the aesthetic elegance of the halls. Before the History Museum decided to relocate here to a more luxurious locale, none of the rooms had been allowed to be used for any general public purpose. Since 1991, these rooms have been exclusively used as exhibition or display rooms for the exhibits moved from the Vatican Museums. The museum has been arranged into two wings. The principal wing is the museum of all artistic and historic importance starting with the paintings of the history of the Papal States, portraits of Popes until date, memorabilia of the Papal Military Corps including the navy, documents related to ceremonial orders of Popes, the Papal household items, and various ceremonial regalia and religious vessels and insignia not in use. The Vatican Museums are the public museums of Vatican City, enclave of Rome. They display works from the immense collection amassed by the Catholic Church and the papacy throughout the centuries, including several of the most well-known Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display, and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments. Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century. The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling and altar wall decorated by Michelangelo, and the Stanze di Raffaello are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2022, the Vatican Museums were visited by 5,080,866 persons, 215 percent more than in 2021, but still below pre-COVID attendance. They ranked second in the List of most-visited art museums in the world after the Louvre, third on the list of most-visited museums and sixth on the list of largest art museums. The Vatican Museums trace their origin to a single marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoon and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the Pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The Pope put the sculpture, which represents the Trojan priest Laocoon and his two sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery. The Vatican Museums are the public museums of Vatican City, enclave of Rome. They display works from the immense collection amassed by the Catholic Church and the papacy throughout the centuries, including several of the most well-known Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display, and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments. Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century. The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling and altar wall decorated by Michelangelo, and the Stanze di Raffaello are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2022, the Vatican Museums were visited by 5,080,866 persons, 215 percent more than in 2021, but still below pre-COVID attendance. They ranked second in the List of most-visited art museums in the world after the Louvre, third on the list of most-visited museums and sixth on the list of largest art museums. The Vatican Museums trace their origin to a single marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoon and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the Pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The Pope put the sculpture, which represents the Trojan priest Laocoon and his two sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery. She often visited her grandparents on Via Giulia in Rome, or at Fregene on the outskirts of the city, where her grandmother, Assia Busiri Vici, a portrait painter, would paint her. Her grandfather Andrea was an architect. She has studied conservation at Istituto centrale per la patologia del libro, today Istituto centrale per il restauro e la conservazione del patrimonio archivistico e librario. Despite her family background, she only determined on a career in art history when she was living in an artists commune in Rome and went with one of the artists to an art history lesson. She studied literature at the University of Rome , completing her thesis, The History of Drawing, Engraving and Graphics, in 1986. She later went on to earn degrees in Archive Administration and Art History. After her studies in Italy, she studied in England, Portugal, and the United States. Since 1994 she has taught at the Suor Orsola Benincasa University in Naples. In 1996 she joined and led the prints section of the Vatican Library. She became the vice-director of the Vatican Museums under Antonio Paolucci in June 2016. On 20 December 2016, Pope Francis appointed her the director of the Vatican Museums, effective 1 January 2017. Jatta became the first female director of the Vatican Museums. She is responsible for artworks that includes the iconic ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. The Vatican museums earns more than $300m with profits of $40m from visitors to their museums. Jatta has recognised the work done by her predecessors. She says that she will eliminate the unsightly queue of visitors who stand to await entry. She will encourage visitors to enjoy the lesser known sections of the museum which should reduce crowding of the Sistine Chapel. She planned to utilize the "new media" to both publicize and educate. All this must be done, she said, while "paying special attention to the 'Vatican tradition'." In March 2017, Jatta presided over the opening of a show at the Vatican Museums for the first time: Dilectissimo fratri Caesario Symmachus>>. From Arles to Rome, the relics of St. Caesarius, treasure of Paleo-Christian Gaul. In March 2018, Jatta attended meetings in Rome that marked the UN's International Day of Women and she represented the Vatican at a conference sponsored by the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women , the first time the Vatican had participated in a meeting sponsored by the CSW. The Vatican Museums are the public museums of Vatican City, enclave of Rome. They display works from the immense collection amassed by the Catholic Church and the papacy throughout the centuries, including several of the most well-known Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display, and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments. Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century. The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling and altar wall decorated by Michelangelo, and the Stanze di Raffaello are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2022, the Vatican Museums were visited by 5,080,866 persons, 215 percent more than in 2021, but still below pre-COVID attendance. They ranked second in the List of most-visited art museums in the world after the Louvre, third on the list of most-visited museums and sixth on the list of largest art museums. The Vatican Museums trace their origin to a single marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoon and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the Pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The Pope put the sculpture, which represents the Trojan priest Laocoon and his two sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery. It occupies 55 rooms: the Borgia Apartment on the first floor of the Apostolic Palace, the two floors of the Salette Borgia, a series of rooms below the Sistine Chapel, and a series of rooms on the ground floor. Approximately 250 artists created over 500 pieces that are displayed in the Borgia Apartments. The Collection was officially introduced to the public on June 23, 1973. The collection consists of almost 800 works by 250 international artists including: Francis Bacon, Giacomo Balla, Ernst Barlach, Max Beckmann, Emile Bernard, Bernard Buffet, Alice Lok Cahana, Marc Chagall, Eduardo Chillida, Giorgio de Chirico, Salvador Dali, Maurice Denis, Otto Dix, Paul Gauguin, Renato Guttuso, Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Oskar Kokoschka, Alfred Manessier, Giacomo Manzu, Giorgio Morandi, Pablo Picasso, Odilon Redon, Auguste Rodin, Georges Rouault, Maurice Utrillo, Vincent van Gogh, and Henri Matisse. The majority of these works of art were donated by artists and collectors to the Holy See. The collection combines works that are "surrealist, cubist, post-impressionist, and expressionist." In 2011, Matisse's son, Pierre, donated to the Vatican Museum. As a result, Matisse has his own room in the Vatican, containing a set of Catholic liturgical vestments called chasubles from Vence. Other notable works include Vincent Van Gogh's Pieta and Paul Gauguin's wooden relief. In the same room, post-Impressionist sculptor Merdardo Rosso created a wax work known as Aetas Aurea. Francis Bacon created a piece detailing Pope Innocent X. Auguste Rodin's aquatints and a Hand of God cast are also displayed in the Vatican. Another room in the Vatican is dedicated to Marino Marini, a modernist Italian sculptor. Many of the donations in the Vatican came from private collectors and families, and Marini's wife, Marina, donated many of his pieces to the Vatican. His distinctly religious works are a bronze crucifix called Crocifisso, a relief sculpture titled Crocifissione, and a bust of a juggler, Giocoliere. The art of Gentili Guttuso, another Italian painter, occupies the eighth room of the Vatican Collection. His work is much more figurative than Marini's, focusing on religious subject matter but represented through an avant-garde style of abstraction. His work, similar to other artists featured, is somewhat surrealist. </Text>

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<Text> :Kodra was born in Ishem , Albania, son of Murat and Xhixhe. His mother died when he was young, and he did not receive adequate treatment from his stepmother. His father was working in the Commercial Marine. Ibrahim took art classes from Odhise Paskali during 1929, focusing on sport as well. Kodra practiced discus and hammer throw, without pretending any professional career in sport, since those disciplines were not even present in Albania at that time. While taking drawing classes, one of his drawings would come into the focus of Queen Geraldine. This would change his course of life, and later it would be speculated that he was friend of Prince Tati and part of the royal circle, which was not true, though it never seriously bothered the artist. In 1938, he went to Italy to study fine arts supported by a scholarship from the Albanian Kingdom, and there he won a second scholarship from the Italian government as an emerging talent with the intervention of Jacomoni, and went to study in Milan in the Academy of Fine Arts of Brera. In 1944 he opened his first workshop in Milan; in 1948 he opened a personal and group exposition in the "Art Club" in Rome, where he met and become friend of Pablo Picasso, which often will be contested on artistic reflections. In 1950 he painted frescos in the most important museums and buildings of Milan. Kodra then opened an exposition with Picasso, Henri Matisse, Amedeo Modigliani, Georges Rouault, Dufy and others in the Mostra del Disegno in Chiavari . His works are in the Museum of Vatican, in the Chamber of Deputies of the Italian Parliament in Rome, in exclusive private collections all around the world. In 1996 he won the "Honor of the Nation" award from Albania , and in 1997, shortly after painting Albania Fantastica he was appointed honorary consul and he was given a diplomatic passport to the Republic of Albania. He died in Milan in 2006. Kodra was buried in front of Ishem Castle according to his will to be buried there. His house in Milan is converted in a museum, with the initiative of Fatos Fasliu, president of "Ibrahim Kodra Foundation" in Milan. In February 2010, a museum dedicated to his work was opened in Melide, Lugano, with the support of Albanian entrepreneur Behgjet Pacolli and the "Ibrahim Kodra" Foundation , a Swiss cultural organization supporting emerging art talents and promoting Kodra's work. James Riviere is an Italian artist, designer, and sculptor. His jewellery designs are held in private collections, and in museums including the Louvre, Victoria and Albert, and Vatican Museums. An airplane or aeroplane , informally plane, is a fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, propeller, or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Worldwide, commercial aviation transports more than four billion passengers annually on airliners and transports more than 200 billion tonne-kilometers of cargo annually, which is less than 1% of the world's cargo movement. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled such as drones. The Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as "the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight". They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, when he set forth the concept of the modern airplane and the work of German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal, who, between 1867 and 1896, also studied heavier-than-air flight. Lilienthal's flight attempts in 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight. Following its limited use in World War I, aircraft technology continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of World War II. The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939. The first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to at least 2013. First attested in English in the late 19th century , the word airplane, like aeroplane, derives from the French aeroplane, which comes from the Greek aer , "air" and either Latin planus, "level", or Greek planos , "wandering". "Aeroplane" originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air. In an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft. In the United States and Canada, the term "airplane" is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and Ireland and most of the Commonwealth, the term "aeroplane" is usually applied to these aircraft. A pattern is a regularity in the world, in human-made design, or in abstract ideas. As such, the elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes and typically repeated like a wallpaper design. Any of the senses may directly observe patterns. Conversely, abstract patterns in science, mathematics, or language may be observable only by analysis. Direct observation in practice means seeing visual patterns, which are widespread in nature and in art. Visual patterns in nature are often chaotic, rarely exactly repeating, and often involve fractals. Natural patterns include spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks, and those created by symmetries of rotation and reflection. Patterns have an underlying mathematical structure;: 6 indeed, mathematics can be seen as the search for regularities, and the output of any function is a mathematical pattern. Similarly in the sciences, theories explain and predict regularities in the world. In many areas of the decorative arts, from ceramics and textiles to wallpaper, "pattern" is used for an ornamental design that is manufactured, perhaps for many different shapes of object. In art and architecture, decorations or visual motifs may be combined and repeated to form patterns designed to have a chosen effect on the viewer. Symmetry is widespread in living things. Animals that move usually have bilateral or mirror symmetry as this favours movement.: 48-49 Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as do many flowers, as well as animals which are largely static as adults, such as sea anemones. Fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, including starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies.: 64-65 An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be an entirely new concept. If an idea is unique enough either as a stand-alone invention or as a significant improvement over the work of others, it can be patented. A patent, if granted, gives the inventor a proprietary interest in the patent over a specific period of time, which can be licensed for financial gain. An inventor creates or discovers an invention. The word inventor comes from the Latin verb invenire, invent-, to find. Although inventing is closely associated with science and engineering, inventors are not necessarily engineers or scientists. Due to advances in artificial intelligence, the term "inventor" no longer exclusively applies to an occupation . Some inventions can be patented. The system of patents was established to encourage inventors by granting limited-term, limited monopoly on inventions determined to be sufficiently novel, non-obvious, and useful. A patent legally protects the intellectual property rights of the inventor and legally recognizes that a claimed invention is actually an invention. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary by country and the process of obtaining a patent is often expensive. Another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines and books. Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of human knowledge, experience or capability. In Euclidean geometry, a square is a regular quadrilateral, which means that it has four sides of equal length and four equal angles . It can also be defined as a rectangle with two equal-length adjacent sides. It is the only regular polygon whose internal angle, central angle, and external angle are all equal , and whose diagonals are all equal in length. A square with vertices ABCD would be denoted {\displaystyle \square } ABCD. A square is a special case of a rhombus , a kite , a trapezoid , a parallelogram , a quadrilateral or tetragon , and a rectangle , and therefore has all the properties of all these shapes, namely: Because it is a regular polygon, a square is the quadrilateral of least perimeter enclosing a given area. Dually, a square is the quadrilateral containing the largest area within a given perimeter. Indeed, if A and P are the area and perimeter enclosed by a quadrilateral, then the following isoperimetric inequality holds: The coordinates for the vertices of a square with vertical and horizontal sides, centered at the origin and with side length 2 are , while the interior of this square consists of all points with -1 < xi < 1 and -1 < yi < 1. The equation The circle has been known since before the beginning of recorded history. Natural circles are common, such as the full moon or a slice of round fruit. The circle is the basis for the wheel, which, with related inventions such as gears, makes much of modern machinery possible. In mathematics, the study of the circle has helped inspire the development of geometry, astronomy and calculus. The word circle derives from the Greek kirkos/kuklos , itself a metathesis of the Homeric Greek krikos , meaning "hoop" or "ring". The origins of the words circus and circuit are closely related. Prehistoric people made stone circles and timber circles, and circular elements are common in petroglyphs and cave paintings. Disc-shaped prehistoric artifacts include the Nebra sky disc and jade discs called Bi. A circle is a plane figure bounded by one curved line, and such that all straight lines drawn from a certain point within it to the bounding line, are equal. The bounding line is called its circumference and the point, its centre.</Text>

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described by source <o> BEIC Digital Library <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Vitruvius <p> country of citizenship <o> Ancient Rome <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> The Nuttall Encyclopædia <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> Library of the World's Best Literature <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> Real'nyj slovar' klassicheskih drevnostej po Ljubkeru <s> Vitruvius <p> described by source <o> Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition (1885–1890) <s> Vitruvius <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Vitruvius <s> Vitruvius <p> notable work <o> De architectura <s> English <p> country <o> Republic of Ireland <s> English <p> named after <o> England <s> English <p> country <o> Eswatini <s> English <p> indigenous to <o> England <s> English <p> different from <o> English <s> English <p> country <o> Canada <s> English <p> country <o> United States of America <s> English <p> uses capitalization for <o> language <s> English <p> country <o> Sudan <s> English <p> uses capitalization for <o> religion <s> English <p> influenced by <o> French <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> African American Vernacular English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Received Pronunciation <s> English <p> country <o> Falkland Islands <s> English <p> has grammatical case <o> genitive case <s> English <p> writing system <o> Latin script <s> English <p> linguistic typology <o> fusional language <s> English <p> country <o> Gibraltar <s> English <p> country <o> Isle of Man <s> English <p> influenced by <o> Greek <s> English <p> linguistic typology <o> nominative–accusative language <s> English <p> uses capitalization for <o> demonym <s> English <p> uses capitalization for <o> proper noun <s> English <p> country <o> Kenya <s> English <p> country <o> United States Virgin Islands <s> English <p> influenced by <o> Germanic <s> English <p> uses capitalization for <o> day of the week <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> American English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> British English <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> close back rounded vowel <s> English <p> has grammatical case <o> nominative case <s> English <p> linguistic typology <o> subject–verb–object <s> English <p> has grammatical mood <o> indicative <s> English <p> country <o> Ethiopia <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> open-mid front unrounded vowel <s> English <p> country <o> Montserrat <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless dental fricative <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> close front unrounded vowel <s> English <p> country <o> Cayman Islands <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless alveolar fricative <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless postalveolar fricative <s> English <p> country <o> Turks and Caicos Islands <s> English <p> country <o> Malta <s> English <p> studied in <o> English studies <s> English <p> has grammatical gender <o> masculine <s> English <p> country <o> Ghana <s> English <p> country <o> Aruba <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced bilabial nasal <s> English <p> country <o> Anguilla <s> English <p> has grammatical mood <o> subjunctive <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Canadian English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Australian English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Jamaican English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Hiberno-English <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless bilabial plosive <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> schwa <s> English <p> country <o> United Kingdom <s> English <p> country <o> American Samoa <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> open back unrounded vowel <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> open-mid back rounded vowel <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced velar nasal <s> English <p> category for films in this language <o> Category:English-language films <s> English <p> has grammatical gender <o> neuter <s> English <p> country <o> Bailiwick of Guernsey <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced bilabial plosive <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced alveolar nasal <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced palato-alveolar affricate <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> near-open front unrounded vowel <s> English <p> history of topic <o> history of English <s> English <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:List of articles all languages should have <s> English <p> uses capitalization for <o> linguonym <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> open back rounded vowel <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced labiodental fricative <s> English <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/4 <s> English <p> influenced by <o> Vulgar Latin <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> New Zealand English <s> English <p> has tense <o> future perfect continuous <s> English <p> has tense <o> past perfect <s> English <p> has grammatical gender <o> feminine <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced palatal approximant <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced alveolar lateral approximant <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless alveolar stop <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless glottal fricative <s> English <p> Ethnologue language status <o> 1 National <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced labio-velar approximant <s> English <p> writing system <o> English orthography <s> English <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> English <p> country <o> Bermuda <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Nigerian English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Caribbean English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Quebec English <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> near-open central unrounded vowel <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless velar plosive <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> near-close near-front unrounded vowel <s> English <p> has grammatical case <o> oblique case <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> near-close near-back rounded vowel <s> English <p> country <o> Singapore <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> South African English <s> English <p> subclass of <o> Anglic <s> English <p> country <o> South Africa <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Pakistani English <s> English <p> topic's main Wikimedia portal <o> Portal:English <s> English <p> has tense <o> future continuous <s> English <p> has grammatical mood <o> interrogative <s> English <p> uses capitalization for <o> religious denomination <s> English <p> linguistic typology <o> place–manner–time <s> English <p> linguistic typology <o> stress-timed language <s> English <p> signed form <o> manually coded English <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced alveolar fricative <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless postalveolar affricate <s> English <p> has grammatical person <o> third-person feminine singular <s> English <p> has tense <o> past continuous <s> English <p> has grammatical person <o> third-person neuter singular <s> English <p> has grammatical person <o> third-person masculine singular <s> English <p> has grammatical person <o> third-person plural <s> English <p> country <o> Niue <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Indian English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Scottish English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Welsh English <s> English <p> uses capitalization for <o> calendar month <s> English <p> country <o> Pitcairn Islands <s> English <p> country <o> Barbados <s> English <p> category for films in this language <o> Category:English-language animated films <s> English <p> has grammatical person <o> first-person singular <s> English <p> has grammatical person <o> first-person plural <s> English <p> has grammatical person <o> second-person singular <s> English <p> has grammatical person <o> second-person plural <s> English <p> country <o> Cambodia <s> English <p> country <o> Sint Maarten <s> English <p> related category <o> Category:English pronunciation <s> English <p> country <o> New Zealand <s> English <p> country <o> Belize <s> English <p> country <o> Cook Islands <s> English <p> instance of <o> natural language <s> English <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> close-mid back rounded vowel <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced alveolar approximant <s> English <p> country <o> Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha <s> English <p> country <o> British Virgin Islands <s> English <p> instance of <o> language <s> English <p> topic's main category <o> Category:English language <s> English <p> country <o> Australia <s> English <p> has tense <o> simple present <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> mid front unrounded vowel <s> English <p> has tense <o> simple future <s> English <p> different from <o> Ingles <s> English <p> country <o> Tonga <s> English <p> has tense <o> simple past <s> English <p> permanent duplicated item <o> English <s> English <p> country <o> Saint-Martin <s> English <p> described by source <o> Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 1 <s> English <p> country <o> Tokelau <s> English <p> has tense <o> future perfect <s> English <p> has tense <o> present perfect <s> English <p> country <o> India <s> English <p> different from <o> Yingwen <s> English <p> country <o> Bahrain <s> English <p> country <o> British Indian Ocean Territory <s> English <p> country <o> Nauru <s> English <p> country <o> Solomon Islands <s> English <p> described by source <o> Granat Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> English <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> English <p> described by source <o> Encyclopedic Lexicon <s> English <p> described by source <o> Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1926–1947) <s> English <p> country <o> Samoa <s> English <p> has tense <o> present perfect continuous <s> English <p> has tense <o> continuous pluperfect <s> English <p> has tense <o> present continuous <s> English <p> said to be the same as <o> Oldspeak <s> English <p> UNESCO language status <o> 1 safe <s> English <p> country <o> Palau <s> English <p> opposite of <o> non-English <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced palato‐alveolar sibilant <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiceless labiodental fricative <s> English <p> has phoneme <o> voiced dental fricative <s> English <p> instance of <o> modern language <s> English <p> country <o> Kiribati <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> Belizean English <s> English <p> has part(s) <o> European English <s> English <p> country <o> Vanuatu <s> English <p> country <o> The Bahamas <s> English <p> country <o> Marshall Islands <s> English <p> country <o> Saint Vincent and the Grenadines <s> English <p> country <o> Tuvalu <s> English <p> different from <o> Inglés <s> English <p> country <o> Federated States of Micronesia <s> English <p> country <o> Papua New Guinea <s> English <p> country <o> Israel <s> English <p> country <o> Jamaica <s> English <p> country <o> Fiji <s> English <p> country <o> Lebanon <s> English <p> country <o> Saint Kitts and Nevis <s> English <p> country <o> Guyana <s> English <p> country <o> Dominica <s> English <p> country <o> Grenada <s> English <p> country <o> Saint Lucia <s> English <p> country <o> Maldives <s> English <p> country <o> Jersey <s> English <p> country <o> Trinidad and Tobago <s> English <p> country <o> Antigua and Barbuda <s> English <p> country <o> Malaysia <s> English <p> country <o> United Arab Emirates <s> English <p> country <o> Bhutan <s> English <p> country <o> Brunei <s> English <p> country <o> Oman <s> English <p> country <o> Tanzania <s> English <p> country <o> Pakistan <s> English <p> country <o> Philippines <s> English <p> country <o> Sri Lanka <s> English <p> country <o> Zambia <s> English <p> country <o> Zimbabwe <s> English <p> country <o> Botswana <s> English <p> country <o> South Sudan <s> English <p> country <o> Eritrea <s> English <p> country <o> the Gambia <s> English <p> country <o> Cameroon <s> English <p> country <o> Lesotho <s> English <p> country <o> Liberia <s> English <p> country <o> Madagascar <s> English <p> country <o> Malawi <s> English <p> country <o> Mauritius <s> English <p> country <o> Nigeria <s> English <p> country <o> Namibia <s> English <p> country <o> Uganda <s> English <p> country <o> Rwanda <s> English <p> country <o> Seychelles <s> English <p> country <o> Sierra Leone <s> Dutch <p> country <o> Netherlands <s> Dutch <p> country <o> Belgium <s> Dutch <p> indigenous to <o> Netherlands <s> Dutch <p> uses capitalization for <o> proper noun <s> Dutch <p> indigenous to <o> Brussels-Capital Region <s> Dutch <p> country <o> France <s> Dutch <p> indigenous to <o> Flanders <s> Dutch <p> category for films in this language <o> Category:Dutch-language films <s> Dutch <p> related category <o> Category:Dutch pronunciation <s> Dutch <p> indigenous to <o> Province of Antwerp <s> Dutch <p> indigenous to <o> Limburg <s> Dutch <p> indigenous to <o> East Flanders <s> Dutch <p> indigenous to <o> Hainaut <s> Dutch <p> indigenous to <o> Flemish 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Kleve <s> Dutch <p> has grammatical mood <o> indicative <s> Dutch <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Dutch <p> country <o> Caribbean Netherlands <s> Dutch <p> has grammatical gender <o> neuter <s> Dutch <p> linguistic typology <o> V2 word order <s> Dutch <p> has grammatical gender <o> feminine <s> Dutch <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/4 <s> Dutch <p> has tense <o> past tense <s> Dutch <p> has tense <o> present tense <s> Dutch <p> replaces <o> Middle Dutch <s> Dutch <p> linguistic typology <o> fusional language <s> Dutch <p> linguistic typology <o> stress-timed language <s> Dutch <p> linguistic typology <o> time–manner–place <s> Dutch <p> subclass of <o> Low Franconian <s> Dutch <p> named after <o> theodisk <s> Dutch <p> named after <o> Low Countries <s> Dutch <p> described by source <o> New Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Dutch <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Dutch <p> country <o> Kingdom of the Netherlands <s> Dutch <p> replaces <o> Old Low Franconian <s> Dutch <p> has grammatical mood <o> subjunctive <s> Dutch <p> practiced by <o> Dutch language specialist <s> Dutch <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Dutch language <s> Dutch <p> has conjugation class <o> Germanic weak conjugation <s> Dutch <p> has conjugation class <o> Germanic strong conjugation <s> Dutch <p> Ethnologue language status <o> 1 National <s> Dutch <p> instance of <o> modern language <s> art history <p> is the study of <o> history of art <s> art history <p> different from <o> history of art <s> art history <p> subclass of <o> humanities <s> art history <p> is the study of <o> work of art <s> art history <p> subclass of <o> Geisteswissenschaften <s> art history <p> subclass of <o> visual art education <s> art history <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> Wikipedia:Vital articles/Level/4 <s> art history <p> instance of <o> academic discipline <s> art history <p> practiced by <o> art historian <s> art history <p> topic's main Wikimedia portal <o> Art Studies and History <s> art history <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Art history <s> art history <p> practiced by <o> art history teacher <s> art history <p> described by source <o> Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 2 <s> art history <p> different from <o> curatorial studies <s> art history <p> different from <o> art practice <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> instance of <o> human <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> Dutch <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Israel Museum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Landesmuseum Hannover <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery of Art <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Rijksmuseum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Städel Museum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> place of death <o> Amsterdam <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Bavarian State Painting Collections <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Nationalmuseum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery Prague <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Minneapolis Institute of Art <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> National Gallery of Victoria <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Kunsthistorisches Museum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> influenced by <o> Giorgio Vasari <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Frans Hals Museum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> described by source <o> Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> occupation <o> writer <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> student <o> Frans Hals <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Museum Catharijneconvent <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Slovak National Gallery <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Groeningemuseum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> field of work <o> art of painting <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> native language <o> Dutch <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Hermitage Museum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> occupation <o> poet <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Zeeuws Museum <s> Karel van Mander the Elder <p> has works in the collection <o> Michael C. 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<Text> :Mirror writing is formed by writing in the direction that is the reverse of the natural way for a given language, such that the result is the mirror image of normal writing: it appears normal when it is reflected in a mirror. It is sometimes used as an extremely primitive form of cipher. A common modern usage of mirror writing can be found on the front of ambulances, where the word "AMBULANCE" is often written in very large mirrored text, so that drivers see the word the right way around in their rear-view mirror. Some people are able to produce handwritten mirrored text. Notably, Leonardo da Vinci wrote most of his personal notes in this way. Mirror writing calligraphy was popular in the Ottoman Empire, where it often carried mystical associations. An informal Australian newspaper experiment identified 10 true mirror-writers in a readership of 65,000. A higher proportion of left-handed people are better mirror writers than right-handed people, perhaps because it is more natural for a left-hander to write from right to left. 15% of left-handed people have the language centres in both halves of their brain. The cerebral cortex and motor homunculus are affected by this, causing the person to be able to read and write backwards quite naturally. In an experiment conducted by the Department of Neurosurgery at Hokkaido University School of Medicine in Sapporo, Japan, scientists proposed that the origin of mirror writing comes from damage caused through brain trauma or neurological diseases, such as an essential tremor, Parkinson's disease, or spino-cerebellar degeneration. This hypothesis was proposed because these conditions affect a "neural mechanism that controls the higher cerebral function of writing via the thalamus." Another study by the same university discovered that damage was not the only cause. The scientists observed that normal children exhibited signs of mirror writing while learning to write, thus concluding that currently there is no exact method for finding the true origin of mirror writing. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on his achievements as a painter, he has also become known for his notebooks, in which he made drawings and notes on a variety of subjects, including anatomy, astronomy, botany, cartography, painting, and paleontology. Leonardo is widely regarded to have been a genius who epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal, and his collective works comprise a contribution to later generations of artists matched only by that of his younger contemporary Michelangelo. Born out of wedlock to a successful notary and a lower-class woman in, or near, Vinci, he was educated in Florence by the Italian painter and sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio. He began his career in the city, but then spent much time in the service of Ludovico Sforza in Milan. Later, he worked in Florence and Milan again, as well as briefly in Rome, all while attracting a large following of imitators and students. Upon the invitation of Francis I, he spent his last three years in France, where he died in 1519. Since his death, there has not been a time where his achievements, diverse interests, personal life, and empirical thinking have failed to incite interest and admiration, making him a frequent namesake and subject in culture. Leonardo is identified as one of the greatest painters in the history of art and is often credited as the founder of the High Renaissance. Despite having many lost works and fewer than 25 attributed major works - including numerous unfinished works - he created some of the most influential paintings in Western art. His magnum opus, the Mona Lisa, is his best known work and often regarded as the world's most famous painting. The Last Supper is the most reproduced religious painting of all time and his Vitruvian Man drawing is also regarded as a cultural icon. In 2017, Salvator Mundi, attributed in whole or part to Leonardo, was sold at auction for US$450.3 million, setting a new record for the most expensive painting ever sold at public auction. Revered for his technological ingenuity, he conceptualized flying machines, a type of armored fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, a ratio machine that could be used in an adding machine, and the double hull. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or were even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, hydrodynamics, geology, optics, and tribology, but he did not publish his findings and they had little to no direct influence on subsequent science. The Vitruvian Man is a drawing by the Italian Renaissance artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci, dated to c. 1490. Inspired by the writings of the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius, the drawing depicts a nude man in two superimposed positions with his arms and legs apart and inscribed in both a circle and square. It was described by the art historian Carmen C. Bambach as "justly ranked among the all-time iconic images of Western civilization". Although not the only known drawing of a man inspired by the writings of Vitruvius, the work is a unique synthesis of artistic and scientific ideals and often considered an archetypal representation of the High Renaissance. The drawing represents Leonardo's conception of ideal body proportions, originally derived from Vitruvius but influenced by his own measurements, the drawings of his contemporaries, and the De pictura treatise by Leon Battista Alberti. Leonardo produced the Vitruvian Man in Milan and the work was probably passed to his student Francesco Melzi. It later came into the possession of Venanzio de Pagave, who convinced the engraver Carlo Giuseppe Gerli to include it in a book of Leonardo's drawings, which widely disseminated the previously little-known image. It was later owned by Giuseppe Bossi, who wrote early scholarship on it, and eventually sold to the Gallerie dell'Accademia of Venice in 1822, where it has remained since. Due to its sensitivity to light, the drawing rarely goes on public display, but it was borrowed by the Louvre in 2019 for their exhibition marking the 500th anniversary of Leonardo's death. The drawing is described by Leonardo's notes as Le proporzioni del corpo umano secondo Vitruvio, variously translated as The Proportions of the Human Figure after Vitruvius, or Proportional Study of a Man in the Manner of Vitruvius. It is much better known as the Vitruvian Man. The art historian Carlo Pedretti lists it as Homo Vitruvius, study of proportions with the human figure inscribed in a circle and a square, and later as simply Homo Vitruvius. The drawing was executed primarily with pen and light-brown ink, while there are traces of brown wash . The paper measures 34.4 cm x 25.5 cm , larger than most of Leonardo's folio manuscript sheets, while the paper itself was originally made somewhat unevenly, given its irregular edges. Close examination of the drawing reveals that it was meticulously prepared, and is devoid of "sketchy and tentative" lines. Leonardo used metalpoint with a calipers and compass to make precise lines, and small tick marks were used for measurements. These compass marks demonstrate an inner structure of "measured intervals" which is displayed in tandem with the general structure created by the geometric figures. Squaring the circle is a problem in geometry first proposed in Greek mathematics. It is the challenge of constructing a square with the area of a given circle by using only a finite number of steps with a compass and straightedge. The difficulty of the problem raised the question of whether specified axioms of Euclidean geometry concerning the existence of lines and circles implied the existence of such a square. In 1882, the task was proven to be impossible, as a consequence of the Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem, which proves that pi ( p {\displaystyle \pi } ) is a transcendental number. That is, p {\displaystyle \pi } is not the root of any polynomial with rational coefficients. It had been known for decades that the construction would be impossible if p {\displaystyle \pi } were transcendental, but that fact was not proven until 1882. Approximate constructions with any given non-perfect accuracy exist, and many such constructions have been found. Despite the proof that it is impossible, attempts to square the circle have been common in pseudomathematics . The expression "squaring the circle" is sometimes used as a metaphor for trying to do the impossible. The term quadrature of the circle is sometimes used as a synonym for squaring the circle. It may also refer to approximate or numerical methods for finding the area of a circle. In general, quadrature or squaring may also be applied to other plane figures. Vitruvius was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work titled De architectura. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture. It is not clear to what extent his contemporaries regarded his book as original or important. He states that all buildings should have three attributes: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas , principles reflected in much Ancient Roman architecture. His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body led to the famous Renaissance drawing of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci. Little is known about Vitruvius' life, but by his own description he served as an artilleryman, the third class of arms in the Roman military offices. He probably served as a senior officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum and libratores who actually operated the machines. As an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is possible that Vitruvius served with Julius Caesar's chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus. Vitruvius' De architectura was widely copied in the Middle Ages and survives in many dozens of manuscripts though in 1414 it was "rediscovered" by the Florentine humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of Saint Gall Abbey. Leon Battista Alberti published it in his seminal treatise on architecture, De re aedificatoria . The first known Latin printed edition was by Fra Giovanni Sulpitius in Rome in 1486. Translations followed in Italian, French, English, German, Spanish, and several other languages. Though any original illustrations have been lost, the first illustrated edition was published in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo, with woodcut illustrations based on descriptions in the text. Bramante, Michelangelo, Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects are known to have studied the work of Vitruvius, and consequently it has had a significant impact on the architecture of many European countries. Art history is the study of aesthetic objects and visual expression in historical and stylistic context. Traditionally, the discipline of art history emphasized painting, drawing, sculpture, architecture, ceramics and decorative arts; yet today, art history examines broader aspects of visual culture, including the various visual and conceptual outcomes related to an ever-evolving definition of art. Art history encompasses the study of objects created by different cultures around the world and throughout history that convey meaning, importance or serve usefulness primarily through visual representations. As a discipline, art history is distinguished from art criticism, which is concerned with establishing a relative artistic value for individual works with respect to others of comparable style or sanctioning an entire style or movement; and art theory or "philosophy of art", which is concerned with the fundamental nature of art. One branch of this area of study is aesthetics, which includes investigating the enigma of the sublime and determining the essence of beauty. Technically, art history is not these things, because the art historian uses historical method to answer the questions: How did the artist come to create the work?, Who were the patrons?, Who were their teachers?, Who was the audience?, Who were their disciples?, What historical forces shaped the artist's oeuvre and how did he or she and the creation, in turn, affect the course of artistic, political and social events? It is, however, questionable whether many questions of this kind can be answered satisfactorily without also considering basic questions about the nature of art. The current disciplinary gap between art history and the philosophy of art often hinders this inquiry. Art historians often examine work in the context of its time. At best, this is done in a manner which respects its creator's motivations and imperatives; with consideration of the desires and prejudices of its patrons and sponsors; with a comparative analysis of themes and approaches of the creator's colleagues and teachers; and with consideration of iconography and symbolism. In short, this approach examines the work of art in the context of the world within which it was created. Art historians also often examine work through an analysis of form; that is, the creator's use of line, shape, color, texture and composition. This approach examines how the artist uses a two-dimensional picture plane or the three dimensions of sculptural or architectural space to create their art. The way these individual elements are employed results in representational or non-representational art. Is the artist imitating an object or can the image be found in nature? If so, it is representational. The closer the art hews to perfect imitation, the more the art is realistic. Is the artist not imitating, but instead relying on symbolism or in an important way striving to capture nature's essence, rather than copy it directly? If so the art is non-representational--also called abstract. Realism and abstraction exist on a continuum. Impressionism is an example of a representational style that was not directly imitative, but strove to create an "impression" of nature. If the work is not representational and is an expression of the artist's feelings, longings and aspirations or is a search for ideals of beauty and form, the work is non-representational or a work of expressionism. The United Provinces of the Netherlands, officially the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , and commonly referred to in historiography as the Dutch Republic, was a confederation that existed from 1579 until the Batavian Revolution in 1795. It was a predecessor state of the present-day Netherlands, and the first independent Dutch state. The republic was established after seven Dutch provinces in the Spanish Netherlands revolted against Spanish rule, forming a mutual alliance against Spain in 1579 and declaring their independence in 1581 . It comprised Groningen, Frisia, Overijssel, Guelders, Utrecht, Holland and Zeeland. Although the state was small and had only around 1.5 million inhabitants, it controlled a worldwide network of seafaring trade routes. Through its trading companies, the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company , it established a Dutch colonial empire. The income from this trade allowed the Dutch Republic to compete militarily against much larger countries. It amassed a huge fleet of 2,000 ships, initially larger than the fleets of England and France combined. Major conflicts were fought in the Eighty Years' War against Spain , the Dutch-Portuguese War , four Anglo-Dutch Wars , the Franco-Dutch War , War of the Grand Alliance , the War of the Spanish Succession , the War of Austrian Succession and the War of the First Coalition against the Kingdom of France. The republic was more tolerant of different religions and ideas contemporary states, allowing freedom of thought to its residents. Artists flourished under this regime, including painters such as Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer and many others. So did scientists, such as Hugo Grotius, Christiaan Huygens and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. Dutch trade, science, armed forces, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world during much of the 17th century, a period which became known as the Dutch Golden Age. The republic was a confederation of provinces, each with a high degree of independence from the federal assembly, known as the States General. In the Peace of Westphalia the republic gained approximately 20% more territory, located outside the member provinces, which was ruled directly by the States General as Generality Lands. Each province was led by an official known as the stadtholder ; this office was nominally open to anyone, but most provinces appointed a member of the House of Orange. The position gradually became hereditary, with the Prince of Orange simultaneously holding most or all of the stadtholderships, making him effectively the head of state. This created tension between political factions: the Orangists favoured a powerful stadtholder, while the Republicans favoured a strong States General. The Republicans forced two Stadtholderless Periods, 1650-1672 and 1702-1747, with the latter causing national instability and the end of Great Power status. </Text>

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<Text> :The Great Theatre of Dutch Painters and Paintresses, or De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen, as it was originally known in Dutch, is a series of artist biographies with engraved portraits written by the 18th-century painter Arnold Houbraken. It was published in three volumes as a sequel to Karel van Mander's own list of biographies known as the Schilder-boeck. The first volume appeared in 1718, and was followed by the second volume in 1719, the year Houbraken died. The third and last volume was published posthumously by Houbraken's wife and children in 1721. This work is considered to be a very important source of information on 17th-century artists of the Netherlands. The Schouburg is listed as one of the thousand most important works in the Canon of Dutch Literature from the Middle Ages to the present day. The Schouburg was not the first sequel to Karel van Mander's work. Various authors had attempted to illustrate Van Mander's work and in 1649, Jan Meyssen published Image de divers hommes in imitation of Anthony van Dyck's Iconography. Cornelis de Bie published his Het Gulden Cabinet in 1662, Andre Felibien published his Entretiens sur les vies et sur les ouvrages des plus excellents peintres anciens et modernes in 1666, and these were followed by Jacob von Sandrart's illustrated Teutsche Akademie in 1668. Houbraken was very familiar with Inleyding tot de Hooge Schoole der Schilderkonst, 1678, published by his teacher Samuel van Hoogstraten for students of art. Roger de Piles published L'Abrege de la vie des peintres in the 1690s followed by Florent le Comte with his Cabinet des singularitez in 1699. As a gifted engraver, Houbraken wished to correct mistakes and omissions in these earlier works, while updating biographies with engraved portraits of artists. All of these works were used as sources for Houbraken and he mentions them in the first chapter of his first volume. The Schouburg was published in three volumes, the first of which was simply meant as an addendum to Karel van Mander's work, and listed about 200 artists born between 1466 and 1613 that had been omitted or whose lives extended beyond Van Mander's 1604 publication date. The popularity of this volume was such that a second volume was prepared immediately, while plans were made to continue the project up to the period in which Houbraken was writing at the start of the 18th century. While leaning heavily on the sources already mentioned, Houbraken also consulted local history books of various cities in the Netherlands. Other, unpublished sources for his material came from various contacts via his professional network, mostly members of the Guild of St. Luke in Holland. He listed many men who became members of the Bentvueghels group in Rome while on their Grand Tour, but he also listed most of the men in a competency list drawn up by Vincent van der Vinne before he died in 1702. Houbraken kept to a system of importance where capitals meant very important, and lower case were honorable mentions. Though the capitalized names were meant for the index, the index of the first volume was far from complete at the time of publication. A later edition of all three books in 1756 contains an improved index and this book is now available online in the Digital library for Dutch literature. A creative work is a manifestation of creative effort including fine artwork , dance, writing , filmmaking, and composition. Creative works require a creative mindset and are not typically rendered in an arbitrary fashion although some works demonstrate a degree of arbitrariness, such that it is improbable that two people would independently create the same work. At its base, creative work involves two main steps - having an idea, and then turning that idea into a substantive form or process. The creative process can involve one or more individuals. Typically the creative process has some aesthetic value that is identified as a creative expression which itself generally invokes external stimuli which a person views as creative. The term is frequently used in the context of copyright. literary, dramatic, musical or artistic works, or designs,created by the taxpayer personally or, if the qualifying trade, profession or vocation is carried on in partnership, by one or more of the partners personally.A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life. It involves more than just basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or curriculum vitae , a biography presents a subject's life story, highlighting various aspects of their life, including intimate details of experience, and may include an analysis of the subject's personality. Biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life. One in-depth form of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Works in diverse media, from literature to film, form the genre known as biography. An authorized biography is written with the permission, cooperation, and at times, participation of a subject or a subject's heirs. An autobiography is written by the person themselves, sometimes with the assistance of a collaborator or ghostwriter. At first, biographical writings were regarded merely as a subsection of history with a focus on a particular individual of historical importance. The independent genre of biography as distinct from general history writing, began to emerge in the 18th century and reached its contemporary form at the turn of the 20th century. Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose, fiction, drama, poetry, and including both print and digital writing. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, also known as orature much of which has been transcribed. Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role. Literature, as an art form, can also include works in various non-fiction genres, such as biography, diaries, memoir, letters, and essays. Within its broad definition, literature includes non-fictional books, articles or other written information on a particular subject. Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammar", originally "writing formed with letters", from litera/littera "letter". In spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts. Literature is often referred to synecdochically as "writing", especially creative writing, and poetically as "the craft of writing" . Syd Field described his discipline, screenwriting, as "a craft that occasionally rises to the level of art." Definitions of literature have varied over time. In Western Europe, prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing. Literature can be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions, so that cultural studies, for instance, include, in addition to canonical works, popular and minority genres. The word is also used in reference to non-written works: to "oral literature" and "the literature of preliterate culture". A creative work is a manifestation of creative effort including fine artwork , dance, writing , filmmaking, and composition. Creative works require a creative mindset and are not typically rendered in an arbitrary fashion although some works demonstrate a degree of arbitrariness, such that it is improbable that two people would independently create the same work. At its base, creative work involves two main steps - having an idea, and then turning that idea into a substantive form or process. The creative process can involve one or more individuals. Typically the creative process has some aesthetic value that is identified as a creative expression which itself generally invokes external stimuli which a person views as creative. The term is frequently used in the context of copyright. literary, dramatic, musical or artistic works, or designs,created by the taxpayer personally or, if the qualifying trade, profession or vocation is carried on in partnership, by one or more of the partners personally.</Text>

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pathology <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> instance of <o> human <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> country of citizenship <o> France <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> French <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> unmarried partner <o> Francis I of France <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> family <o> House of Rohan <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> sex or gender <o> female <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> occupation <o> lady-in-waiting <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> father <o> Charles of Rohan <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> mother <o> Giovanna di Sanseverino <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> noble title <o> count <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> given name <o> Claude <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> sibling <o> François de Rohan-Gié <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> family name <o> de Rohan <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> sibling <o> Jacqueline de Rohan, Marquise de Rothelin <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> spouse <o> Claude I de Beauvilliers, Comte de Saint-Aignan <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> spouse <o> Julien de Clermont, Baron de Thoury <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> child <o> Gabriel de Clermont, baron de Thoury <s> Claude de Rohan-Gié <p> family name <o> Gié <s> Françoise de Foix <p> instance of <o> human <s> Françoise de Foix <p> country of citizenship <o> France <s> Françoise de Foix <p> languages spoken, written or signed <o> French <s> Françoise de Foix <p> sibling <o> André de Foix <s> Françoise de Foix <p> occupation <o> royal mistress <s> Françoise de Foix <p> occupation <o> lady-in-waiting <s> Françoise de Foix <p> place of death <o> Châteaubriant <s> Françoise de Foix <p> sibling <o> Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec <s> Françoise de Foix <p> sibling <o> Thomas de Foix-Lescun <s> Françoise de Foix <p> given name <o> Françoise <s> Françoise de Foix <p> hair color <o> blond hair <s> Françoise de Foix <p> sex or gender <o> female <s> Françoise de Foix <p> unmarried partner <o> Francis I of France <s> Françoise de Foix <p> father <o> Jean de Foix <s> Françoise de Foix <p> spouse <o> Jean de Laval-Châteaubriant <s> Françoise de Foix <p> mother <o> Jeanne d'Aydie <s> Françoise de Foix <p> family <o> House of Foix <s> Françoise de Foix <p> described by source <o> Hoff's Kurze Biographien, vol 2 <s> Cognac <p> different from <o> Cognac <s> Cognac <p> located in time zone <o> UTC+01:00 <s> Cognac <p> continent <o> Europe <s> Cognac <p> located in time zone <o> UTC+02:00 <s> Cognac <p> country <o> France <s> Cognac <p> capital of <o> canton of Cognac-Nord <s> Cognac <p> capital of <o> canton of Cognac-Sud <s> Cognac <p> described by source <o> The Nuttall Encyclopædia <s> Cognac <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> Cognac <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> Cognac <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> Charente <s> Cognac <p> located in the administrative territorial entity <o> canton of Cognac-Sud <s> Cognac <p> instance of <o> commune of France <s> Cognac <p> topic's main category <o> 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<o> canton of Cognac-Nord <s> Cognac <p> category for people who died here <o> Category:Deaths in Cognac <s> Cognac <p> located in or next to body of water <o> Charente <s> Cognac <p> shares border with <o> Merpins <s> Cognac <p> shares border with <o> Cherves-Richemont <s> Cognac <p> described by source <o> Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 5 <s> Cognac <p> category for maps <o> Category:Maps of Cognac <s> Cognac <p> shares border with <o> Boutiers-Saint-Trojan <s> Cognac <p> located in statistical territorial entity <o> Cognac functional area <s> Cognac <p> significant event <o> Siege of Conhac <s> Cognac <p> head of government <o> Morgan Berger <s> Cognac <p> office held by head of government <o> Mayor of Cognac <s> Cognac <p> twinned administrative body <o> Perth <s> stuttering <p> subclass of <o> disease <s> stuttering <p> described by source <o> Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> stuttering <p> on focus list of Wikimedia project <o> WikiProject Medicine <s> stuttering <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> stuttering <p> instance of <o> rare disease <s> stuttering <p> health specialty <o> speech-language pathology <s> stuttering <p> subclass of <o> speech disorder <s> stuttering <p> described by source <o> Small Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> stuttering <p> topic's main category <o> Category:Stuttering <s> stuttering <p> genetic association <o> AP4E1 <s> stuttering <p> instance of <o> personality trait <s> stuttering <p> instance of <o> class of disease <s> stuttering <p> described by source <o> Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 5 <s> stuttering <p> subclass of <o> articulation disorder <s> stuttering <p> facet of <o> stutterer </Graph>

<Text> :The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects , often simply known as The Lives , is a series of artist biographies written by 16th-century Italian painter and architect Giorgio Vasari, which is considered "perhaps the most famous, and even today the most-read work of the older literature of art", "some of the Italian Renaissance's most influential writing on art", and "the first important book on art history". Vasari published the work in two editions with substantial differences between them; the first edition, two volumes, in 1550 and the second, three volumes, in 1568 . One important change was the increased attention paid to Venetian art in the second edition, even though Vasari still was, and has ever since been, criticised for an excessive emphasis on the art of his native Florence. The writer Paolo Giovio expressed his desire to compose a treatise on contemporary artists at a party in the house of Cardinal Farnese, who asked Vasari to provide Giovio with as much relevant information as possible. Giovio instead yielded the project to Vasari. As the first Italian art historian, Vasari initiated the genre of an encyclopedia of artistic biographies that continues today. Vasari's work was first published in 1550 by Lorenzo Torrentino in Florence, and dedicated to Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. It included a valuable treatise on the technical methods employed in the arts. It was partly rewritten and enlarged in 1568 and provided with woodcut portraits of artists . A biographical dictionary is a type of encyclopedic dictionary limited to biographical information. Many attempt to cover the major personalities of a country . Others are specialized, in that they cover important names in a subject field, such as architecture or engineering. The earliest extant example of the biographical dictionary dates from 9th-century Iraq, and by the 16th-century it was a firmly established and well-respected form of historical writing. They contain more social data for a large segment of the population than that found in any other pre-industrial society. The earliest biographical dictionaries initially focused on the lives of the prophets of Islam and their companions, with one of the earliest examples being The Book of The Major Classes by Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi, and then began documenting the lives of many other historical figures who lived in the medieval Islamic world. The largest known biographical dictionary ever produced is called History of Damascus authored by a Muslim historian Ibn Asakir. When it comes to the numbers of individuals, American scholar of Islam Richard Bulliet argues that "a brief look at Brockelmann's Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur is sufficient to convince anyone that the number of individual biographies extant must run into the hundreds of thousands and most likely into the millions." Mary Boleyn, also known as Lady Mary, was the elder sister of English queen consort Anne Boleyn, whose family enjoyed considerable influence during the reign of King Henry VIII. Mary was one of the mistresses of Henry VIII for an unknown period. It has been rumoured that she bore two of the King's children, though Henry did not acknowledge either. Mary was also rumoured to have been a mistress of Henry VIII's rival, King Francis I of France, for some period between 1515 and 1519. Mary Boleyn was married twice: in 1520 to William Carey, and again, secretly, in 1534, to William Stafford, a soldier from a good family but with few prospects. This secret marriage to a man considered beneath her station angered King Henry VIII and her sister, Queen Anne, and resulted in Mary's banishment from the royal court. She died seven years later, having spent the remainder of her life in obscurity. Mary was probably born at Blickling Hall, the family seat in Norfolk, and grew up at Hever Castle, Kent. She was the daughter of a wealthy diplomat and courtier, Thomas Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire, by his marriage to Elizabeth Howard, the eldest daughter of Thomas Howard, then Earl of Surrey and future 2nd Duke of Norfolk, and his first wife Elizabeth Tilney, therefore Mary was a niece of the future 3rd Duke of Norfolk, and a first cousin of both the poet and soldier Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, and Henry VIII's future fifth wife, Catherine Howard, daughter of Lord Edmund Howard, Mary's uncle. A disease is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific signs and symptoms. A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions. For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases, including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. In humans, disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person affected, or similar problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person's perspective on life. Death due to disease is called death by natural causes. There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, hereditary diseases , and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable versus non-communicable diseases. The deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease , followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections. In developed countries, the diseases that cause the most sickness overall are neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression and anxiety. In an infectious disease, the incubation period is the time between infection and the appearance of symptoms. The latency period is the time between infection and the ability of the disease to spread to another person, which may precede, follow, or be simultaneous with the appearance of symptoms. Some viruses also exhibit a dormant phase, called viral latency, in which the virus hides in the body in an inactive state. For example, varicella zoster virus causes chickenpox in the acute phase; after recovery from chickenpox, the virus may remain dormant in nerve cells for many years, and later cause herpes zoster . Claude was born in 1519 a member of the House of Rohan as the daughter of Charles de Rohan-Gie, vicomte de Fronsac and the Italian noblewoman Giovanna dei Principi Sanseverino di Bisignano. She was the mistress to Francis I of France in 1539-40. She was a lady-in-waiting to the queen, Eleanor of Austria, in 1530-37. She is the subject of several legendary stories and has been portrayed in fiction. Claude married two times. She was married in 1537 Claude de Beauvilliers, comte de Saint-Aignan ; no issue. In 1541 she was married for the second time to Julien de Clermont-Savoie . They had one son: Francoise was the daughter of Jean de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec, and Jeanne d'Aydie. Her father was the son of Pierre de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec; Pierre had been a younger brother of Gaston IV of Foix, who had married Leonor, Queen of Navarre. Francoise was thus a second cousin of the Duchess of Brittany and Queen of France, Anne, whose mother had been a daughter of Gaston IV and Leonor. Francoise was brought up at Anne's court, where she met Jean de Laval, count of Chateaubriant, to whom she was engaged in 1505. On 11 March 1508 she gave birth to a daughter, Anne, who died on 12 April 1521. The couple formally married in 1509, living together at Chateaubriant until Francis I called them at court in 1516. Tall and dark-haired, she was also cultured, spoke Latin and Italian, and wrote poetry. Upon arriving at the royal court, Francoise's attributes and gifts made her alluring to the equally gifted and cultured King, who promptly attempted to seduce her. He began to give favours and gifts to her family. Her husband became a commander of a company. Her elder brother, the Viscount of Lautrec, received the charge of governor of the Milanese duchy. Her two other brothers, Thomas, lord of Lescun, and Andre, lord of Lesparre or Asparros, were also promoted to high positions in the military by the king. Francoise eventually became the mistress of the king, after a period of resistance, circa 1518. On 25 April 1519 the Dauphin Francois was baptised at Amboise. Jean de Chateaubriant and his wife assisted in the ceremony, and Francoise was placed near to the royal princesses, which signified to the Court that she was La mye du roi . She was the first official mistress that Francis had taken, and he made his affections for her plain to the Court, against her wishes. This greatly displeased his mother, Louise of Savoy, who disliked the de Foix family. By contrast, Francoise's husband, Jean, though inevitably aware of the affair, showed little interest in the matter: when, in December 1519, Francis sent him to Brittany to negotiate a tax, the Count thanked Francis, and did not raise the matter of the affair. During this time, Francoise remained at the Court, where she was made a lady-in-waiting of Queen Claude, the Duchess of Brittany. In 1524, before his wife died, Francis I had sexual intercourse with Francoise. Cognac is a variety of brandy named after the commune of Cognac, France. It is produced in the surrounding wine-growing region in the departments of Charente and Charente-Maritime. Cognac production falls under French appellation d'origine controlee designation, with production methods and naming required to meet certain legal requirements. Among the specified grapes, Ugni blanc, known locally as Saint-Emilion, is most widely used. The brandy must be twice distilled in copper pot stills and aged at least two years in French oak barrels from Limousin or Troncais. Cognac matures in the same way as whiskies and wines barrel-age, and most cognacs spend considerably longer "on the wood" than the minimum legal requirement. Cognac is a type of brandy, and after the distillation and during the aging process, is also called eau de vie. It is produced by twice distilling wine made from grapes grown in any of the designated growing regions. The white wine used in making cognac is very dry, acidic, and thin. Though it has been characterised as "virtually undrinkable", it is excellent for distillation and aging. It may be made only from a strict list of grape varieties. For it to be considered a true cru, the wine must be at least 90% Ugni blanc , Folle blanche and Colombard, while up to 10% of the grapes used can be Folignan, Jurancon blanc, Meslier St-Francois , Select, Montils, or Semillon. Cognacs which are not to carry the name of a cru are freer in the allowed grape varieties, needing at least 90% Colombard, Folle blanche, Jurancon blanc, Meslier Saint-Francois, Montils, Semillon, or Ugni blanc, and up to 10% Folignan or Select. Stuttering, also known as stammering, is a speech disorder characterized externally by involuntary repetitions and prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases as well as involuntary silent pauses or blocks in which the person who stutters is unable to produce sounds. The term stuttering as defined by listeners is most commonly associated with involuntary sound repetition, but it also encompasses the abnormal hesitation or pausing before speech, referred to by people who stutter as blocks, and the prolongation of certain sounds, usually vowels or semivowels. According to adults who stutter, stuttering is defined as a "constellation of experiences" expanding beyond the external disfluencies that are apparent to the listener. In fact, most of the experience of stuttering is internal and encompasses more experiences beyond the external speech disfluencies that are not observable by the listener. The moment of stuttering often begins before the disfluency is produced, described as a moment of anticipation- where the person who stutters knows which word they are going to stutter on. The sensation of losing control and anticipation of a stutter can lead people who stutter to react in different ways including behavioral and cognitive reactions. Some behavioral reactions can manifest outwardly and be observed as physical tension or struggle anywhere in the body. Almost 80 million people worldwide stutter, about 1% of the world's population. Stuttering is not connected to the physical production of speech sounds or putting thoughts into words. Acute nervousness and stress are not thought to cause stuttering, but they can trigger stuttering in people who have the speech disorder, and living with a stigmatized disability can result in anxiety and high allostatic stress load . Neither acute nor chronic stress, however, itself creates any predisposition to stuttering. The disorder is variable, which means that in certain situations, such as talking on the telephone or in a large group, the stuttering might be more or less noticeable. People who stutter often find that their stuttering fluctuates, sometimes at random. </Text>

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<Text> :Politicians are people who are politically active, especially in party politics. Political positions range from local governments to state governments to federal governments to international governments. All government leaders are considered politicians. Politicians are known for their rhetoric, as in speeches or campaign advertisements. They are especially known for using common themes that allow them to develop their political positions in terms familiar to the voters. Politicians of necessity become expert users of the media. Politicians in the 19th century made heavy use of newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets, as well as posters. In the 20th century, they branched into radio and television, making television commercials the single most expensive part of an election campaign. In the 21st century, they have become increasingly involved with the social media based on the Internet and smartphones. Once elected, the politician has to deal with government officers and government employees working for them. Historically, there has been a subtle conflict between the long-term goals of each side. In patronage-based systems, such as the United States in the 19th century, winning politicians replace the government officers and government employees not protected under the government services rules with their supporters. It was the "spoils system". Government job reform was initiated to eliminate the corruption of government jobs. However, in many less developed countries, the spoils system remained in full-scale operation as of 1982. Mattozzi and Merlo argue that two main career paths are typically followed by politicians in modern democracies. First, is career politicians. They are politicians who rule the government sector until retirement. Second, are the "political careerists". These are politicians who gain a reputation for expertise in ruling certain levels of government such as International Governments, Federal Governments, State Governments and Local Governments, then leave politics and start a new business venture making use of their political contacts. Louise of Savoy was a French noble and regent, Duchess suo jure of Auvergne and Bourbon, Duchess of Nemours and the mother of King Francis I and Marguerite of Navarre. She was politically active and served as the regent of France in 1515, in 1525-1526 and in 1529, during the absence of her son. Louise of Savoy was born at Pont-d'Ain, the eldest daughter of Philip II, Duke of Savoy and his first wife, Margaret of Bourbon. Her brother, Philibert II, Duke of Savoy, succeeded her father as ruler of the duchy and head of the House of Savoy. He was, in turn, succeeded by their half-brother Charles III, Duke of Savoy. Because her mother died when she was only seven, she was brought up by Anne de Beaujeu, who was regent of France for her brother Charles VIII. At Amboise she met Margaret of Austria , who was betrothed to the young king and with whom Louise would negotiate peace several decades later. At age eleven, Louise married Charles of Orleans, Count of Angouleme, on 16 February 1488 in Paris. She only began living with him when she was fifteen, though. Despite her husband having two mistresses, the marriage was not unhappy and they shared a love for books. The Battle of Marignano was the last major engagement of the War of the League of Cambrai and took place on 13-14 September 1515, near the town now called Melegnano, 16 km southeast of Milan. It pitted the French army, composed of the best heavy cavalry and artillery in Europe, led by Francis I, newly crowned King of France, against the Old Swiss Confederacy, whose mercenaries until that point were regarded as the best medieval infantry force in Europe. With the French were German landsknechts, bitter rivals of the Swiss for fame and renown in war, and their late arriving Venetian allies. The campaign of Marignano followed years of Swiss successes, during which French fortunes in Northern Italy had suffered greatly. The Swiss had taken control of Milan after their victory at the Battle of Novara , and returned to its ducal throne Massimiliano, son of Ludovico Sforza, to make Milan a protectorate of Switzerland. The prologue to the battle was an Alpine passage, in which Francis hauled pieces of artillery over new-made roads over the Col d'Argentiere, a previously unknown route. At Villafranca the French, led by Jacques de la Palice, surprised and captured the Papal commander, Prospero Colonna, in a daring cavalry raid deep behind the allied lines . Colonna and his staff aside, the French seized a great deal of booty on the raid, including 600 horses. The capture of Colonna, along with the startling appearance of the French army on the plains of Piedmont, stunned the allies. The Pope and the Swiss both sought terms with Francis, while the Spanish allies en route from Naples halted to await developments. The main Swiss army retreated to Milan, while a large faction, tired of the war and eager to return home with the booty of years of successful campaigning, urged terms with the French. Marguerite de Navarre , also known as Marguerite of Angouleme and Margaret of Navarre, was a princess of France, Duchess of Alencon and Berry, and Queen of Navarre by her second marriage to King Henry II of Navarre. Her brother became King of France, as Francis I, and the two siblings were responsible for the celebrated intellectual and cultural court and salons of their day in France. Marguerite is the ancestress of the Bourbon kings of France, being the mother of Jeanne d'Albret, whose son, Henry of Navarre, succeeded as Henry IV of France, the first Bourbon king. As an author and a patron of humanists and reformers, she was an outstanding figure of the French Renaissance. Samuel Putnam called her "The First Modern Woman". Marguerite was born in Angouleme on 11 April 1492, the eldest child of Louise of Savoy and Charles, Count of Angouleme. Her father was a descendant of Charles V, and would thus have been on the line of succession to the French crown by masculine primogeniture, if both Charles VIII and the presumptive heir, Louis, Duke of Orleans, had died without producing male offspring. She had several half-siblings from illegitimate relationships of her father, who were raised alongside Marguerite and her brother Francis. Two girls, Jeanne of Angouleme and Madeleine, were born of her father's long relationship with his chatelaine, Antoinette de Polignac, Dame de Combronde, who later became Louise's lady-in-waiting and confidante. Another half-sister, Souveraine, was born to Jeanne le Conte, also one of her father's mistresses. Thanks to her mother, who was only nineteen when widowed, Marguerite was carefully tutored from her earliest childhood and given a classical education that included Latin. The young princess was to be called "Maecenas to the learned ones of her brother's kingdom". When Marguerite was ten, Louise tried to marry her to the Prince of Wales, who would later become Henry VIII of England, but the alliance was courteously rebuffed. Perhaps the one real love in her life was Gaston de Foix, Duc de Nemours, nephew of King Louis XII. Gaston went to Italy, however, and died a hero at Ravenna, when the French defeated Spanish and Papal forces. The Italian Wars were a series of conflicts fought between 1494 and 1559, mostly in the Italian Peninsula, but later expanding into Flanders, the Rhineland and Mediterranean Sea. The primary belligerents were the Valois kings of France, and their Habsburg opponents in the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. At different points, various Italian states participated in the war, some on both sides, with limited involvement from England and the Ottoman Empire. The Italic League established in 1454 achieved a balance of power in Italy, but fell apart after the death of its chief architect, Lorenzo de' Medici, in 1492. Combined with the ambition of Ludovico Sforza, its collapse allowed Charles VIII of France to invade Naples in 1494, which drew in Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Although Charles was forced to withdraw in 1495, ongoing political divisions among the Italian states made them a battleground in the struggle for European domination between France and the Habsburgs. Fought with considerable brutality, the wars took place against the background of religious turmoil caused by the Reformation, particularly in France and the Holy Roman Empire. They are seen as a turning point in the evolution from medieval to modern warfare, with the use of the arquebus or handgun becoming common, along with significant technological improvements in siege artillery. Literate commanders and modern printing methods also make them one of the first conflicts with a significant number of contemporary accounts, including those of Francesco Guicciardini, Niccolo Machiavelli and Blaise de Montluc. After 1503, most of the fighting was initiated by French invasions of Lombardy and Piedmont, but although able to hold territory for periods of time, they could not do so permanently. By 1557, the growth of Protestantism meant the major belligerents faced internal conflict over religion, forcing them to refocus on domestic affairs. This led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis , under which France was largely expelled from Italy, but in exchange gained Calais from England, and the Three Bishoprics from Lorraine. In turn, Spain acquired sovereignty over the Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily in Southern Italy, as well the Duchy of Milan in Northern Italy. Anne de Pisseleu d'Heilly , Duchess of Etampes, was chief mistress of Francis I of France. She became Francis' mistress following his return from captivity in 1526. Anne enriched her family and friends through her courtly influence and after Francis' death was banished from court and temporarily imprisoned in her husband's castle. She would spend her later years ensuring the fortune of her family. Anne died in 1580. Born in 1508, Anne was the daughter of Guillaume de Pisseleu, seigneur d'Heilly, a nobleman of Picardy, and Anne Sanguin. She came to court before 1522 and was one of the maids-of-honour of Marie of Luxembourg and later Louise of Savoy, Duchess of Angouleme, the mother of Francis I. Francis made Anne his mistress, probably upon his return from his captivity at Madrid , and soon gave up his long-term mistress, Francoise de Foix, for her. Anne was described as being sprightly, pretty, witty and cultured, "the most beautiful among the learned and the most learned among the beautiful". The liaison received some official recognition when Francis started wearing Anne's colors. Anne was appointed lady-in-waiting to the new queen, Eleanor of Austria, and later became governess to Francis' two daughters. She used her influence with Francis to elevate and enrich her family; her brother, Adrien sieur d'Heilly, was made captain of the Picard legion, her uncle, Antoine Sanguin, being made Bishop of Orleans in 1533 and a cardinal in 1539; her three other brothers were made bishops. In 1534, Francis gave her in marriage to Jean IV de Brosse, whom he created Duke of Etampes. With the political fall of the Duke of Montmorency in 1540, Anne became all-powerful at court. Surrounded by those seeking royal favor, she dominated court functions. Foreign diplomats quickly learned they had to gain Anne's favor for their plans to have any chance in succeeding. In doing so, she usurped Queen Eleanor's position at court. Anne later illustrated her political influence by having Admiral Chabot released and returned to court, marrying her sister Louise to Chabot's nephew in the process. The Battle of Pavia, fought on the morning of 24 February 1525, was the decisive engagement of the Italian War of 1521-1526 between the Kingdom of France and the Habsburg Empire of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor as well as ruler of Spain, Austria, the Low Countries, and the Two Sicilies. The French army was led by King Francis I of France, who laid siege to the city of Pavia in October 1524 with 26,200 troops. The French infantry consisted of 6,000 French foot soldiers and 17,000 foreign mercenaries: 8,000 Swiss, 5,000 Germans, and 4,000 Italians . The French cavalry consisted of 2,000 gendarmes and 1,200 lances fournies. Charles V, intending to break the siege, sent a relief force of 22,300 troops to Pavia under the command of the Fleming Charles de Lannoy, Imperial lieutenant and viceroy of Naples, and of the French renegade and captain-general Charles III, Duke of Bourbon. The Habsburg infantry consisted of 12,000 German Landsknechte, 5,000 Spaniards, and 3,000 Italians, and its command was exercised by an Italian Condottiero, the Marquis of Pescara, in conjunction with the German military leader Georg Frundsberg and the Spanish captain Antonio de Leyva who was in charge of the Imperial garrison inside Pavia. The cavalry, led by Lannoy and Bourbon, consisted of 1,500 knights and 800 lances. The battle was fought in the Visconti Park of Mirabello di Pavia, outside the city walls, where Pescara and Frundsberg stationed their forces in pike and shot formation. Francis took a personal initiative and led a cavalry charge against Lannoy, with the possible intent of capturing Bourbon, but it was held by German and Spanish pikemen and ravaged by arquebus fire. The arquebusiers formed a part of the Spanish colunellas and of the German doppelsoldners. A mass of Spanish and German foot soldiers descended on the French cavalry from all sides and began systematically killing the French gendarmes. The remaining French forces, including Swiss mercenaries and Black bands, intervened to protect the King but were surrounded by the pikemen in front of them and by the garrison of Pavia that sortied from the town. In the four-hour battle, the French army was split and defeated in detail. Many of the chief nobles of France were killed, and others - including Francis I himself - were captured. He was imprisoned in the nearby tower of Pizzighettone and later transferred to Spain, where Charles V was residing for his upcoming marriage with Isabella of Portugal. Together they signed the Treaty of Madrid of 1526, by which Francis abandoned claims over the Imperial Duchy of Milan and ceded Burgundy to the House of Habsburg in exchange for his freedom. The Edict of Fontainebleau was an edict issued by French King Louis XIV and is also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Nantes had granted Huguenots the right to practice their religion without state persecution. Protestants had lost their independence in places of refuge under Cardinal Richelieu on account of their supposed insubordination, but they continued to live in comparative security and political contentment. From the outset, religious toleration in France had been a royal, rather than popular, policy. The Edict of Nantes had been issued on 13 April 1598 by Henry IV of France and granted the Calvinist Protestants of France, also known as Huguenots, substantial rights in the predominantly-Catholic state. Henry aimed at promoting civil unity by the edict. The edict treated some Protestants with tolerance and opened a path for secularism. It offered general freedom of conscience to individuals and many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the rights to work in any field, including for the state, and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marked the end of the French Wars of Religion, which had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century. By the Edict of Fontainebleau, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes and ordered the destruction of Huguenot churches as well as the closing of Protestant schools. The edict made official the policy of persecution that was already enforced since the dragonnades that he had created in 1681 to intimidate Huguenots into converting to Catholicism. As a result of the officially-sanctioned persecution by the dragoons, who were billeted upon prominent Huguenots, many Protestants, estimates ranging from 210,000 to 900,000, left France over the next two decades. They sought asylum in the United Provinces, Sweden, Switzerland, Brandenburg-Prussia, Denmark, Scotland, England, Protestant states of the Holy Roman Empire, the Cape Colony in Africa and North America. On 17 January 1686, Louis XIV claimed that out of a Huguenot population of 800,000 to 900,000, only 1,000 to 1,500 had remained in France. It has long been said that a strong advocate for persecution of the Protestants was Louis XIV's pious second wife, Madame de Maintenon, who was thought to have urged Louis to revoke Henry IV's edict. There is no formal proof of that, and such views have now been challenged. Madame de Maintenon was by birth a Catholic but was also the grand-daughter of Agrippa d'Aubigne, an unrelenting Calvinist. Protestants tried to turn Madame de Maintenon and any time she took the defence of Protestants, she was suspected of relapsing into her family faith. Thus, her position was thin, which wrongly led people to believe that she advocated persecutions. Madeleine of Valois was a French princess who briefly became Queen of Scotland in 1537 as the first wife of King James V. The marriage was arranged in accordance with the Treaty of Rouen, and they were married at Notre-Dame de Paris in January 1537, despite French reservations over her failing health. Madeleine died in July 1537, only six months after the wedding and less than two months after arriving in Scotland, resulting in her nickname, the "Summer Queen". Madeleine was born at the Chateau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, the fifth child and third daughter of King Francis I of France and Claude, Duchess of Brittany, herself the eldest daughter of King Louis XII of France and Anne, Duchess of Brittany. She was frail from birth, and grew up in the warm and temperate Loire Valley region of France, rather than at Paris, as her father feared that the cold would destroy her delicate health. Together with her sister, Margaret, she was raised by her aunt, Marguerite de Navarre until her father remarried and his new wife, Eleanor of Austria, took them into her own household. By her sixteenth birthday, she had contracted tuberculosis. Three years before Madeleine's birth, the Franco-Scottish Treaty of Rouen was made to bolster the Auld Alliance after Scotland's defeat at the Battle of Flodden. A marriage between a French princess and the Scottish King was one of its provisions. In April 1530, John Stewart, Duke of Albany, was appointed commissioner to finalize the royal marriage between James V and Madeleine. However, as Madeleine did not enjoy good health, another French bride, Mary of Bourbon, was proposed. </Text>

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<Text> :Rambouillet is a subprefecture of the Yvelines department in the Ile-de-France region of France. It is located beyond the outskirts of Paris, 44.3 km southwest of its centre. In 2018, the commune had a population of 26,933. Rambouillet lies on the edge of the vast Forest of Rambouillet ; it is famous for its historical castle, the Chateau de Rambouillet, which hosted several international summits. Due to its proximity to Paris and Versailles, Rambouillet has long been an occasional seat of government. La Belle Ferronniere is a portrait of a lady, usually attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, in the Louvre. It is also known as Portrait of an Unknown Woman. The painting's title, applied as early as the seventeenth century, identifying the sitter as the wife or daughter of an ironmonger , was said to be discreetly alluding to a reputed mistress of Francis I of France, married to a certain Le Ferron. Later she was identified as Lucretia Crivelli, a married lady-in-waiting to Duchess Beatrice of Milan, who became another of the Duke's mistresses. Leonardo's Lady with an Ermine has also been known by this name. This was once believed to be a portrait of Cecilia Gallerani, one of the mistresses of Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. The narrative and the title were applied to Lady with an Ermine when it was in Princess Izabela Czartoryska's collection, and became confused with La Belle Ferronniere by the presence of a ferronniere, a type of accessory worn across the forehead, in the painting as well. Although the model of the painting La Belle Ferronniere is still shrouded in mystery, the landmark exhibition "Leonardo Da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan" listed the portrait as possibly depicting Beatrice d'Este, wife of Ludovico Sforza. This challenges an earlier identification of the sitter as Lucrezia Crivelli, a mistress of Ludovico. Karl Morgenstern and other critics noted some similarities with the drawing number 209 preserved in the Uffizi, executed in lapis and watercolor but retouched a little hard everywhere by a hand of the sixteenth century, which was identified by Father Sebastiano Resta as a portrait of Beatrice d'Este and attributed to Leonardo da Vinci . So also Dalli Regoli , who considered the drawing the copy from a lost original by Leonardo. Guillaume Bude was a French scholar and humanist. He was involved in the founding of Collegium Trilingue, which later became the College de France. Bude was also the first keeper of the royal library at the Palace of Fontainebleau, which was later moved to Paris, where it became the Bibliotheque nationale de France. He was an ambassador to Rome and held several important judicial and civil administrative posts. Bude was born in Paris. He went to the University of Orleans to study law, but for several years, having ample means, he led an idle and dissipated life. When about twenty-four years of age, he was seized with a sudden passion for study, and made rapid progress, particularly in Latin and Ancient Greek. The work which gained him greatest reputation was his De Asse et Partibus Eius , a treatise on ancient coins and measures. He was held in high esteem by Francis I, who was persuaded by him, and by Jean du Bellay, Bishop of Narbonne, to found the Collegium Trilingue and the library at Fontainebleau, which was removed to Paris and was the origin of the Bibliotheque Nationale. Jeanne d'Angouleme, Countess of Bar-sur-Seine , Dame de Givry, Baroness of Pagny and of Mirebeau, was an illegitimate half-sister of King Francis I of France and princess Marguerite de Navarre. She was created suo jure Countess of Bar-sur-Seine in 1522. She was the wife of Jean de Longwy, Seigneur of Givry, Baron of Pagny and of Mirebeau. Jeanne was born in Angouleme about 1490, the illegitimate daughter of Charles, Count of Angouleme and his mistress Antoinette de Polignac. Antoinette served as the chatelaine of the Charles' chateaux, and became a lady-in-waiting and confidante to his young wife Louise of Savoy whom he married on 16 February 1488. When Charles died on 1 January 1496, Jeanne, her sisters, and her mother Antoinette were allowed to remain in the Angouleme household now presided over by Louise of Savoy, the widowed Countess. In 1499, Louise moved the family from the chateau of Cognac to the court of King Louis XII, who was her father's cousin. Jeanne was raised alongside her legitimate Angouleme siblings, Francis, who was now the Count of Angouleme, Duke of Valois and heir presumptive to the Kingdom of France, and Marguerite. She was legitimised in Lyon in August 1501 by Louis XII on the occasion of her marriage. Jeanne had a full sister, Madeleine , who became Abbess of Fontevrault and another half-sister, Souveraine , from Charles' relationship with Jeanne le Conte. By her mother's marriage to Beraud of L'Espinasse, Seigneur de Combronde, Jeanne had another half-sister, Francoise of L'Espinasse. Jeanne's half-brother, Francis was crowned King of France on 25 January 1515. On 24 March 1522, she was created suo jure Countess Bar-sur-Seine by her half-brother Francis, who had succeeded Louis as King in 1515. Middle French is a historical division of the French language that covers the period from the mid-14th to the early 17th century. It is a period of transition during which: The most important change found in Middle French is the complete disappearance of the noun declension system . There is no longer a distinction between nominative and oblique forms of nouns, and plurals are indicated simply with an s. This transformation necessitates an increased reliance on the order of words in the sentence, which becomes more or less the syntax of modern French . Among the elites, Latin was still the language of education, administration, and bureaucracy; this changed in 1539, with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterets, in which Francois I made French alone the language for legal acts. Regional differences were still extreme throughout France: in the south of France, Occitan languages dominated; in east central France, Franco-Provencal languages were predominant; while, in the north of France, Oil languages other than Francien continued to be spoken. The fascination with classical texts led to numerous borrowings from Latin and Greek. Numerous neologisms based on Latin roots were introduced, and some scholars modified the spelling of French words to bring them into conformity with their Latin roots, sometimes erroneously. This often produced a radical difference between a word's spelling and the way it was pronounced. Nevertheless, Middle French spelling was overall fairly close to the pronunciation; unlike modern French, word-final consonants were still pronounced . The French Renaissance was the cultural and artistic movement in France between the 15th and early 17th centuries. The period is associated with the pan-European Renaissance, a word first used by the French historian Jules Michelet to define the artistic and cultural "rebirth" of Europe. Notable developments during the French Renaissance include the spread of humanism, early exploration of the "New World" ; the development of new techniques and artistic forms in the fields of printing, architecture, painting, sculpture, music, the sciences and literature; and the elaboration of new codes of sociability, etiquette and discourse. The French Renaissance traditionally extends from the 1494 French invasion of Italy during the reign of Charles VIII until the 1610 death of Henry IV, with an apex during the 1515-1559 reigns of Francis I and Henry II. This chronology notwithstanding, certain artistic, technological or literary developments associated with the Renaissance arrived in France earlier ; however, the Black Death of the 14th century and the Hundred Years' War kept France economically and politically weak until the late 15th century. The Franco-Ottoman alliance, also known as the Franco-Turkish alliance, was an alliance established in 1536 between Francis I, King of France and Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire. The strategic and sometimes tactical alliance was one of the longest-lasting and most important foreign alliances of France, and was particularly influential during the Italian Wars. The Franco-Ottoman military alliance reached its peak with the Invasion of Corsica of 1553 during the reign of Henry II of France. As the first non-ideological alliance in effect between a Christian and Muslim state, the alliance attracted heavy controversy for its time and caused a scandal throughout Christendom. Carl Jacob Burckhardt called it "the sacrilegious union of the lily and the crescent". It lasted intermittently for more than two and a half centuries, until the Napoleonic campaign in Ottoman Egypt, in 1798-1801. Following the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II and the unification of swaths of the Middle East under Selim I, Suleiman I, the son of Selim, managed to expand Ottoman rule to Serbia in 1522. The Holy Roman Empire thus entered in direct conflict with the Ottomans. Some early contacts seem to have taken place between the Ottomans and the French. Philippe de Commines reports that Bayezid II sent an embassy to Louis XI in 1483, while Cem, his brother and rival pretender to the Ottoman throne was being detained in France at Bourganeuf by Pierre d'Aubusson. Louis XI refused to see the envoys, but a large amount of money and Christian relics were offered by the envoy so that Cem could remain in custody in France. Cem was transferred to the custody of Pope Innocent VIII in 1489. The Merindol massacre took place in 1545, when Francis I of France ordered the Waldensians of the village of Merindol to be punished for heresy. Provencal and papal soldiers killed hundreds or even thousands of Waldensian villagers. Outside the Piedmont of Italy, the Waldensians joined the local Protestant churches in Bohemia, France and Germany. They had regrouped in the Luberon and followed their religions in a carefully concealed manner. As Lutherans started to penetrate their region, the Waldensians' activities came under scrutiny by the French government. The Waldensians became more militant, constructing fortified areas, as in Cabrieres, or attacking an abbey. The Parlement of Provence issued the "Arret de Merindol" on 18 November 1541. This was confirmed in 1545 by Francis I after a series of appeals eventually failed. In April, Maynier raised an army of Provencal troops, who were joined by forces from the papal Comtat Venaissin against the Waldensians of Merindol and Cabrieres. The leaders in the 1545 massacres were Jean Maynier d'Oppede, First President of the parlement of Provence, and Antoine Escalin des Aimars, who was returning from the Italian Wars with 2,000 veterans, the Bandes de Piemont. Escalin was on his way to fight against the English in the area of Boulogne after returning from an embassy to Constantinople, where he was French Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. While in Marseilles in 1545, he was requested to assist Jean Maynier d'Oppede in the repression. </Text>

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<Text> :Charlotte was born in the Chateau d'Amboise, on 23 October 1516, the second daughter and child of King Francis I and Queen Claude. She had greenish blue eyes and bright red hair. She was one of the six children of the King and Queen that had red hair, a trait inherited from Anne of Brittany, Claude's mother. She lived a happy life, moving from the Chateau d'Amboise to the Chateau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye before March 1519. The Princess spent all of her remaining days at the Chateau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. She had always been a delicate, frail child. At age seven, she contracted measles, the same disease which had killed her uncle, Charles Orlando, Dauphin of France, thirty years earlier. The only person who looked after her while she was sick was her aunt, Margaret of Angouleme, as her mother had already died two months earlier, her grandmother Louise of Savoy was very sick, and her father had gone to war. He was later imprisoned, so was nowhere near his daughter at the time of her death. It appears as if Charlotte was very close to her aunt, who was heartbroken and distraught when her "little one" died, on 18 September 1524. Margaret of Valois, Duchess of Berry was Duchess of Savoy by marriage to Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy. She was the daughter of King Francis I of France and Claude, Duchess of Brittany. Margaret was born at the Chateau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 5 June 1523 the youngest daughter and child of King Francis I of France and Claude, Duchess of Brittany. Margaret was very close to her paternal aunt, Marguerite of Angouleme, who took care of her and her sister Madeleine during her childhood, and her sister-in-law Catherine de' Medici. Near the end of 1538, her father and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, agreed that Margaret should marry Charles' son, the future Philip II of Spain. However, the agreement between Francis and Charles was short-lived and the marriage never took place. Shortly before her 36th birthday, a marriage was finally arranged for her by her brother King Henry II of France and her former suitor Philip II as part of the terms stipulated in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis which was signed by the ambassadors representing the two monarchs on 3 April 1559. The husband selected for her was Philip's ally, Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, Prince of Piedmont. At the time, Margaret was described as having been a "spinster lady of excellent breeding and lively intellect". The museum collection consists of many historical, social and cultural images from the 20th and 21st century, from the Netherlands and elsewhere. It has control over more than 150 archives taken by Dutch photographers. The archives are stored in climate controlled film storage facilities. The Netherlands Photo Museum was founded under the name Nederlands Foto Archief. and was subsidised by the Dutch government. In 2003, it was reborn, through an endowment from Hein Wertheimer, a wealthy Dutch lawyer, and renamed to Nederlands Fotomuseum. Visitors to the NFM may browse the museum's library of 120000 digital images, watch short films or participate in educational activities. The museum has large exhibition rooms and a rotating display of Dutch history. Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus was a Dutch Christian humanist, Catholic theologian, educationalist, satirist and philosopher. Through his vast number of translations, books, essays, prayers and letters, he is considered one of the most influential thinkers of the Northern Renaissance and one of the major figures of Dutch and Western culture. He was an important figure in classical scholarship who wrote in a spontaneous, copious and natural Latin style. As a Catholic priest developing humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament, which raised questions that would be influential in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. He also wrote On Free Will, The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style and many other works. Erasmus lived against the backdrop of the growing European religious Reformation. He developed a biblical humanistic theology in which he advocated tolerance, concord and free thinking on matters of indifference. He remained a member of the Catholic Church all his life, remaining committed to reforming the Church from within. He promoted the traditional doctrine of synergism, which some prominent Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin rejected in favor of the doctrine of monergism. His middle-road approach disappointed, and even angered, partisans in both camps. Desiderius Erasmus is reported to have been born in Rotterdam on 27 or 28 October in the late-1460s. He was named after Erasmus of Formiae, whom Erasmus' father Gerard personally favored. Although associated closely with Rotterdam, he lived there for only four years, never to return afterwards. The Basilica of Saint-Denis is a large former medieval abbey church and present cathedral in the commune of Saint-Denis, a northern suburb of Paris. The building is of singular importance historically and architecturally as its choir, completed in 1144, is widely considered the first structure to employ all of the elements of Gothic architecture. The basilica became a place of pilgrimage and a necropolis containing the tombs of the kings of France, including nearly every king from the 10th century to Louis XVIII in the 19th century. Henry IV of France came to Saint-Denis formally to renounce his Protestant faith and become a Catholic. The queens of France were crowned at Saint-Denis, and the royal regalia, including the sword used for crowning the kings and the royal sceptre, were kept at Saint-Denis between coronations. The site originated as a Gallo-Roman cemetery in late Roman times. The archaeological remains still lie beneath the cathedral; the graves indicate a mixture of Christian and pre-Christian burial practices. Around the year 475 AD, St. Genevieve purchased some land and built Saint-Denys de la Chapelle. In 636, on the orders of Dagobert I, the relics of Saint Denis, a patron saint of France, were reinterred in the basilica. The relics of St-Denis, which had been transferred to the parish church of the town in 1795, were brought back again to the abbey in 1819. In the 12th century, the Abbot Suger rebuilt portions of the abbey church using innovative structural and decorative features. In doing so, he is said to have created the first truly Gothic building. In the following century the master-builder Pierre de Montreuil rebuilt the nave and the transepts in the new Rayonnant Gothic style. The Kingdom of France is the historiographical name or umbrella term given to various political entities of France in the medieval and early modern period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe since the High Middle Ages. It was also an early colonial power, with colonies in Asia and Africa, and the largest being New France in North America. The Kingdom of France was descended directly from the western Frankish realm of the Carolingian Empire, which was ceded to Charles the Bald with the Treaty of Verdun . A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, when Hugh Capet was elected king and founded the Capetian dynasty. The territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself rex Francie was Philip II, in 1190, and officially from 1204. From then, France was continuously ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines under the Valois and Bourbon until the monarchy was abolished in 1792 during the French Revolution. The Kingdom of France was also ruled in personal union with the Kingdom of Navarre over two time periods, 1284-1328 and 1572-1620, after which the institutions of Navarre were abolished and it was fully annexed by France . France in the Middle Ages was a decentralised, feudal monarchy. In Brittany and Catalonia , as well as Aquitaine, the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Burgundy were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France. West Frankish kings were initially elected by the secular and ecclesiastical magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of male primogeniture, which became codified in the Salic law. During the Late Middle Ages, rivalry between the Capetian dynasty, rulers of the Kingdom of France and their vassals the House of Plantagenet, who also ruled the Kingdom of England as part of their so-called competing Angevin Empire, resulted in many armed struggles. The most notorious of them all are the series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years' War in which the kings of England laid claim to the French throne. Emerging victorious from said conflicts, France subsequently sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in the ensuing Italian Wars . France in the early modern era was increasingly centralised; the French language began to displace other languages from official use, and the monarch expanded his absolute power in an administrative system, known as the Ancien Regime, complicated by historic and regional irregularities in taxation, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions, and local prerogatives. Religiously, France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion . The Wars of Religion crippled France, but triumph over Spain and the Habsburg monarchy in the Thirty Years' War made France the most powerful nation on the continent once more. The kingdom became Europe's dominant cultural, political and military power in the 17th century under Louis XIV. Throughout the 17th, 18th and early 19th centuries, France was Europe's richest, largest, most populous, powerful and influential country. In parallel, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas. Eleanor of Austria , also called Eleanor of Castile, was born an Archduchess of Austria and Infanta of Castile from the House of Habsburg, and subsequently became Queen consort of Portugal and of France . She also held the Duchy of Touraine in dower. She is called "Leonor" in Spanish and Portuguese and "Eleonore" or "Alienor" in French. Eleanor was born in 1498 at Leuven, the eldest child of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile, who would later become co-sovereigns of Castile. Her father was also the son of the reigning Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and his deceased consort Mary of Burgundy, while her mother was the daughter of the Catholic monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. Her siblings were Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, Queen Isabella of Denmark, Queen Mary of Hungary, and Queen Catherine of Portugal. She was named after her paternal great-grandmother, Eleanor of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress. After the death of her father in September 1506 Eleanor was educated at her aunt's court in Mechelen. When she was a child, Eleanor's relatives tried to marry her to the future King of England, Henry VIII, to whom she was betrothed. However, when Henry's father died and he became king, Henry decided to marry Eleanor's aunt, Catherine of Aragon, who was the widow of King Henry's older brother, Arthur, Prince of Wales. Her relatives also tried to marry her to the French kings Louis XII or Francis I, or to the Polish King Sigismund I, but nothing came of these plans. Eleanor was also proposed as a marriage candidate for Antoine, Duke of Lorraine, in 1510. In 1517 Eleanor may have had a love affair with Frederick II, Elector Palatine. Her brother King Charles, who had succeeded their elderly grandfather King Ferdinand as King of Aragon the year before, once discovered her reading a love letter from Frederick. Charles forced Eleanor and Frederick to swear in front of a lawyer that they were not secretly married, after which he expelled Frederick from court. She followed her brother to Spain in 1517. Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are ranked below princes and grand dukes. The title comes from French duc, itself from the Latin dux, 'leader', a term used in republican Rome to refer to a military commander without an official rank , and later coming to mean the leading military commander of a province. In most countries, the word duchess is the female equivalent. Following the reforms of the emperor Diocletian , a dux became the military commander in each province. The title dux, Hellenised to doux, survived in the Eastern Roman Empire where it continued in several contexts, signifying a rank equivalent to a captain or general. Later on, in the 11th century, the title Megas Doux was introduced for the post of commander-in-chief of the entire navy. During the Middle Ages the title signified first among the Germanic monarchies. Dukes were the rulers of the provinces and the superiors of the counts in the cities and later, in the feudal monarchies, the highest-ranking peers of the king. A duke may or may not be, ipso facto, a member of the nation's peerage: in the United Kingdom and Spain all dukes are/were also peers of the realm, in France some were and some were not, while the term is not applicable to dukedoms of other nations, even where an institution similar to the peerage existed. During the 19th century, many of the smaller German and Italian states were ruled by dukes or grand dukes. But at present, with the exception of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, there are no dukes ruling as monarchs. Duke remains the highest hereditary title in Portugal , Spain, and the United Kingdom. In Sweden, members of the royal family are given a personal dukedom at birth. The Pope, as a temporal sovereign, has also, though rarely, granted the title of duke or duchess to persons for services to the Holy See. In some realms the relative status of "duke" and "prince", as titles borne by the nobility rather than by members of reigning dynasties, varied--e.g., in Italy and Germany. </Text>

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<Text> :A Designer is someone who conceptualizes & creates new concepts/ideas/products for consumption by the general public. It is different from an artist who creates art for a select few to understand or appreciate. However, both domains require some understanding of aesthetics. The design of clothing, furniture, and other common artifacts were left mostly to tradition or artisans specializing in hand making them. With the increasing complexity in industrial design of today's society, and due to the needs of mass production where more time is usually associated with more cost, the production methods became more complex and with them, the way designs and their production are created. The classical areas are now subdivided into smaller and more specialized domains of design according to the product designed or perhaps its means of production. Despite various specializations within the design industry, all of them have similarities in terms of the approach, skills, and methods of working. Using design methods and design thinking to resolve problems and create new solutions are the most important aspects of being a designer. Part of a designer's job is to get to know the audience they intend on serving. In education, the methods of teaching or the program and theories followed vary according to schools and field of study. In industry, a design team for large projects is usually composed of a number of different types of designers and specialists. The relationships between team members will vary according to the proposed product, the processes of production or the research followed during the idea development, but normally they give an opportunity to everyone in the team to take a part in the creation process. Cesare Borgia was an Italian cardinal and condottiero , an illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI and member of the Valencian House of Borgia. His fight for power was a major inspiration for The Prince by Niccolo Machiavelli. After initially entering the Church and becoming a cardinal on his father's election to the Papacy, he resigned as cardinal after the death of his brother in 1498. He served as a condottiero for King Louis XII of France around 1500, and occupied Milan and Naples during the Italian Wars. At the same time, he carved out a state for himself in Central Italy, but he was unable to retain power for long after his father's death. According to Machiavelli, this was not due to a lack of foresight, but his error in creating a new pope. Like many aspects of Cesare Borgia's life, the date of his birth is a subject of dispute. He was born in Subiaco in Lazio, Italy in either 1475 or 1476, the illegitimate son of Cardinal Roderic Llancol i de Borja, usually known as "Rodrigo Borgia", later Pope Alexander VI, and his Italian mistress Vannozza dei Cattanei, about whom information is sparse. The Borgia family originally came from the Kingdom of Valencia, and rose to prominence during the mid-15th century. Cesare's great-uncle Alphonso Borgia , bishop of Valencia, was elected Pope Callixtus III in 1455. Cesare's father, Pope Alexander VI, was the first pope who openly recognized his children born out of wedlock. Stefano Infessura writes that Cardinal Borgia falsely claimed Cesare to be the legitimate son of another man--Domenico d'Arignano, the nominal husband of Vannozza dei Cattanei. More likely, Pope Sixtus IV granted Cesare a release from the necessity of proving his birth in a papal bull of 1 October 1480. A civil engineer is a person who practices civil engineering - the application of planning, designing, constructing, maintaining, and operating infrastructure while protecting the public and environmental health, as well as improving existing infrastructure that may have been neglected. Civil engineering is one of the oldest engineering disciplines because it deals with constructed environment including planning, designing, and overseeing construction and maintenance of building structures, and facilities, such as roads, railroads, airports, bridges, harbors, channels, dams, irrigation projects, pipelines, power plants, and water and sewage systems. The term "civil engineer" was established by John Smeaton in 1750 to contrast engineers working on civil projects with the military engineers, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various sub-disciplines of civil engineering have become recognized and much of military engineering has been absorbed by civil engineering. Other engineering practices became recognized as independent engineering disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering. Civil engineers usually practice in a particular specialty, such as construction engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, land development, transportation engineering, hydraulic engineering, sanitary engineering, and environmental engineering. A civil engineer is concerned with determining the right design for these structures and looking after the construction process so that the longevity of these structures is guaranteed after completion. These structures should also be satisfactory for the public in terms of comfort. Some civil engineers, particularly those working for government agencies, may practice across multiple specializations, particularly when involved in critical infrastructure development or maintenance. Scenography is a practice of crafting stage environments or atmospheres. In the contemporary English usage, scenography can be defined as the combination of technological and material stagecrafts to represent, enact, and produce a sense of place in performance. While inclusive of the techniques of scenic design and set design, scenography is a holistic approach to the study and practice of all aspects of design in performance. The term scenography is of Greek origin originally detailed within Aristotle's Poetics as 'skenographia'. Nevertheless, within continental Europe, the term has been closely aligned with the professional practice of scenographie and is synonymous with the English-language term 'theatre design'. More recently, the term has been used in museography with regards to the curation of museum exhibits. In what is not the first use of the term, Antonio Caimi, in 1862, describes a category of artists practising pittura scenica e l'architettura teatrale, inspired by the artist Ferdinando Galli-Bibiena, who was also known as a painter of quadratura, or architectural painting . Caimi also calls this Arte scenografica, and notes that it required ingenious engineering to create movable sets, or create illusions of environments. The Galli da Bibiena family was a pedigree of scenographic artistry that emerged in late-seventeenth-century Bologna, but spread throughout northern Italy to Austria and Germany. Another large family known for theatrical scenography were members of the Quaglio surname. Caimi goes on to mention practitioners of scenography in the second half of the 18th century and early 19th century in Lombardy, including: Bernardino Galliari, Gaspare Galliari, Pasquale Canna, Pietro Gonzaga, Paolo Landriani, Giovanni Perego, Alessandro Sanquirico, Bomenico Menozzi, Carlo Fontana, Baldassare Cavallotti, Carlo Ferrari, Filippo Peroni, Carlo Ferrario, Enrico Rovecchi, Angelo Moja, Luigi Vimercati, and the brothers Mofta of Modena, among others. A review of the history of Italian-influenced scenic painting, architecture, and design up to the nineteenth century, was provided by Landriani. Painting is a visual art, which is characterized by the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface . The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. In art, the term "painting" describes both the act and the result of the action . The support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may incorporate multiple other materials, including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold leaf, and even whole objects. Painting is an important form of visual art, bringing in elements such as drawing, composition, gesture, narration, and abstraction. Paintings can be naturalistic and representational , photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic , emotive or political in nature . A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by religious art. Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, to scenes from the life of Buddha . The Uffizi Gallery is a prominent art museum located adjacent to the Piazza della Signoria in the Historic Centre of Florence in the region of Tuscany, Italy. One of the most important Italian museums and the most visited, it is also one of the largest and best-known in the world and holds a collection of priceless works, particularly from the period of the Italian Renaissance. After the ruling House of Medici died out, their art collections were given to the city of Florence under the famous Patto di famiglia negotiated by Anna Maria Luisa, the last Medici heiress. The Uffizi is one of the first modern museums. The gallery had been open to visitors by request since the sixteenth century, and in 1769 it was officially opened to the public, formally becoming a museum in 1865. The building of the Uffizi complex was begun by Giorgio Vasari in 1560 for Cosimo I de' Medici as a means to consolidate his administrative control of the various committees, agencies, and guilds established in Florence's Republican past so as to accommodate them all one place, hence the name uffizi, "offices". The construction was later continued by Alfonso Parigi and Bernardo Buontalenti; it was completed in 1581. The top floor was made into a gallery for the family and their guests and included their collection of Roman sculptures. The cortile is so long, narrow, and open to the Arno at its far end through a Doric screen that articulates the space without blocking it, that architectural historians treat it as the first regularized streetscape of Europe. Vasari, a painter, and architect as well, emphasized its perspective length by adorning it with the matching facades' continuous roof cornices, and unbroken cornices between storeys, as well as the three continuous steps on which the museum fronts stand. The niches in the piers that alternate with columns of the Loggiato are filled with sculptures of famous artists in the 19th century. The Dutch: Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen is an overarching museum organisation for the management of several ethnographic museums in the Netherlands, founded in 2014. It consists of the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, the Afrika Museum in Berg en Dal, and the Museum Volkenkunde in Leiden. The National Museum of World Cultures works in close cooperation with the Wereldmuseum in Rotterdam. It is also part of nation-wide Dutch organisations for research into provenance studies and projects of restitution of cultural heritage to countries of origin, like the former Dutch colony in today's Indonesia. The Dutch National Museum of World Cultures was founded in 2014 by a merger of the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, the Museum Volkenkunde in Leiden and the Afrika Museum in Berg en Dal. It also oversees the Wereldmuseum in Rotterdam, whose collection belongs to that city. According to the museum's webpage, these collections contain "nearly 450,000 objects and 260,000 photographic images that are part of national or municipal collections, and another 350.000 images of documentary value." The NMVW was created in the context of public discussions in the Netherlands, as well as in other European countries, about the colonial history of ethnographic collections and calls for the restitution of African cultural heritage to different countries of origin. About forty per cent of the collection in the museum is estimated to have been acquired in colonial contexts. As Stijn Schoonderwoerd, then director of the NMVW, said about this discussion: "It led us to question our colonial history, and we saw that we had the potential to ask a lot of questions about identity, control, power, inequality and decolonization." According to an article about the NMVW, published in the UNESCO Courier of October/December 2020, the museum began work on its guidance for repatriation in 2017. Already before this, repatriations are said to have "occurred over the decades, but claims had previously been handled on an ad hoc basis." In March 2019, a document called Return of Cultural Objects: Principles and Process was published, to express "the overall mission of the museum to address the long, complex and entangled histories that have resulted in the collections the museum holds." It includes a "commitment to transparently address and evaluate claims for the return of cultural objects according to standards of respect, cooperation and timeliness." </Text>

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<Text> :Claude of France was the ruling Duchess of Brittany from 1514 until her death in 1524 and Queen of France by marriage to King Francis I, which was also in 1514, shortly before he became king on the death of her father. She was a daughter of King Louis XII of France and his second wife, the duchess regnant Anne of Brittany. Claude was born on 13 October 1499 in Romorantin-Lanthenay as the eldest daughter of King Louis XII of France and Duchess Anne of Brittany. She was named after Claudius of Besancon, a saint her mother had invoked during a pilgrimage so she could give birth to a living child: during her two marriages, Queen Anne had at least fourteen pregnancies, of whom only two children survived to adulthood: Claude and her youngest sister Renee, born in 1510. Because her mother had no surviving sons, Claude was heiress presumptive to the Duchy of Brittany. The crown of France, however, could pass only to and through male heirs, according to Salic Law. Eager to keep Brittany separated from the French crown, Queen Anne, with help of Cardinal Georges d'Amboise, promoted a solution for this problem, a marriage contract between Claude and the future Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. This sparked a dispute between the Cardinal and Pierre de Rohan-Gie , Lord of Rohan, known as the Marshal of Gie, who fervently supported the idea of a marriage between the princess and the Duke of Valois, the heir presumptive to the French throne, which would keep Brittany united to France. The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an order of chivalry founded by Edward III of England in 1348. The most senior order of knighthood in the British honours system, it is decoration outranked in precedence only by the Victoria Cross and the George Cross. The Order of the Garter is dedicated to the image and arms of Saint George, England's patron saint. Appointments are at the Sovereign's sole discretion, typically made in recognition of national contribution, service to the Crown, or for distinguished personal service to the Monarch. Membership of the order is limited to the sovereign, the Prince of Wales, and no more than 24 living members, or Companions. The order also includes Supernumerary Knights and Ladies . The order's emblem is a garter circlet with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense in gold script. Members of the order wear it on ceremonial occasions. King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter around the time of his claim to the French throne. The traditional year of foundation is usually given as 1348 . However, The Complete Peerage, under "The Founders of the Order of the Garter", states the order was first instituted on 23 April 1344, listing each founding member as knighted in 1344. The list includes Sir Sanchet d'Abrichecourt, who died on 20 October 1345. Other dates from 1344 to 1351 have also been proposed. The King's wardrobe account shows Garter habits first issued in the autumn of 1348. Also, its original statutes required that each member of the Order already be a knight and some of the initial members listed were only knighted that year. Its foundation is likely to have been inspired by the Castilian Order of the Band, established in about 1330. Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English and French speaking countries. It is from the French form Charles of the Proto-Germanic name karilaz or *karilaz , whose meaning was "free man". The Old English descendant of this word was Cearl or Ceorl, as the name of King Cearl of Mercia, that disappeared after the Norman conquest of England. The name's etymology is a Common Germanic noun *karilaz meaning "free man", which survives in English as churl , which developed its deprecating sense in the Middle English period. Some Germanic languages, for example Dutch and German, have retained the word in two separate senses. In the particular case of Dutch, Karel refers to the given name, whereas the noun kerel means "a bloke, fellow, man". In the form Charles, the initial spelling ch- corresponds to the palatalization of the Latin group ca- to in Central Old French and the final -s to the former subjective case of masculine names in Old French like in Giles or James . </Text>

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<Text> :The Capetian house of Valois l-WAH, French: ) was a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. They succeeded the House of Capet to the French throne, and were the royal house of France from 1328 to 1589. Junior members of the family founded cadet branches in Orleans, Anjou, Burgundy, and Alencon. The Valois descended from Charles, Count of Valois , the second surviving son of King Philip III of France . Their title to the throne was based on a precedent in 1316 which excluded females , as well as male descendants through the distaff side , from the succession to the French throne. The Capetian dynasty seemed secure in the rule of the Kingdom of France both during and after the reign of King Philip IV . Philip left three surviving sons and a daughter . Each son became king in turn, but each died young without surviving male heirs, leaving only daughters who could not inherit the throne. When Charles IV died in 1328 the French succession became more problematic. In England, Isabella of France claimed the throne on behalf of her 15-year-old son. In contrast to France it was unclear whether a woman could inherit the English crown but English precedent allowed succession through the female line . The French rejected Isabella's claim, arguing that since she herself, as a woman, could not succeed, then she could not transmit any such right to her son. Thus the French magnates chose as their new monarch Philip of Valois, who became King Philip VI of France. The throne of Navarre went its separate way, to Joan of France, daughter of Louis X, who became Joan II of Navarre. Henry II was King of France from 1547 until his death in 1559. The second son of Francis I and Duchess Claude of Brittany, he became Dauphin of France upon the death of his elder brother Francis in 1536. As a child, Henry and his elder brother spent over four years in captivity in Spain as hostages in exchange for their father. Henry pursued his father's policies in matters of art, war, and religion. He persevered in the Italian Wars against the Habsburgs and tried to suppress the Reformation, even as the Huguenot numbers were increasing drastically in France during his reign. Under the April 1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis which ended the Italian Wars, France renounced its claims in Italy, but gained certain other territories, including the Pale of Calais and the Three Bishoprics. These acquisitions strengthened French borders while the abdication of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in January 1556 and division of his empire between Spain and Austria provided them with greater flexibility in foreign policy. Nostradamus also served King Henry as physician and astrologer. In June 1559, Henry was injured in a jousting tournament held to celebrate the treaty, and died ten days later after his surgeon, Ambroise Pare, was unable to cure the wound inflicted by Gabriel de Montgomery, the captain of his Scottish Guard. Though he died early, the succession appeared secure, for he left four young sons - as well as a widow to lead a capable regency during their minority. Three of those sons lived long enough to become king; but their ineffectual reigns, and the unpopularity of Catherine's regency, helped to spark the French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Protestants, and an eventual end to the House of Valois as France's ruling dynasty. The Field of the Cloth of Gold was a summit meeting between King Henry VIII of England and King Francis I of France from 7 to 24 June 1520. Held at Balinghem, between Ardres in France and Guines in the English Pale of Calais, it was a very expensive display of wealth by both kings. The summit was arranged to increase the bond of friendship between the two kings following the Anglo-French treaty of 1514. The two monarchs would meet again in 1532 to arrange Francis's assistance in pressuring Pope Clement VII to pronounce Henry's first marriage as illegitimate. Under the guidance of English Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, these European states sought to outlaw war forever among Christian peoples. The Pale of Calais, home to the meeting in Balinghem, was the final English possession in France. This territorial leftover from the Hundred Years' War caused some tensions between the English and French, as the latter preferred a location closer to the border, but topographical considerations proved the decisive factor. Two entities had started to emerge as powers in Western Europe at this time: France, under Francis I, and the Habsburg-dominated Holy Roman Empire, under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The Kingdom of England, still a lesser power, was being courted as an ally by the two major powers. The 1518 Treaty of London, a non-aggression pact between major European powers to help resist the Ottoman expansion into southeastern Europe, had just been signed. Henry also held meetings with Charles V a month before the Field of Cloth of Gold in the Netherlands and again afterwards at Calais, Henry's only possession on the Continent. Classical French historiography usually regards Clovis I, king of the Franks , as the first king of France. However, historians today consider that such a kingdom did not begin until the establishment of West Francia, during the dissolution of the Carolingian Empire in the 800s. The kings used the title "King of the Franks" until the late twelfth century; the first to adopt the title of "King of France" was Philip II in 1190 , after which the title "King of the Franks" gradually lost ground. However, Francorum Rex continued to be sometimes used, for example by Louis XII in 1499, by Francis I in 1515, and by Henry II in about 1550; it was also used on coins up to the eighteenth century. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830, the style "King of the French" was used instead of "King of France ". It was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarch's title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. With the House of Bonaparte, the title "Emperor of the French" was used in 19th-century France between 1804 and 1814, again in 1815, and between 1852 and 1870. From his birth until the death of his oldest brother Francis, Dauphin of France , in 1536, Charles was known as the Duke of Angouleme. After his brother's death, he became Duke of Orleans, a title previously held by his surviving brother Henry, who had succeeded Francis as Dauphin and would later become King of France as Henry II. By all accounts, he was the most handsome of Francis I's sons. Smallpox made him blind in one eye, but it seems that it was not noticeable. He was known for his wild antics, his practical jokes and his extravagance and frivolousness, which his father approved of wholeheartedly. He was, by far, his father's favorite son. In addition, he was popular with everyone at his father's court, and it was widely believed that the French nobility of the time would have much preferred to have him as the Dauphin as opposed to his downcast brother, Henry, who never seemed to recover from his years of captivity in Spain. In 1542, Francis I and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, again went to war against each other. Charles fought and captured Luxembourg, but then fearful that he would miss the glory of Perpignan, which was under siege by the Dauphin Henry, he headed south. Luxembourg was lost and retaken several times during the war. In January 1535, Henry VIII offered a betrothal between the 1-year-old Princess Elizabeth and the 12-year-old Charles on the condition that Francis I would persuade Pope Paul to reverse Pope Clement's ruling on his marriage to Anne Boleyn as illegitimate. However, Francis was reluctant to recognize Henry's marriage to Anne because that would force him to question the Pope's ruling. More importantly, Francis was worried about Elizabeth's legitimacy despite Henry's assurance that she was his heiress presumptive. Francis stated that he would agree to the match only if Henry would agree to discontinue the annual pensions that Francis paid to England under the Terms of the Treaty of Amiens as part of Elizabeth's dowry. Henry was offended, and he stated that he had been generous in offering an heiress "of most certain title, without remainder of querel to the contrary" to a younger son. English and French commissioners met at Calais to discuss the terms of the marriage treaty, but they failed to reach a consensus because Henry insisted that Charles come to England until his marriage. Francis refused to send his son to be a hostage to England. By July, the marriage negotiations came to a halt. In May 1536, Anne Boleyn was executed and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, permanently ending any prospects of a marriage to Charles. Louise-Marie of France, OCD was a French princess and Discalced Carmelite, the youngest of the ten children of King Louis XV and Queen Maria Leszczynska. She entered the Carmelite convent at Saint-Denis in 1770 and took the religious name Therese of Saint Augustine. She served as prioress in 1773-1779 and 1785-1787. Louise-Marie of France was born at the Palace of Versailles on 15 July 1737 to the disappointment of Louis XV who was hoping for a "spare" as his only surviving son with his wife was the Dauphin. Her birth was particularly difficult for her mother, Queen Maria Leszczynska as she suffered a painful fistula after, and thus was advised by her physicians that another birth could be fatal. However, Duke de Luynes mentioned in his memoirs that after her birth, in spite of being injured, the exhausted Marie Leczinska told her husband: The Duke of Anjou was their 2 year old second son that died in 1733. Moved by his wife's words Louis XV told her to calm down and pacified her. At this point the King was already in a 6 year secret affair with his wife's lady in waiting, the also married Comtesse de Mailly which caused deep pain on the Queen as she was deeply in love with her husband. The lawyer Barbier noted in his memoirs that Louis XV had resumed his sexual relationship with Marie Leczinska by December 1737 in the bath so as to increase their chances of conceiving another boy. Marie was afraid of losing her husband's love and thus continued sleeping with him till she became pregnant again and suffered a dangerous miscarriage in early 1738, which prompted the Queen to discontinue sexual relations with the king thereafter by refusing him entrance to her bedroom. Not long after this Louis XV, with approval of his minister Cardinal de Fleury, officially acknowledged his first favorite, Louise Julie de Mailly, and the private relationship between the king and queen was discontinued and they started to live separate lives. The king openly announced this after the birth of Louise when he called her Madame Derniere . Count is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Especially in earlier medieval periods the term often implied not only a certain status, but also that the count had specific responsibilities or offices. The etymologically related English term "county" denoted the territories associated with some countships, but not all. Although the term count was not generally used in England, after the 1066 conquest by the Normans, various European terms for count eventually became the normal translations used for the English title of earl, and the wives of earls are still referred to as countesses. In the late Roman Empire, the Latin title comes denoted the high rank of various courtiers and provincial officials, either military or administrative. Before Anthemius became emperor in the West in 467, he was a military comes charged with strengthening defenses on the Danube frontier. In the Western Roman Empire, "count" came to indicate generically a military commander but was not a specific rank. In the Eastern Roman Empire, from about the seventh century, "count" was a specific rank indicating the commander of two centuriae . </Text>

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<Text> :The Distinguished Order of the Golden Fleece is a Catholic order of chivalry founded in Bruges by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1430, to celebrate his marriage to Isabella of Portugal. Today, two branches of the order exist, namely the Spanish and the Austrian Fleece; the current grand masters are King Felipe VI of Spain and Karl von Habsburg, head of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, respectively. The Grand Chaplain of the Austrian branch is Cardinal Christoph Schonborn, Archbishop of Vienna. The separation of the two existing branches took place as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession. The grand master of the order, Charles II of Spain , had died childless in 1700, and so the succession to the throne of Spain and the Golden Fleece initiated a global conflict. On one hand, Charles, brother of the Holy Roman Emperor, claimed the crown as an agnatic member of the House of Habsburg, which had held the throne for almost two centuries. However, the late king had named Philip of Bourbon, his sister's grandchild, as his successor in his will. After the conclusion of the war in 1714, Philip was recognized as King of Spain, but the hitherto Spanish Netherlands, the old Burgundian territories, fell to the Austrian Habsburgs. Thus the two dynasties, namely the Bourbons of Spain and the Habsburgs of Austria, have ever since continued granting the separate versions of the Golden Fleece. The Golden Fleece has been referred to as the most prestigious and historic order of chivalry in the world. De Bourgoing wrote in 1789 that "the number of knights of the Golden Fleece is very limited in Spain, and this is the order, which of all those in Europe, has best preserved its ancient splendour". Each collar is solid gold and is estimated to be worth around EUR50,000 as of 2018, making it the most expensive chivalrous order. Current knights of the Spanish order include Emperor Akihito of Japan, former Tsar Simeon of Bulgaria, and Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands, amongst 13 others. Knights of the Austrian branch include 33 noblemen and princes of small territories in Central Europe, most of them of German or Austrian origin. The Order of the Golden Fleece was established on 10 January 1430, by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy , in celebration of the prosperous and wealthy domains united in his person that ran from Flanders to Switzerland. The jester and dwarf Madame d'Or performed at the creation of the order of the Golden Fleece in Bruges. It is restricted to a limited number of knights, initially 24 but increased to 30 in 1433, and 50 in 1516, plus the sovereign. The order's first king of arms was Jean Le Fevre de Saint-Remy. It received further privileges unusual to any order of knighthood: the sovereign undertook to consult the order before going to war; all disputes between the knights were to be settled by the order; at each chapter the deeds of each knight were held in review, and punishments and admonitions were dealt out to offenders, and to this the sovereign was expressly subject; the knights could claim as of right to be tried by their fellows on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and Charles V conferred on the order exclusive jurisdiction over all crimes committed by the knights; the arrest of the offender had to be by warrant signed by at least six knights, and during the process of charge and trial he remained not in prison but in the gentle custody of his fellow knights. The order, conceived in an ecclesiastical spirit in which mass and obsequies were prominent and the knights were seated in choirstalls like canons, was explicitly denied to heretics, and so became an exclusively Catholic honour during the Reformation. The officers of the order were the chancellor, the treasurer, the registrar, and the king of arms . Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici , known as Lorenzo the Magnificent , was an Italian statesman, the de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic, and the most powerful patron of Renaissance culture in Italy. Lorenzo held the balance of power within the Italic League, an alliance of states that stabilized political conditions on the Italian Peninsula for decades, and his life coincided with the mature phase of the Italian Renaissance and the golden age of Florence. As a patron, he is best known for his sponsorship of artists such as Botticelli and Michelangelo. On the foreign policy front, Lorenzo manifested a clear plan to stem the territorial ambitions of Pope Sixtus IV, in the name of the balance of the Italian League of 1454. For these reasons, Lorenzo was the subject of the Pazzi conspiracy , in which his brother Giuliano was assassinated. The Peace of Lodi of 1454 that he supported among the various Italian states collapsed with his death. He is buried in the Medici Chapel in Florence. Lorenzo's grandfather, Cosimo de' Medici, was the first member of the Medici family to lead the Republic of Florence and run the Medici Bank simultaneously. As one of the wealthiest men in Europe, Cosimo spent a very large portion of his fortune on government and philanthropy, for example as a patron of the arts and financier of public works. Lorenzo's father, Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, was equally at the centre of Florentine civic life, chiefly as an art patron and collector, while Lorenzo's uncle, Giovanni di Cosimo de' Medici, took care of the family's business interests. Lorenzo's mother, Lucrezia Tornabuoni, was a writer of sonnets and a friend to poets and philosophers of the Medici Academy. She became her son's advisor after the deaths of his father and uncle. Lorenzo, considered the most promising of the five children of Piero and Lucrezia, was tutored by a diplomat and bishop, Gentile de' Becchi, and the humanist philosopher Marsilio Ficino, and he was trained in Greek by John Argyropoulos. With his brother Giuliano, he participated in jousting, hawking, hunting, and horse breeding for the Palio, a horse race in Siena. In 1469, aged 20, he won first prize in a jousting tournament sponsored by the Medici. The joust was the subject of a poem written by Luigi Pulci. Niccolo Machiavelli also wrote of the occasion, perhaps sarcastically, that he won "not by way of favour, but by his own valour and skill in arms". He carried a banner painted by Verrocchio, and his horse was named Morello di Vento. Lorenzo was described as rather plain of appearance and of average height, having a broad frame and short legs, dark hair and eyes, a squashed nose, short-sighted eyes and a harsh voice. Giuliano, on the other hand, was regarded as handsome and a "golden boy", and was used as a model by Botticelli in his painting of Mars and Venus. Even Lorenzo's close friend Niccolo Valori described him as homely, saying, "nature had been a stepmother to him in regards to his personal appearance, although she had acted as a loving mother in all things concocted with the mind. His complexion was dark, and although his face was not handsome it was so full of dignity as to compel respect." Giuliano de' Medici was the second son of Piero de' Medici and Lucrezia Tornabuoni. As co-ruler of Florence, with his brother Lorenzo the Magnificent, he complemented his brother's image as the "patron of the arts" with his own image as the handsome, sporting "golden boy." He was killed in a plot known as the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478. In 1478, Giuliano was promised in marriage to Semiramide Appiani Aragona, daughter of Iacopo III Appiani, Prince of Piombino and niece of his presumed lover Simonetta Vespucci, though died before the wedding could take place. After Giuliano's death, Semiramide married his cousin, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, in 1482. The Pazzi conspirators attempted to lure Giuliano and Lorenzo away from Florence to kill them outside the boundaries of the city - first on the road to Piombino, then in Rome, and finally at a banquet hosted by the Medici at their villa in Fiesole. Giuliano did not come, claiming to be ill. The choice to commit the murder at high mass was a last minute choice. As the opening stroke of the Pazzi conspiracy, Giuliano was assassinated on 26 April 1478 - in the Duomo of Florence, Santa Maria del Fiore, by Francesco de' Pazzi and Bernardo Baroncelli. During Mass, at the sounding of the Elevation, he received a fatal sword wound to the head and was stabbed 19 times. He died lying on the cathedral floor. Lorenzo, who had escaped to the Medici palace, did not learn of his brother's death for several hours. The identity of the woman in the sculpture Dama col mazzolino, at Bargello Museum in Florence could be attributed to Lucrezia Donati. Also Sandro Botticelli's painting Fortitude would be another representation of her. Lucrezia was the daughter of Manno Donati and Caterina Bardi, a Florentine dame who belonged to an extinct family tree, being the last descendant. From 1461 was the mistress of Lorenzo il Magnifico, a platonic love, until Lorenzo later married the Italian noble Clarice Orsini. In 1486 Lorenzo remembered the poems he had written for her when he was 16 in the poem Corinto. Bianca Maria di Piero de' Medici was a member of the de' Medici family, de facto rulers of Florence in the late 15th century. She was the daughter of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic, and sister of Lorenzo de' Medici, who succeeded his father in that position. She married Guglielmo de' Pazzi, a member of the Pazzi family. She was a musician, and played the organ for Pope Pius II and the future Pope Alexander VI in 1460; she was a landowner. Bianca was a daughter of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici and Lucrezia Tornabuoni. In 1459, she married Guglielmo de' Pazzi, who was a childhood friend of her brother, Lorenzo de' Medici. This alliance was intended to help resolve the animosity between the families, but it was not successful in that regard as Machiavelli noted in his Florentine Histories. Their first child, Antonio, was born in 1460. The marriage agreement included a significant reduction in taxes imposed on the Pazzi family. In the aftermath of the Pazzi conspiracy of 1478, Bianca's marriage significantly softened Lorenzo's wrath towards Guglielmo, who was only put under house arrest for a time, while his male relatives were exiled or executed; his daughters were exempted from the marriage ban imposed on other Pazzi daughters. In 1460, Bianca was asked to play the organ for Pope Pius II and his entourage during a visit to Florence, as the pope was coming back from the Council of Mantua. Teodoro Montefeltro, the Apostolic protonotary travelling with the pope, praised the performance in a letter to Barbara of Brandenburg, Marquise of Mantua. During the same papal visit, she performed a second concert for the future pope Rodrigo Borgia at his request. Bianca often performed for local and visiting dignitaries, contributing to her families' reputation and influence. In 1475, Bianca asked her mother to purchase farmland from other relatives for her, as Lucrezia had more influence within the family. Though Bianca owned the property, it was managed by staff employed by her mother. Lucrezia "Nannina" de' Medici , sometimes known by the longer name Lucrezia di Piero de' Medici including a patronymic, was the second daughter of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici and Lucrezia Tornabuoni. She was thus the elder sister of Lorenzo de' Medici. She married Bernardo Rucellai. Lucrezia de' Medici was born in Florence on 14 February 1448, the second daughter of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici and Lucrezia Tornabuoni.: 11 She was nicknamed Nannina, which had been the nickname of her great-grandmother Piccarda Bueri. She received a cultured and refined education. In 1461, at the age of about 13, she was married to Bernardo Rucellai with a dowry of 2500 fiorini d'oro. Nannina was brought to her husband's house five years later, on 8 June 1466. The wedding feast was famous for its opulence: 500 guests were seated on a triangular dais which occupied the loggia and the whole of the piazza and the street in front of Palazzo Rucellai. The couple had five children, Cosimo, Piero, Palla, Giovanni and Lucrezia. </Text>

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<Text> :The Villa di Castello, near the hills bordering Florence, Tuscany, central Italy, was the country residence of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany . The gardens, filled with fountains, statuary, and a grotto, became famous throughout Europe. The villa also housed some of the great art treasures of Florence, including Sandro Botticelli's Renaissance masterpieces The Birth of Venus and Primavera. The gardens of the Villa had a profound influence upon the design of the Italian Renaissance garden and the later French formal garden. Villa Castello is located at the foot of the hills northwest of Florence, near the town of Sesto Fiorentino. The villa was located near a Roman aqueduct, and took its name from the water cisterns near the site. A fortified building had been standing on the site since at least 1427, and was purchased in 1477 by Lorenzo and his brother Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de' Medici. This the year after their father died at the age of 46, leaving the young boys wards of their cousin Lorenzo il Magnifico, of the senior branch of the Medici family and de facto ruler of Florence. They reconstructed the old building, adding a courtyard, a loggia, kitchens and stables. The house was inherited by a famed condottiere, or mercenary soldier, Giovanni dalle Bande Nere and his wife, Maria Salviati, the parents of Cosimo, who was born in 1519, and lived in the house as a child. The Villa Medici is a Mannerist villa and an architectural complex with a garden contiguous with the larger Borghese gardens, on the Pincian Hill next to Trinita dei Monti in Rome, Italy. The Villa Medici, founded by Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and now property of the French State, has housed the French Academy in Rome since 1803. A musical evocation of its garden fountains features in Ottorino Respighi's Fountains of Rome. In 1564, when the nephews of Cardinal Giovanni Ricci of Montepulciano acquired the property, it had long been abandoned to viticulture. The sole dwelling was the Casina of Cardinale Marcello Crescenzi, who had maintained a vineyard here and had begun improvements to the villa under the direction of the Florentine Nanni Lippi, who had died however, before work had proceeded far. The new proprietors commissioned Annibale Lippi, the late architect's son, to continue work. Interventions by Michelangelo are a tradition. In 1576, the property was acquired by Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici, who finished the structure to designs by Bartolomeo Ammanati. The Villa Medici became at once the first among Medici properties in Rome, intended to give concrete expression to the ascendancy of the Medici among Italian princes and assert their permanent presence in Rome. Under the Cardinal's insistence, Ammanati incorporated into the design Roman bas-reliefs and statues that were coming to sight with almost every spadeful of earth, with the result that the facades of the Villa Medici, as it now was, became a virtual open-air museum. A series of grand gardens recalled the botanical gardens created at Pisa and at Florence by the Cardinal's father Cosimo I de' Medici, sheltered in plantations of pines, cypresses and oaks. Ferdinando de' Medici had a studiolo, a retreat for study and contemplation, built to the north east of the garden above the Aurelian wall. Now these rooms look onto Borghese gardens but would then have had views over the Roman countryside. These two rooms were only uncovered in 1985 by the restorer Geraldine Albers: the concealing whitewash had protected and conserved the superb fresco decoration carried out by Jacopo Zucchi 1576 and 1577. Among the striking assemblage of Roman sculptures in the villa were some one hundred seventy pieces bought from two Roman collections that had come together through marriage, the Capranica and the della Valle collections. An engraving detailing the arrangement of statues prior to 1562 was documented by Galassi Alghisi. Three works that arrived at the Villa Medici under Cardinal Fernando, ranked with the most famous in the city: the Niobe Group and the Wrestlers, both discovered in 1583 and immediately purchased by Cardinal Ferdinando, and the Arrotino. When the Cardinal succeeded as Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1587, his elder brother having died, he satisfied himself with plaster copies of his Niobe Group, in full knowledge of the prestige that accrued to the Medici by keeping such a magnificent collection in the European city whose significance far surpassed that of their own capital. The Medici lions were completed in 1598, and the Medici Vase entered the collection at the Villa, followed by the Venus de' Medici by the 1630s; the Medici sculptures were not removed to Florence until the eighteenth century. Then the antiquities from the Villa Medici formed the nucleus of the collection of antiquities in the Uffizi, and Florence began to figure on the European Grand Tour. Gentile de' Becchi was an Italian bishop, diplomat, orator and writer. He was a member of the Platonic Academy of the Medici of Florence and tutor of Lorenzo the Magnificent and his son Giovanni de' Medici, later Pope Leo X. Of his writings there exist many letters, poems in Latin, and prayers which are praised by historian Cecil Grayson as his finest works. Gentile de' Becchi was born in Urbino, the son of Giorgio Becchi, member of a family traditionally linked to the powerful Florentine Medici dynasty. Both the year of his birth and the place of his early studies are unknown. As a priest, in 1450, with the support of the Medici, he was appointed to the parish of San Giovanni in Florence. He became a canon of Pisa Cathedral and in 1462 he became canonical prebend of Florence Cathedral, controlling the finances of the diocese for Archbishop Giovanni Neroni, and holding benefices in Decimo, Cascina and Fagna. In 1473, Lorenzo de' Medici, as ''de facto'' ruler of Florence, proposed him as Bishop of Arezzo. According to historian Cecil Grayson, although de' Becchi's appointment as Bishop had been orchestrated by Lorenzo, both the Archbishop of Florence and Pope Sixtus IV held him in high esteem for his devotion to the faith, his knowledge, his abilities and his character. Despite his close association with Florence and the Medici family, de' Becchi did not neglect his obligations to Arezzo. He supported the founding of a convent of Poor Clares in the city, licensed the Olivetans to build a church and monastery, and made improvements to the Bishop's palace. The Palazzo Medici, also called the Palazzo Medici Riccardi after the later family that acquired and expanded it, is a Renaissance palace located in Florence, Italy. It is the seat of the Metropolitan City of Florence and a museum. The palace was designed by Michelozzo di Bartolomeo for Cosimo de' Medici, head of the Medici banking family, and was built between 1444 and 1484. It was well known for its stone masonry, which includes architectural elements of rustication and ashlar. The tripartite elevation used here expresses the Renaissance spirit of rationality, order, and classicism on human scale. This tripartite division is emphasized by horizontal stringcourses that divide the building into stories of decreasing height. The transition from the rusticated masonry of the ground floor to the more delicately refined stonework of the third floor makes the building seem lighter and taller as the eye moves upward to the massive cornice that caps and clearly defines the building's outline. Michelozzo was influenced in his design of the palace by both classical Roman and Brunelleschian principles. During the Renaissance revival of classical culture, ancient Roman elements were often replicated in architecture, both built and imagined in paintings. In the Palazzo Medici Riccardi, the rusticated masonry and the cornice had precedents in Roman practice, yet in totality it looks distinctly Florentine, unlike any known Roman building. Similarly, the early Renaissance architect Brunelleschi used Roman techniques and influenced Michelozzo. The open colonnaded court that is at the center of the palazzo plan has roots in the cloisters that developed from Roman peristyles. The once open corner loggia and shop fronts facing the street were walled in during the 16th century. They were replaced by Michelangelo's unusual ground-floor "kneeling windows" , with exaggerated scrolling consoles appearing to support the sill and framed in a pedimented aedicule, a motif repeated in his new main doorway. The new windows are set into what appears to be a walled infill of the original arched opening, a Mannerist expression Michelangelo and others used repeatedly. Pope Leo X was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 9 March 1513 to his death, in December 1521. Born into the prominent political and banking Medici family of Florence, Giovanni was the second son of Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler of the Florentine Republic, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1489. Following the death of Pope Julius II, Giovanni was elected pope after securing the backing of the younger members of the College of Cardinals. Early on in his rule he oversaw the closing sessions of the Fifth Council of the Lateran, but struggled to implement the reforms agreed. In 1517 he led a costly war that succeeded in securing his nephew Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici as Duke of Urbino, but reduced papal finances. In Protestant circles, Leo is associated with granting indulgences for those who donated to reconstruct St. Peter's Basilica, a practice that was soon challenged by Martin Luther's 95 Theses. Leo rejected the Protestant Reformation, and his Papal bull of 1520, Exsurge Domine, condemned Luther's condemnatory stance, rendering ongoing communication difficult. He borrowed and spent money without circumspection and was a significant patron of the arts. Under his reign, Marco Girolamo Vida began composing at the Pope's request a Virgilian Latin epic poem about the life of Jesus called the Christiad, progress was made on the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, and artists such as Raphael decorated the Vatican rooms. Leo also reorganised the Roman University, and promoted Renaissance humanist study of literature, poetry, and Classics. He died in 1521 and is buried in Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome. He was the last pope not to have been in priestly orders at the time of his election to the papacy. A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator who creates poems , or they may also perform their art to an audience. The work of a poet is essentially one of communication, expressing ideas either in a literal sense or metaphorically. Poets have existed since prehistory, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary greatly in different cultures and periods. Throughout each civilization and language, poets have used various styles that have changed over time, resulting in countless poets as diverse as the literature that they have produced. Poetry may have been started in prehistory, when poems are presumed to have been left written on the walls of Lascaux Cave and presumably on tortoise shells in Jiahu. Sumer made poetry become very popular and important, since lots of poems from ancient times are from Sumer. The Epic of Gilgamesh, was a very important and widely read epic poem in the ancient Middle East. The poem was first written c. 2100 BC in the Third Dynasty of Ur, and copies of the poem continued to be published and written until it ran out of print c. 600 to 150 BC. Story of Sinuhe was a popular narrative poem from Ancient Egypt, written c. 1750 BC, about an ancient Egyptian man named Sinuhe, who flees his country, and therefore lives as a foreigner. It is only shortly before his death, he returns to his country. Story of Sinuhe was one of several popular narrative Ancient Egyptian poems, especially back in the time of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. It has been conjectured that Story of Sinuhe was actually written by an Ancient Egyptian man named Sinuhe, describing his life in the poem. Therefore, Sinuhe is conjectured to be a real person. In Ancient Rome, professional poets were generally sponsored by patrons, wealthy supporters including nobility and military officials. For instance, Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, friend to Caesar Augustus, was an important patron for the Augustan poets, including both Horace and Virgil. While Ovid, a well established poet, was banished from Rome by the first Augustus. The House of Medici was an Italian banking family and political dynasty that first consolidated power in the Republic of Florence under Cosimo de' Medici, during the first half of the 15th century. The family originated in the Mugello region of Tuscany, and prospered gradually until it was able to fund the Medici Bank. This bank was the largest in Europe during the 15th century and facilitated the Medicis' rise to political power in Florence, although they officially remained citizens rather than monarchs until the 16th century. The Medici produced four popes of the Catholic Church--Pope Leo X , Pope Clement VII , Pope Pius IV and Pope Leo XI --and two queens of France--Catherine de' Medici and Marie de' Medici . In 1532, the family acquired the hereditary title Duke of Florence. In 1569, the duchy was elevated to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany after territorial expansion. The Medici ruled the Grand Duchy from its inception until 1737, with the death of Gian Gastone de' Medici. The grand duchy witnessed degrees of economic growth under the early grand dukes, but was bankrupt by the time of Cosimo III de' Medici . The Medicis' wealth and influence was initially derived from the textile trade guided by the wool guild of Florence, the Arte della Lana. Like other families ruling in Italian signorie, the Medici dominated their city's government, were able to bring Florence under their family's power, and created an environment in which art and humanism flourished. They and other families of Italy inspired the Italian Renaissance, such as the Visconti and Sforza in Milan, the Este in Ferrara, the Borgia and Della Rovere in Rome, and the Gonzaga in Mantua. The Medici Bank, from when it was created in 1397 to its fall in 1494, was one of the most prosperous and respected institutions in Europe, and the Medici family was considered the wealthiest in Europe for a time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy and Europe. They were among the earliest businesses to use the general ledger system of accounting through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits. </Text>

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<Text> :Clarice Orsini was the daughter of Jacopo Orsini, and his wife and cousin Maddalena Orsini both from the Orsini family, a great Roman noble house and was the wife of Lorenzo de' Medici. Clarice and Lorenzo married 4 June 1469, with a four-day celebration. The marriage was arranged by Lorenzo's mother Lucrezia Tornabuoni, who wanted her eldest son to marry a woman from a noble family to enhance the social status of the Medicis. Their marriage was unusual for Florence at the time in that they were nearly the same age. Clarice's dowry was 6,000 florins. The political nature of her marriage meant that she was often called upon by each side of her family to influence the other. This included Lorenzo helping her brother Rinaldo get selected as Archbishop of Florence. She was also called on by others throughout the area to support their requests to her husband. People sought her support in the easing of taxes and releasing family members from exile or prison. She would also use her network to gather information about political and military events away from where she was, including troop movements and battles. Clarice's religious upbringing was a bit in contrast with the humanist ideals of the age popular in Florence. Nevertheless, sources and letters suggest that there was a great deal of affection and respect between her and Lorenzo. Of the ten children born to them, four died in infancy. Pope Clement VII was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 19 November 1523 to his death on 25 September 1534. Deemed "the most unfortunate of the popes", Clement VII's reign was marked by a rapid succession of political, military, and religious struggles--many long in the making--which had far-reaching consequences for Christianity and world politics. Elected in 1524 at the end of the Italian Renaissance, Clement came to the papacy with a high reputation as a statesman. He had served with distinction as chief advisor to Pope Leo X , Pope Adrian VI , and commendably as gran maestro of Florence . Assuming leadership at a time of crisis, with the Protestant Reformation spreading, the Church nearing bankruptcy, and large foreign armies invading Italy, Clement initially tried to unite Christendom by making peace among the many Christian leaders then at odds. He later attempted to liberate Italy from foreign occupation, believing that it threatened the Church's freedom. The complex political situation of the 1520s thwarted Clement's efforts. Inheriting unprecedented challenges, including Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation in Northern Europe; a vast power struggle in Italy between Europe's two most powerful kings, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Francis I of France, each of whom demanded that the Pope choose a side; Turkish invasions of Eastern Europe led by Suleiman the Magnificent, Clement's problems were exacerbated by Henry VIII of England's contentious divorce, resulting in England breaking away from the Catholic Church; and in 1527, souring relations with Emperor Charles V, leading to the violent Sack of Rome, during which Clement was imprisoned. After escaping confinement in the Castel Sant'Angelo, Clement--with few economic, military, or political options remaining--compromised the Church's and the Papal States' independence by allying with his former jailer, Charles V. In contrast to his tortured pontificate, Clement was personally respectable and devout, possessing a "dignified propriety of character", "great acquirements both theological and scientific", as well as "extraordinary address and penetration--Clement VII, in serener times, might have administered the Papal power with high reputation and enviable prosperity. But with all of his profound insight into the political affairs of Europe, Clement does not seem to have comprehended the altered position of the Pope" in relation to Europe's emerging nation-states and Protestantism. Piero was the son of Cosimo de' Medici the Elder and Contessina de' Bardi. During his father's life, he did not play an extensive role due to his perpetual poor health, the source of his nickname. His brother Giovanni was named as Cosimo's executor, but predeceased his father. In 1461, Piero was the last Medici elected to the office of Gonfaloniere. His gout often kept him confined to bed. This meant that his bedroom effectively became his office, where he would conduct political meetings. This led to the Medici palace becoming the seat of government in Florence. Upon taking over the Medici bank from his father, Piero had a financial overview prepared. The results led him to call up a number of long-standing loans, many to various Medici supporters, which his father had let stand. This immediately drove a good number of the merchants involved into bankruptcy and added to the ranks of those who opposed the Medici. Although not as brilliant a banker as his father, he was able to keep things running smoothly during his tenure. His time as leader of Florence was marked by an attempted coup led by Luca Pitti, Niccolo Soderini, Diotisalvi Neroni, Angelo Acciaiuoli and his cousin Pierfrancesco de' Medici, who used troops provided by Borso d'Este, Duke of Modena and Reggio, and commanded by his brother Ercole d'Este, planned for 26 August 1466. Piero was warned by Giovanni II Bentivoglio and was able to escape the coup, in part because his son Lorenzo discovered a road-block set up by the conspirators to capture Piero in his trip toward the Medici Villa di Careggi; he was not recognized and was able to warn his father. The coup failed, as did an attempted repeat backed by Venice, using troops commanded by Bartolomeo Colleoni. It has been argued that the "coup" was in fact a legitimate attempt to limit the power of the Medici faction and restore a system of government in keeping with Florence's traditional republican ideals, and that to refer to it as a "coup" or a "conspiracy" legitimizes Piero's de facto and hereditary status as leader of the city. In 1467, Piero had to face a war against the Republic of Venice prompted by the Florentine support given to Galeazzo Maria Sforza, the new duke of Milan. However, the Venetian army under Colleoni was defeated at the Battle of Molinella by a league of Florence, Naples, the Papal States and Milan. Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici was the eldest son of Lorenzo de' Medici and Clarice Orsini. He was raised alongside his younger brother Giovanni, who would go on to become Pope Leo X, and his cousin Giulio, who would later become Pope Clement VII.: 7 Piero was educated to succeed his father as head of the Medici family and de facto ruler of the Florentine state, under figures such as Angelo Poliziano or Marsilio Ficino. However, his feeble, arrogant, and undisciplined character was to prove unsuited to such a role. Poliziano later died of poisoning, very possibly by Piero, on 24 September 1494. Piero was also constantly at odds with his cousins, Lorenzo and Giovanni, the two sons of Pierfrancesco de' Medici, who were both older and richer than Piero. In 1486, Piero's uncle Bernardo Rucellai negotiated for him to marry the Tuscan noblewoman Alfonsina Orsini and stood in for him in a marriage by proxy. Piero and Alfonsina met in 1488. She was a daughter of Roberto Orsini, Count of Tagliacozzo, and Caterina Sanseverino. They had at least three children: Clarice , who later married Filippo Strozzi the Younger; * Lorenzo , later Duke of Urbino; and Luisa, born February 1494.: 7 From baptismal records it appears that in February 1492 he also had another daughter, Maria, who was probably illegitimate. Piero took over as leader of Florence in 1492, upon Lorenzo's death. After a brief period of relative calm, the fragile peaceful equilibrium between the Italian states, laboriously constructed by Piero's father, collapsed in 1494 with the decision of King Charles VIII of France to cross the Alps with an army in order to assert hereditary claims to the Kingdom of Naples. Charles had been lured to Italy by Ludovico Sforza , ex-regent of Milan, as a way to eject Ludovico's nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza and replace him as duke. His older brother Piero was briefly the ruler of Florence after Lorenzo's death, until the republican faction drove out the Medici in 1494. Giuliano moved therefore to Venice. The Medici family was restored to power after the Holy League drove the French forces that had supported the Florentine republicans from Italy. This effort was headed by Spain with the support of Pope Julius II. Giuliano reigned in Florence following his brother's election to the papacy in 1513, until he died in 1516. He married Filiberta , daughter of Philip II, Duke of Savoy, on 22 February 1515 at the court of France, thanks to the intercession of his brother Giovanni, now pope as Leo X, in the same year that King Francis I of France invested him with the title Duke of Nemours on the occasion. The French were apparently grooming him for the throne of Naples , when Giuliano died prematurely. He was succeeded in Florence by his nephew Lorenzo II de' Medici. Giuliano's tomb in the Medici Chapel of the Church of San Lorenzo, Florence, is ornamented with the Night and Day of Michelangelo, along with a statue of Giuliano by Michelangelo. He shares an identical common name with his uncle Giuliano di Piero de' Medici, whose tomb is also in the Medici Chapel and who is famous for having been assassinated in the Pazzi Conspiracy. Maddalena de' Medici daughter to Lorenzo de' Medici Born in Florence, she was educated with her siblings to the humanistic cultures by figures such as Angelo Poliziano. In February 1487 she was engaged to be married to Franceschetto Cybo, son of Pope Innocent VIII. They were married in January 1488, and she brought a dowry of 4000 ducats. This marriage brought closer connections for her family and the Vatican, helping her brother Giovanni get appointed as a cardinal. She used her influence with her father, her brother Piero, and the pope to help friends and poorer people get aid and positions within the church and governments. Maddalena lived in Rome after the election of her brother Giovanni as Pope Leo X in 1513. Shortly after his election, Pope Leo made her son Innocenzo a Cardinal. Maddalena received Roman citizenship and a pension from her brother in 1515. She worked to get all of her children married to noble families. She continued in her role of patron, negotiating with Pope Leo and her nephew, Lorenzo to get clients protection, funds, and release from prison and exile. She died in Rome, and was buried in St. Peter's Basilica by order of her cousin, Pope Clement VII. Contessina Antonia Romola di Lorenzo de' Medici was an Italian noblewoman, ninth child and fifth and last daughter of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Lord of Florence, and his wife Clarice Orsini. She was the wife of the Florentine Piero Ridolfi, later made Count Palatine by her elder brother Pope Leo X. She was the cousin and foster sister of Pope Clement VII. Contessina de' Medici was born in 1478 in Pistoia, where her mother and her siblings had taken refuge after the Pazzi conspiracy. She was baptized in Florence shortly after her birth. Her first name, Contessina, was given to her in honor of her paternal great-grandmother, Contessina de' Bardi, wife of Cosimo de' Medici. In May 1494 she married the Piero Ridolfi : a careful marriage to a man from a local Florentine family, planned by her father Lorenzo to counter local anxieties about the ambitions of the Medici, since Florentines were alarmed by the marriages of her siblings Piero and Maddalena to powerful families from other cities. Lorenzo's own marriage to Contessina's mother Clarice Orsini, the first major Medici marriage to a non-Florentine noble house, had been one of the causes of the tension which led to the Pazzi Conspiracy. In 1513 her brother Giovanni was elected Pope with the name of Leo X. Contessina then moved to Rome with her sisters Lucrezia and Maddalena, where she established herself as an influential woman in papal politics. In 1514, Pope Leo designated all secretaries of the papal curia Counts of the Lateran Court with rights and titles equivalent to an Imperial Count Palatine, including his brother-in-law, Contessina's husband. Lucrezia Tornabuoni was an Italian noblewoman, wife of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, de facto Lord of Florence and his political adviser. Lucrezia had significant political influence during the rule of her husband and then of her son Lorenzo the Magnificent, investing in several institutions and improving relationships to support the needs of the poor. She was also a patroness of the arts who wrote several poems and plays. Lucrezia was born in Florence, Italy on 22 June 1427. Her father was Francesco di Simone Tornabuoni, member of a noble family that could trace its lineage back 500 years. It is uncertain if her mother was her father's second wife, Marianna Guicciardini, known as Nanna, or the third, Francesca Pitti. Her brother Giovanni became a banker and diplomat. Lucrezia was well-educated for a woman of her time. She was very capable in mathematics and finances, well-versed in literature, rhetoric, and theology, and read many texts in both Latin and Greek besides her native Italian. Lucrezia may be represented in three scenes in Ghirlandaio's frescos in the Tornabuoni Chapel: The Visitation, The Birth of the Baptist, and The Nativity of Mary. On 3 June 1444, Lucrezia married Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, son of Cosimo de' Medici, a wealthy banker and statesman from Florence. Her father was a friend and supporter of Cosimo, even through the latter's exile in 1434. The marriage and her dowry of 1200 florins helped to seal the alliance between their families. Lucrezia and Piero developed a good relationship and frequently wrote to each other while apart with tenderness and concern. She also became a good friend of her brother-in-law Giovanni. The villa was among the first of a number of Medici villas, notable as the site of the Platonic Academy founded by Cosimo de' Medici, who died at the villa in 1464. Like most villas of Florentine families, the villa remained a working farm that helped render the family self-sufficient. Cosimo's architect there, as elsewhere, was Michelozzo, who remodelled the fortified villa which had something of the character of a castello. Its famous garden is walled about, like a medieval garden, overlooked by the upper-storey loggias, with which Michelozzo cautiously opened up the villa's structure. Michelozzo's Villa Medici in Fiesole has a more outward-looking, Renaissance character. The property was purchased in 1417 by Cosimo de' Medici brother, Lorenzo. At the death of Giovanni di Bicci, Cosimo il Vecchio set about remodelling the beloved villa around its loggia-enclosed central courtyard. His grandson Lorenzo extended the terraced gardens and the shaded boschi. Marsilio Ficino, who died at the villa in 1499, was a central member of the Platonic Academy. Lorenzo de' Medici died at the villa in 1492, after which it was ignored for a time until about 1615, when Cardinal Carlo de' Medici undertook extensive projects to remodel the interior, and bring the garden up to date. The villa property was purchased from the Lorraine heirs of the Medici in 1779 by Vincenzo Orsi; the Orsi heirs sold it to an Englishman, Francis Sloane, in 1848: Sloane planted exotics in the landscape: Cedar of Lebanon and Himalayan cedars, Californian sequoias, arbutus from the eastern Mediterranean and palms, which give the grounds their feeling of an arboretum. Today the villa belongs to the Tuscan public administration. </Text>

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<Text> :A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates a demand deposit while simultaneously making loans. Lending activities can be directly performed by the bank or indirectly through capital markets. Whereas banks play an important role in financial stability and the economy of a country, most jurisdictions exercise a high degree of regulation over banks. Most countries have institutionalized a system known as fractional-reserve banking, under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity, banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, the Basel Accords. Banking in its modern sense evolved in the fourteenth century in the prosperous cities of Renaissance Italy but in many ways functioned as a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had their roots in the ancient world. In the history of banking, a number of banking dynasties - notably, the Medicis, the Fuggers, the Welsers, the Berenbergs, and the Rothschilds - have played a central role over many centuries. The oldest existing retail bank is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena , while the oldest existing merchant bank is Berenberg Bank . The present era of banking can be traced to medieval and early Renaissance Italy, to the rich cities in the centre and north like Florence, Lucca, Siena, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi families dominated banking in 14th-century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici set up one of the most famous Italian banks, the Medici Bank, in 1397. The Republic of Genoa founded the earliest-known state deposit bank, and Banco di San Giorgio , in 1407 at Genoa, Italy. The Medici Chapels are two chapels built between the 16th and 17th centuries as an extension to the Basilica of San Lorenzo, in the Italian city of Florence. They are the Sagrestia Nuova , designed by Michelangelo, and the larger Cappella dei Principi , a collaboration between the Medici family and architects. The purpose of the chapels was to celebrate the Medici family, patrons of the church and Grand Dukes of Tuscany. The Sagrestia Nuova or New Sacristy, also known simply as the Medici Chapel, was intended by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici and his cousin Pope Leo X as a mausoleum or mortuary chapel for members of the Medici family. It balances Filippo Brunelleschi's Sagrestia Vecchia, the 'Old Sacristy' nestled beside the left transept of San Lorenzo, with which it consciously competes, and shares its format of a cubical space surmounted by a dome, of gray pietra serena and whitewashed walls. It was the first essay in architecture of Michelangelo, who also designed its monuments that are dedicated to certain members of the Medici family, with sculptural personifications of the four times of day that were destined to influence sculptural figures reclining on architraves for many generations to come. The Sagrestia Nuova was entered via a discreet entrance in a corner of San Lorenzo's right transept, now closed. Although it was vaulted over by 1524, the ambitious projects of its sculpture and the intervention of events, such as the temporary exile of the Medici , the death of Giulio, eventually Pope Clement VII, and the permanent departure of Michelangelo for Rome in 1534, meant that Michelangelo never finished it. The Madonna and Child was the first sculpture Michelangelo completed for the project, and although most of the following statues had been carved by the time of Michelangelo's departure, they had not been put in place, being left in disarray across the chapel. Later, in 1545, they were installed by Niccolo Tribolo. By order of Cosimo I, Giorgio Vasari and Bartolomeo Ammannati finished the work by 1555. Luisa Contessina Romola di Lorenzo de' Medici, known as Luigia, was an Italian noble. She was the eightborn and fourth daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici and Clarice Orsini. She was going to marry with her fiance Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, but she died in 1488 at the age of 11. Andrea del Sarto was an Italian painter from Florence, whose career flourished during the High Renaissance and early Mannerism. He was known as an outstanding fresco decorator, painter of altar-pieces, portraitist, draughtsman, and colorist. Although highly regarded during his lifetime as an artist senza errori , his renown was eclipsed after his death by that of his contemporaries Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Andrea del Sarto was born Andrea d'Agnolo di Francesco di Luca in Florence on 16 July 1486. Since his father, Agnolo, was a tailor , he became known as "del Sarto" . Since 1677 some have attributed the surname Vannucchi with little documentation. By 1494 Andrea was apprenticed to a goldsmith, and then to a woodcarver and painter named Gian Barile, with whom he remained until 1498. According to his late biographer Vasari, he then apprenticed to Piero di Cosimo, and later with Raffaellino del Garbo . Andrea and an older friend Franciabigio decided to open a joint studio at a lodging together in the Piazza del Grano. The first product of their partnership may have been the Baptism of Christ for the Florentine Compagnia dello Scalzo, the beginning of a monochrome fresco series. By the time the partnership was dissolved, Sarto's style bore the stamp of individuality. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, it "is marked throughout his career by an interest, exceptional among Florentines, in effects of colour and atmosphere and by sophisticated informality and natural expression of emotion". From 1509 to 1514 the Servite Order employed Del Sarto, Franciabigio, and Andrea Feltrini in a programme of frescoes at Basilica della Santissima Annunziata di Firenze. Sarto completed seven frescoes in the forecourt or atrium before the Servite church, five of which illustrated the Life and miracles of Filippo Benizzi, a Servite saint who died in 1285 . He executed them rapidly, depicting the saint healing a leper through the gift of his undertunic; predicting the bad end of some blasphemers; and restoring a girl possessed with a devil. The two final frescoes of the series depicted the healing of a child at the death bed of Filippo Benizzi and the curing of sick adults and children through his relic garment held at the church. All five frescoes were completed before the close of 1510. The original contract also required him to paint five scenes of the life and miracles of St. Sebastian, but he told the Servites that he no longer wished to continue with the second cycle, most likely due to the low remuneration. The Servites convinced him to do two more frescoes in the forecourt, although of a different subject matter: a Procession of the Magi finished in 1511 and a Nativity of the Virgin. These paintings met with respect, the correctness of the contours being particularly admired, and earned for Sarto the nickname of "Andrea senza errori" . Towards 1512 he painted an Annunciation in the Church of San Gallo and a Marriage of Saint Catherine . The Museum of John Paul II Collection in Warsaw, also known as the Porczynski Gallery or Carroll-Porczynski Collection, is a museum dedicated to its painting collection, which is housed in the building of the former stock exchange and National Bank. The collection includes around 400 exhibits, mainly Old Masters and the Impressionists, along with some copies of masterpieces of European painting. Zbigniew and Janina Porczynski have been amassing the collection since 1981. In the first three years, the couple concentrated on adding paintings with biblical themes but later portraits and impressionistic works were added. In 1986 the couple transferred about 400 exhibits to the Archdiocese of Warsaw and the Polish nation and created a foundation to supervise the collection. The first part of the collection was displayed publicly on 5 November 1987 at the Museum of the Warsaw archdiocese at Solec Street. The second part was displayed from 14 September to 30 December 1988. In 1989 the beneficiaries of the foundation, the Primate of Poland and the Polish Arts and Culture Ministry, decided to create a museum to provide a permanent display of the collection. The city of Warsaw provided the collection with a permanent home in a building designed by Antonio Corazzi in 1825 - the former stock exchange rebuilt after the Second World War destruction. Since 1987 various art experts put in doubt the authenticity of many important works in the collection. The Polish art historians Mieczyslaw Morka and Waldemar Lysiak contributed several times to this criticism. A painting signed by Alfred Sisley is a forgery by Tom Keating. Casa Buonarroti is a museum in Florence, Italy. The building was a property owned by the sculptor Michelangelo, which he left to his nephew, Leonardo Buonarroti. The house was converted into a museum dedicated to the artist by his great nephew, Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger. Its collections include two of Michelangelo's earliest sculptures, the Madonna of the Stairs and the Battle of the Centaurs. A ten-thousand book library includes the family's archive and some of Michelangelo's letters and drawings. The Galleria is decorated with paintings commissioned by Buonarroti the Younger and created by Artemisia Gentileschi and other early seventeenth-century Italian artists. On 3 March 1508, Michelangelo, who had moved to Rome three years earlier to work on the Tomb of Pope Julius II, bought four adjoining buildings at the corner of via Ghibellina and via Santa Maria , just north of the Basilica di Santa Croce. He acquired another adjacent structure in April 1514. These five buildings were the nucleus of what would later become the Casa Buonarroti. From 1516 to 1525 Michelangelo occupied the two most spacious buildings, renting out the other three; in that period he was working on the facade of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence. In 1525 he moved to another residence, and all five buildings were rented out. After moving to Rome in 1534, Michelangelo became increasingly obsessed with the idea of having a "honorable home" in Florence, a palace that would represent his own family with dignity. He repeatedly asked his nephew Leonardo to transform the five buildings at the corner of via Ghibellina and via Santa Maria into a family palace; however Leonardo always showed little interest in the project, committing only to a partial restoration of the complex which was carried out in 1590, 26 years after Michelangelo's death. The palace was given its present look by one of Leonardo's sons, Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger , who further expanded the complex by purchasing an adjacent lot. He had the various buildings rearranged into a unified structure; on the piano nobile, he arranged four monumental rooms dedicated to the celebration of his great-uncle and of his family, as well as a Gallery for displaying the works of art in his collection, including Michelangelo's Battle of the Centaurs and Madonna of the Stairs. Michelangelo the Younger commissioned a number of contemporary Italian artists to decorate the interior rooms, including Artemisia Gentileschi, Cecco Bravo, Pietro da Cortona, Jacopo da Empoli, Francesco Furini, Giovanni da San Giovanni, Domenico Passignano, Ottavio Vannini and Jacopo Vignali. Walters Art Museum is a public art museum located in the Mount Vernon section of Baltimore, Maryland. Founded and opened in 1934, it holds collections from the mid-19th century that were amassed substantially by major American art and sculpture collectors, including William Thompson Walters and his son Henry Walters. William Walters began collecting when he moved to Paris as a nominal Confederate loyalist at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, and Henry Walters refined the collection and made arrangements for the construction what ultimately was Walters Art Museum. After allowing the Baltimore public to occasionally view his father's and his growing added collections at his West Mount Vernon Place mansion during the late 1800s, Henry Walters arranged for an elaborate stone palazzo-styled structure to be built for this purpose in 1905-1909, located a block south of the Walters mansion on West Monument Street/Mount Vernon Place, on the northwest corner of North Charles Street at West Centre Street. The mansion and gallery were also just south and west of the landmark Washington Monument in the Mount Vernon-Belvedere neighborhood, just north of the downtown business district and northeast of Cathedral Hill. Upon his 1931 death, Henry Walters bequeathed the entire collection of then more than 22,000 works, the original Charles Street Gallery building, and his adjacent townhouse/mansion just across the alley to the north on West Mount Vernon Place to the City of Baltimore, "for the benefit of the public". The collection includes masterworks of ancient Egypt, Greek sculpture and Roman sarcophagi, medieval ivories, illuminated manuscripts, Renaissance bronzes, Old Master European and 19th-century paintings, Chinese ceramics and bronzes, Art Deco jewelry, and ancient Near East, Mesopotamian, or ancient Middle East items. Dorothy Miner became its first Keeper of Manuscripts in 1934 and held the post until her death in 1973. In 2000, "The Walters Art Gallery" changed its long-time name to "The Walters Art Museum" to reflect its image as a large public institution and eliminate confusion among some of the increasing out-of-state visitors. The following year, "The Walters" reopened its original main building after a dramatic three-year physical renovation and replacement of internal utilities and infrastructure. The Archimedes Palimpsest was on loan to the Walters Art Museum from a private collector for conservation and spectral imaging studies. </Text>

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<Text> :Salvator Mundi, Latin for Saviour of the World, is a subject in iconography depicting Christ with his right hand raised in blessing and his left hand holding an orb , known as a globus cruciger. The latter symbolizes the Earth, and the whole composition has strong eschatological undertones. The theme was made popular by Northern painters such as Jan van Eyck, Hans Memling, and Albrecht Durer. There are also several versions of the theme attributed to Titian, notably the one in the Hermitage Museum. One painting of the subject, simply titled Salvator Mundi, was attributed or reattributed to Leonardo da Vinci in 2011. This painting disappeared from 1763 until 1900 when it was acquired from Sir Charles Robinson. It was at the time thought to be a work by Leonardo's follower, Bernardino Luini, and was purchased for the Doughty House in Richmond, London by Sir Francis Cook. By this time Christ's face and hair had been extensively repainted. A photograph taken in 1912 records the work's altered appearance. In 2017, this painting sold at auction for US$450,300,000, the highest price ever paid for a painting. A Designer is someone who conceptualizes & creates new concepts/ideas/products for consumption by the general public. It is different from an artist who creates art for a select few to understand or appreciate. However, both domains require some understanding of aesthetics. The design of clothing, furniture, and other common artifacts were left mostly to tradition or artisans specializing in hand making them. With the increasing complexity in industrial design of today's society, and due to the needs of mass production where more time is usually associated with more cost, the production methods became more complex and with them, the way designs and their production are created. The classical areas are now subdivided into smaller and more specialized domains of design according to the product designed or perhaps its means of production. Despite various specializations within the design industry, all of them have similarities in terms of the approach, skills, and methods of working. Using design methods and design thinking to resolve problems and create new solutions are the most important aspects of being a designer. Part of a designer's job is to get to know the audience they intend on serving. In education, the methods of teaching or the program and theories followed vary according to schools and field of study. In industry, a design team for large projects is usually composed of a number of different types of designers and specialists. The relationships between team members will vary according to the proposed product, the processes of production or the research followed during the idea development, but normally they give an opportunity to everyone in the team to take a part in the creation process. </Text>

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<Text> :He is most famous for the mythological and allegorical subjects he painted in the late Quattrocento; he is said to have abandoned these to return to religious subjects under the influence of Savonarola, the preacher who exercised a huge sway in Florence in the 1490s, and had a similar effect on Botticelli. The High Renaissance style of the new century had little influence on him, and he retained the straightforward realism of his figures, which combines with an often whimsical treatment of his subjects to create the distinctive mood of his works. Vasari has many stories of his eccentricity, and the mythological subjects have an individual and quirky fascination. He trained under Cosimo Rosselli, whose daughter he married, and assisted him in his Sistine Chapel frescos. He was also influenced by Early Netherlandish painting, and busy landscapes feature in many works, often forests seen close at hand. Several of his most striking secular works are in the long "landscape" format used for paintings inset into cassone wedding chests or spalliera headboards or panelling. He was apparently famous for designing the temporary decorations for Carnival and other festivities. The son of a goldsmith, Lorenzo di Piero, Piero was born in Florence and apprenticed under the artist Cosimo Rosseli, from whom he derived his popular name and whom he assisted in the painting of the Sistine Chapel in 1481. Museo di Capodimonte is an art museum located in the Palace of Capodimonte, a grand Bourbon palazzo in Naples, Italy designed by Giovanni Antonio Medrano. The museum is the prime repository of Neapolitan painting and decorative art, with several important works from other Italian schools of painting, and some important ancient Roman sculptures. It is one of the largest museums in Italy. The museum was inaugurated in 1957. The vast collection at the museum traces its origins back to 1738. During that year King Charles VII of Naples and Sicily decided to build a hunting lodge on the Capodimonte hill, but then decided that he would instead build a grand palace, partly because his existing residence, the Palace of Portici, was too small to accommodate his court, and partly because he needed somewhere to house the fabulous Farnese Collection which he had inherited from his mother, Elisabetta Farnese, last descendant of the sovereign ducal family of Parma. When the Parthenopaean Republic was declared in 1799, King Ferdinand IV fled to Palermo on board Nelson's Vanguard, taking the most valuable items from the museum with him. What remained was looted by the French troops of General Jean Etienne Championnet who were billeted there during the short life of the Republic in 1799. Later on, during the nine years of French reoccupation , the art collection was transferred to the Naples National Archaeological Museum. When King Ferdinand returned from Sicily in 1815, he employed many painters and sculptors to work on the redecoration of the palace. It was finally completed in 1840, and a gallery housing contemporary art was added. After the palace passed in 1861 to the House of Savoy, further pieces were added to the art collections, appointing Domenico Morelli as consultant for new acquisitions. They also added an extensive collection of historic firearms and other weapons. In 1866, the boudoir of Maria Amalia of Saxony was transferred to Capodimonte from the Palace of Portici, and in 1877 a Roman era marble floor was brought in from a Roman villa on Capri. The Lower Saxon State Museum Hanover is the state museum of Lower Saxony in Hanover, Germany. Situated adjacent to the New Town Hall, the museum comprises the state gallery , featuring paintings and sculptures from the Middle Ages to the 20th century, and departments of archaeology, natural history and ethnology. The museum includes a vivarium with fish, amphibians, reptiles and arthropods. Originally the Museum of Art and Science inaugurated in 1856 in the presence of George V of Hanover based in the present-day Hanover Arthouse , it was later renamed Museum of the Province of Hanover, or simply Provincial Museum. The museum soon ran out of space for its art collections, prompting the construction of the current building, designed by Hubert Stier in a Neo-Renaissance style, on the edge of the Maschpark in 1902. The building's relief frieze, titled "Key Moments in the Evolution of Humanity" , was created by the Hanoverian artist Georg Herting in partnership with Karl Gundelach and Georg Kusthardt. It was renamed the State Museum in 1933, and finally the Lower Saxon State Museum of Hanover in 1950. The museum building suffered extensive damage from aerial bombings of Hanover during World War II. During the air raid on Hanover on the night beginning 8 October 1943, the cupola above the central risalit was destroyed and the second floor burnt out. However, most of the museum contents had been evacuated by then and were spared destruction. After the war ended in 1945, the museum reopened with an exhibition in the orangery of the Herrenhausen Gardens, and starting in 1947 with small exhibitions in smaller museum buildings. While renovations of the main museum building continued into the 1960s, permanent exhibitions began to reopen between 1950 and 1956. The state gallery features art from the 11th to the 20th centuries. The collection includes German and Italian works from the Renaissance and the Baroque, 17th-century Flemish and Dutch paintings, Danish paintings from the 19th and 20th centuries , and a print room featuring old German masters, Dutch drawings, 19th-century print works, and drawings by German impressionists. Some of the best-known artists include Rembrandt, Rubens and Albrecht Durer. Abbot Hall Art Gallery is an art gallery in Kendal, England. Abbot Hall was built in 1759 by Colonel George Wilson, the second son of Daniel Wilson of Dallam Tower, a large house and country estate nearby. It was built on the site of the old Abbot's Hall, roughly where the museum is today. Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries this was where the Abbot or his representative would stay when visiting from the mother house of St Mary's Abbey, York. The architect is unknown. During the early twentieth century the Grade I listed building was dilapidated and has been restored as an art gallery. As of January 2021 Abbot Hall was closed to the public while Lakeland Arts carried out a redevelopment of the building and grounds. The reopening is on 20 May 2023 with an exhibition by Julie Brook. Originally a town house, Abbot Hall was converted into an art gallery in 1957-62. The building is in stone on a plinth, with quoins, a belt course, a modillioned eaves cornice, and a parapet. The central block has two storeys with cellars, and there is a symmetrical east front of seven bays. Curved steps lead up to a central round-headed doorway in an architrave with moulded imposts, a projecting keystone, and an interlaced fanlight. This is flanked by two-storey canted bay windows, and outside these are recessed bays in one storey containing Venetian windows. The outermost two bays on each side are gabled, lower and further recessed, and have one storey. They contain two round-headed sash windows with an oval window in a pediment above. It has one of the most important collections of George Romney's paintings in Britain and several of his sketchbooks and drawings. Paintings from the eighteenth century include a pair of views of Windermere by Philip James de Loutherbourg. There is also an important group of work by another local artist, Daniel Gardner. It has a significant collection of watercolours, mainly from the second half of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries. Many of the greatest watercolourists of the period are represented, including John Robert Cozens, David Cox, Peter De Wint, John Sell Cotman, John Varley and Edward Lear as well as J. M. W. Turner's watercolours The Passage of Mount St. Gotthard and Windermere . The Harvard Art Museums are part of Harvard University and comprise three museums: the Fogg Museum , the Busch-Reisinger Museum , and the Arthur M. Sackler Museum , and four research centers: the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis , the Center for the Technical Study of Modern Art , the Harvard Art Museums Archives, and the Straus Center for Conservation and Technical Studies . The three museums that constitute the Harvard Art Museums were initially integrated into a single institution under the name Harvard University Art Museums in 1983. The word "University" was dropped from the institutional name in 2008. The collections include approximately 250,000 objects in all media, ranging in date from antiquity to the present and originating in Europe, North America, North Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. The main building contains 204,000 square feet of space for public exhibitions, classrooms, conservation and research labs, and other related functions. Approximately 43,000 square feet of space are dedicated to exhibitions. In 2008, the Harvard Art Museums' historic building at 32 Quincy Street, Cambridge, was closed for a major renovation and expansion project. During the beginning phases of this project, the Arthur M. Sackler Museum at 485 Broadway, Cambridge, displayed selected works from the collections of the Fogg, Busch-Reisinger, and Sackler museums from September 13, 2008, through June 1, 2013. The renovated building at 32 Quincy Street united the three museums in a single facility designed by architect Renzo Piano, which increased gallery space by 40% and added a glass, truncated pyramidal roof. In a street-level view of the front facade, the glass roof and other expansions are mostly hidden, largely preserving the original appearance of the building. The renovation was supervised by LeMessurier Consultants and Silman Associates. </Text>

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<Text> :The Istituto Nazionale per la Grafica is an Italian institute having the aim of preserving, protecting and promote a heritage of works providing documentary evidence of all types of graphic design: prints, drawings, photographs. The institute is located in Rome and is managed by the Directorate-General for Contemporary Landscape, Arts and Architecture of the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities. The institute is housed in the monumental complex of Trevi Fountain, consisting of Palazzo Poli and neighbouring Palazzo della Calcografia, built in 1837 by architect Giuseppe Valadier as headquarters of the Chamber Intaglio, directed by Valadier himself for decades. The historic Palazzo Poli was purchased in 1978 by the Italian State, with the very purpose of unifying the National Intaglio and the National Cabinet of Prints, which in 1975 were merged into the present institute. The Bowdoin College Museum of Art is an art museum located in Brunswick, Maine. Included on the National Register of Historic Places, the museum is located in a building on the campus of Bowdoin College designed by the architectural firm McKim, Mead, and White. The Museum's landmark Walker Art Building was commissioned for the College by Harriet and Sophia Walker in honor of their uncle, a Boston businessman who had supported the creation of the first small art gallery at Bowdoin in the mid-nineteenth century. Designed by Charles Follen McKim of McKim, Mead, & White, the building was completed in 1894 and is on the National Register of Historic Places. At the entrance are a pair of Medici lion sculptures. The museum's collection originated from separate donations of art from James Bowdoin III in 1811 and 1826. Having been housed in a number of different locations during its history, the museum found a permanent home in the Walker Art Building in 1894. While the building had been renovated once in 1974, the $20.8 million renovation by architects Machado and Silvetti Associates of Boston that finished in 2007 received a great deal of publicity for its creation of a new modern entrance to the museum while preserving the structural integrity of the original building. The Galleria dell'Accademia di Firenze, or "Gallery of the Academy of Florence", is an art museum in Florence, Italy. It is best known as the home of Michelangelo's sculpture David. It also has other sculptures by Michelangelo and a large collection of paintings by Florentine artists, mostly from the period 1300-1600 . It is smaller and more specialized than the Uffizi, the main art museum in Florence. It adjoins the Accademia di Belle Arti or academy of fine arts of Florence, but despite the name has no other connection with it. In 2001 the "Museo degli strumenti musicali" collection opened. It includes musical instruments made by Stradivarius, Niccolo Amati and Bartolomeo Cristofori which were acquired by the Florence Conservatory. In 2023, the museum successfully sued a magazine publisher for using an image of Michelangelo's David without the museum's permission, even though the artwork belongs to the public domain. The museum also objected to GQ Italia using a lenticular cover to switch between an image of the statue and Pietro Boselli. The Galleria dell'Accademia has housed the original David by Michelangelo since 1873. The sculpture was allegedly brought to the Accademia for reasons of conservation, although other factors were involved in its move from its previous outdoor location on Piazza della Signoria. The original intention was to create a "Michelangelo museum", with original sculptures and drawings, to celebrate the fourth centenary of the artist's birth. Today, the gallery's small collection of Michelangelo's work includes his four unfinished Prisoners, intended for the tomb of Pope Julius II, and a statue of Saint Matthew, also unfinished. In 1939, these were joined by the Palestrina Pieta, discovered in the Barberini chapel in Palestrina, though experts now consider its attribution to Michelangelo to be dubious. The Harvard Art Museums are part of Harvard University and comprise three museums: the Fogg Museum , the Busch-Reisinger Museum , and the Arthur M. Sackler Museum , and four research centers: the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis , the Center for the Technical Study of Modern Art , the Harvard Art Museums Archives, and the Straus Center for Conservation and Technical Studies . The three museums that constitute the Harvard Art Museums were initially integrated into a single institution under the name Harvard University Art Museums in 1983. The word "University" was dropped from the institutional name in 2008. The collections include approximately 250,000 objects in all media, ranging in date from antiquity to the present and originating in Europe, North America, North Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. The main building contains 204,000 square feet of space for public exhibitions, classrooms, conservation and research labs, and other related functions. Approximately 43,000 square feet of space are dedicated to exhibitions. In 2008, the Harvard Art Museums' historic building at 32 Quincy Street, Cambridge, was closed for a major renovation and expansion project. During the beginning phases of this project, the Arthur M. Sackler Museum at 485 Broadway, Cambridge, displayed selected works from the collections of the Fogg, Busch-Reisinger, and Sackler museums from September 13, 2008, through June 1, 2013. The renovated building at 32 Quincy Street united the three museums in a single facility designed by architect Renzo Piano, which increased gallery space by 40% and added a glass, truncated pyramidal roof. In a street-level view of the front facade, the glass roof and other expansions are mostly hidden, largely preserving the original appearance of the building. The renovation was supervised by LeMessurier Consultants and Silman Associates. The Madonna and Child with Saints, also known as the Pucci Altarpiece , is a painting by the Italian late Renaissance painter Jacopo Pontormo, executed in 1516. It is housed in the church of San Michele Visdomini in Florence. It portrays numerous figures. Saint Joseph, on the left, is holding the Christ Child . The presence of Saint Joseph is explained by the fact that the Gospel of James deals with Christ's childhood and praises Joseph's paternal cares. Saint Francis is connected to name of the commissioner and the devotion of his order towards Jesus. The work was commissioned by Francesco Pucci, a collaborator of the House of Medici and a justice gonfaloniere. The date can be seen in the painting on the book held by Saint John the Evangelist, on the left. The largest oil painting on canvas by Pontormo, it is also one of the few works by him which is still in its original location. His first apprenticeship was in the studio of Jacopo Pontormo. He went from Rome for a number of months following 1560, and was recruited to work for Giorgio Vasari in 1562. He painted two crowded, mannerist canvases for the Studiolo of Francesco I in the Palazzo Vecchio: the Allegory of Dreams and the Gathering of Ambergris. He supplied altarpieces to Santa Maria Novella and Santa Croce. He painted an altarpiece of Calling of Saint Matthew for the Salviati Chapel in San Marco, where he worked alongside Francesco Morandini. Ultimately, he is described by Freedberg as displaying work distantly derivative from the style of Andrea del Sarto, as expressed by Naldini's two mentors and Sarto's two pupils: Pontormo and Vasari. Among his pupils were the Cavalieri Francesco Curradi, Cosimo Gamberucci. and Cosimo Duti. Naldini painted the cycle of frescoes concerning St John the Baptist in Rome, in the chapel of the saint in the church of Trinita dei Monti in Rome in 1580. The chapel, which was added to the original church during works for the new facade, was built in 1570 by the architect Giovanni Antonio Dosio. In 1573 the Florentine banker Giovanni Battista Altoviti acquired the patronage and dedicated the chapel to St. John the Baptist, the Patron Saint of his city. In about 1580 Giovanni Battista Naldini created the frescoes that are still well-preserved today. </Text>

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<Text> :Agnolo di Cosimo , usually known as Bronzino or Agnolo Bronzino, was an Italian Mannerist painter from Florence. His sobriquet, Bronzino, may refer to his relatively dark skin or reddish hair. He lived all his life in Florence, and from his late 30s was kept busy as the court painter of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. He was mainly a portraitist but also painted many religious subjects, and a few allegorical subjects, which include what is probably his best-known work, Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time, c. 1544-45, now in London. Many portraits of the Medicis exist in several versions with varying degrees of participation by Bronzino himself, as Cosimo was a pioneer of the copied portrait sent as a diplomatic gift. He trained with Pontormo, the leading Florentine painter of the first generation of Mannerism, and his style was greatly influenced by him, but his elegant and somewhat elongated figures always appear calm and somewhat reserved, lacking the agitation and emotion of those by his teacher. They have often been found cold and artificial, and his reputation suffered from the general critical disfavour attached to Mannerism in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Recent decades have been more appreciative of his art. Bronzino was born in Florence, the son of a butcher. According to his contemporary Vasari, Bronzino was a pupil first of Raffaellino del Garbo, and then of Pontormo, to whom he was apprenticed at 14. Pontormo is thought to have introduced a portrait of Bronzino as a child into one of his series on Joseph in Egypt now in the National Gallery, London. Pontormo exercised a dominant influence on Bronzino's developing style, and the two were to remain collaborators for most of the former's life. An early example of Bronzino's hand has often been detected in the Capponi Chapel in the church of Santa Felicita by the Ponte Vecchio in Florence. Pontormo designed the interior and executed the altarpiece, the masterly Deposition from the Cross and the sidewall fresco Annunciation. Bronzino apparently was assigned the frescoes on the dome, which have not survived. Of the four empanelled tondi or roundels depicting each of the evangelists, two were said by Vasari to have been painted by Bronzino. His style is so similar to his master's that scholars still debate the specific attributions. Empoli is a town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Florence, Tuscany, Italy, about 30 km southwest of Florence, to the south of the Arno in a plain formed by the river. The plain has been usable for agriculture since Roman times. The commune's territory becomes hilly as it departs from the river. Empoli is on the main railway line from Florence to Pisa, and is the point of divergence of a line to Siena. Empoli has an enduring tradition as an agricultural centre. It has given its name to a local variety of artichoke. Archaeological finds have revealed that Empoli was already settled in the early Roman Empire times, and continued to exist until the 4th century AD. The river acted as a communication way for the trade of agricultural products, together with the local amphorae. In the Tabula Peutingeriana of the 4th century Empoli is called in portu as a river port on the Roman road Via Quinctia, which led from Fiesole and Florence to Pisa. Empoli was also on the Via Salaiola, connecting to Volterra's salt ponds. Since the 8th century Empoli consolidated as a town around the castle, known as Emporium or Empolis. In 1119 it was absorbed into the Guidi counts' possessions. In 1182 it fell under Florentine rule. In 1260, after the Battle of Montaperti, Empoli was the seat of a famous council in which Farinata degli Uberti opposed the destruction of Florence. The Museo Civico di Sansepolcro or Museo Comunale is the town or comune art gallery. It is housed in a series of linked palaces, including the medieval former Palazzo della Residenza, the Palazzo dei Conservatori del Popolo and the Palazzo del Capitano o Pretorio, located on Via Niccolo Aggiunti #65, near the center of Sansepolcro, formerly Borgo Santo Sepolcro, in the Province of Arezzo, region of Tuscany, Italy. The museum was founded in 1975. The building was occupied by the government offices of the town by the 14th-century. Over the next centuries, it was converted to private housing. It incorporated the former Monte Pio, an early example of a Monte di Pieta In 1456 it was converted into the Palazzo dei Conservatori, and is decorated with a famed Resurrection fresco by Piero della Francesca. The detached fresco is visible through a glass viewing area. The museum also houses Piero's polyptych of the Maddona della Misericordia altarpiece, with lateral panels of saints, and two fresco fragments depicting Saint Julian the Hospitaller and Saint Louis of Toulouse. Among the other artists in the collection are: Giuliano Amidei; Leandro Bassano; Antonio and Remigio Cantagallina; Jacopo Carrucci ; Agostino Ciampelli; Raffaellino dal Colle; Domenico Cresti; Giovanni Battista Cungi; Jacopo Empoli; Cristoforo Gherardi; Matteo di Giovanni; Sinibaldo Ibi; Giovanni del Leone; Giovanni Battista Mercati; Gerino da Pistoia; Andrea Pozzo; Andrea Della Robbia; Raffaello Schiaminossi; Santi di Tito; Angelo Tricca; Giovanni de' Vecchi; and Federico Zoi. The National is the national art gallery of Scotland. It is located on The Mound in central Edinburgh, close to Princes Street. The building was designed in a neoclassical style by William Henry Playfair, and first opened to the public in 1859. The National is run by National Galleries Scotland, a public body that also owns the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art and the Scottish National Portrait Gallery. Because of its architectural similarity, the National is frequently confused by visitors with the neighbouring Royal Scottish Academy Building , a separate institution which works closely with the National. The origins of Scotland's national collection lie with the Royal Institution for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts in Scotland, founded in 1819. It began to acquire paintings, and in 1828 the Royal Institution building opened on The Mound. In 1826, the Scottish Academy was founded by a group of artists who, dissatisfied with its policies, seceded from the Royal Institution, and in 1838 it became the Royal Scottish Academy . A key aim of the RSA was the founding of a national collection. It began to build up a collection and from 1835 rented exhibition space within the Royal Institution building. In the 1840s, plans were put in place for a new building to house the RSA. The noted Scottish architect William Henry Playfair was commissioned to prepare designs, and on 30 August 1850, Prince Albert laid the foundation stone. The building was originally divided along the middle, with the east half housing the exhibition galleries of the RSA, and the western half containing the new National Gallery of Scotland, formed from the collection of the Royal Institution. In 1912 the RSA moved into the Royal Institution building, which remains known as the Royal Scottish Academy Building. When it re-opened, the gallery concentrated on building its permanent collection of Scottish and European art for the nation of Scotland. A drawer is a box-shaped container inside a piece of furniture that can be pulled out horizontally to access its contents. Drawers are built into numerous types of furniture, including cabinets, chests of drawers , desks, and the like. Wooden drawers are often designed so that the front face is complete and the end grain from the side pieces does not show. The corners may be dovetailed for additional strength or for aesthetics, and a half-blind dovetail joint may be used for the front corners to hide the joint. To attach the bottom piece of the drawer, a groove may be cut in the four vertical pieces to insert the bottom of the drawer. One or two handles or drawer pulls are commonly attached to the front face of the drawer to facilitate pulling it out from its enclosure. In some cases, drawers may have another means by which to pull it, including holes cut in the front face or a hollowed-out area to insert the fingers on the bottom side of its front. With the simplest kinds of mounting, the drawer cannot be pulled out sufficiently to see the full interior, without pulling the drawer completely out of the cabinet, often leading to the contents being dumped on the floor. There are at least two ways to make the full interior of a drawer visible, while still being completely supported by the cabinet. One way places the back of the drawer such that it is fully visible when the drawer hits the stop -- the interior of such a drawer is much shorter than the sides of the drawer. That visible back of the drawer may be a false back that conceals a secret hiding place behind it. Another way uses full extension drawers, which have full-extension drawer slides, also called telescoping slides, a kind of linear-motion bearing SS Compound slides that support the drawer even when the drawer is pulled entirely out of the cabinet. Mannerism is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, spreading by about 1530 and lasting until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style largely replaced it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century. Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Vasari, and early Michelangelo. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant. Notable for its artificial qualities, this artistic style privileges compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting. Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication. The definition of Mannerism and the phases within it continues to be a subject of debate among art historians. For example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature and music of the 16th and 17th centuries. The term is also used to refer to some late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530, especially the Antwerp Mannerists--a group unrelated to the Italian movement. Mannerism has also been applied by analogy to the Silver Age of Latin literature. The word "Mannerism" derives from the Italian maniera, meaning "style" or "manner". Like the English word "style", maniera can either indicate a specific type of style or indicate an absolute that needs no qualification . In the second edition of his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects , Giorgio Vasari used maniera in three different contexts: to discuss an artist's manner or method of working; to describe a personal or group style, such as the term maniera greca to refer to the medieval Italo-Byzantine style or simply to the maniera of Michelangelo; and to affirm a positive judgment of artistic quality. Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he described the period in which he worked as "la maniera moderna", or the "modern style". James V. Mirollo describes how "bella maniera" poets attempted to surpass in virtuosity the sonnets of Petrarch. This notion of "bella maniera" suggests that artists who were thus inspired looked to copying and bettering their predecessors, rather than confronting nature directly. In essence, "bella maniera" utilized the best from a number of source materials, synthesizing it into something new. Florence Charterhouse is a charterhouse, or Carthusian monastery, located in the Florence suburb of Galluzzo, in central Italy. The building is a walled complex located on Monte Acuto, at the point of confluence of the Ema and Greve rivers. The charterhouse was founded in 1341 by the Florentine noble Niccolo Acciaioli, Grand Seneschal of the Kingdom of Naples, but continued to expand over the centuries as the recipient of numerous donations. </Text>

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<Text> :The National Gallery of Canada , located in the capital city of Ottawa, Ontario, is Canada's national art museum. The museum's building takes up 46,621 square metres , with 12,400 square metres of space used for exhibiting art. It is one of the largest art museums in North America by exhibition space. The institution was established in 1880 at the Second Supreme Court of Canada building, and moved to the Victoria Memorial Museum building in 1911. In 1913, the Government of Canada passed the National Gallery Act, formally outlining the institution's mandate as a national art museum. The museum was moved to the Lorne building in 1960. In 1988, the museum was relocated to a new building designed for this purpose. The National Gallery of Canada is situated in a glass and granite building on Sussex Drive, with a notable view of the Canadian Parliament buildings on Parliament Hill. The building was designed by Israeli architect Moshe Safdie and opened in 1988. The museum's permanent collection includes over 93,000 works from European, American, and Asian, Canadian, and Indigenous artists. In addition to exhibiting works from its permanent collection, the museum also organizes and hosts a number of travelling exhibitions. Martino di Bartolomeo or Martino di Bartolomeo di Biago was an Italian painter and manuscript illuminator active between 1389 and 1434. He was one of his generation's principal painters of the Sienese School. From specific aspects of his early style, he is believed to have trained in the studio of Taddeo di Bartolo. As a young man Martino collaborated with Giovanni di Pietro da Napoli in Pisa. The fresco cycle in the church of San Giovanni Battista di Cascina, outside Pisa, bears Martino's signature, and the date 1398. He returned permanently to Siena in 1405; there he painted several prominent fresco cycles in the Duomo and the Palazzo Pubblico. Further official commissions for altarpieces and for polychromy of sculptures attest to his versatility and to his prestige as one of the city's official artists. Martino's early activity as an illuminator of manuscripts is based on Luciano Bellosi's recognition of his hand in the set of choirbooks commissioned for the cathedral of Lucca by its bishop, Niccolo Guinigi, in 1394. When he contracted with the Collegiata of San Gimignano for the polychromy of the carved wooden Annunciation in 1420, the sculptor, Jacopo della Quercia, stood guarantor. Jacopo's father, Pietro di Angiolo, worked in Martino's shop. An architect is a person who plans, designs, and oversees the construction of buildings. To practice architecture means to provide services in connection with the design of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings that have human occupancy or use as their principal purpose. Etymologically, the term architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek , i.e., chief builder. The professional requirements for architects vary from location to location. An architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus the architect must undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a practicum for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture. Practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction though the formal study of architecture in academic institutions has played a pivotal role in the development of the profession. Throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans--such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no clear distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the titles architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person, often used interchangeably. "Architect" derives from Greek arkhitekton . It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the professional 'gentleman' architect, separate from the hands-on craftsman. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, but became increasingly available after 1500. Pencils were used for drawing by 1600. The availability of both paper and pencils allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals. Concurrently, the introduction of linear perspective and innovations such as the use of different projections to describe a three-dimensional building in two dimensions, together with an increased understanding of dimensional accuracy, helped building designers communicate their ideas. However, development was gradual and slow going. Until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen, with the exception of high-status projects. </Text>

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<Text> :The Frick Art Reference Library is the research arm of the Frick Collection. It is typically located at 10 East 71st Street on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. As of 2021, the library's reference services have temporarily relocated to 945 Madison Avenue. The library, founded in 1920, offers public access to materials on the study of art and art history in the Western tradition from the fourth to the mid-twentieth century. It is open to visitors 16 years of age or older and serves the greater art and art history research community through its membership in the New York Art Resources Consortium . Within the library is the Center for the History of Collecting--a research organization that supports the study of the formation of collections of fine and decorative arts, both public and private, from colonial times to the present through its fellowships, symposia, and publications. Helen Clay Frick founded the library in 1920 as a memorial to her father, Henry Clay Frick, who died in 1919. Its first home was the bowling alley of the Frick residence, which is now The Frick Collection. In 1924, the library was relocated from the bowling alley to a one-story building at 6 East 71st Street, designed by the architecture firm, Carrere and Hastings. The library opened to the public in its current building on January 14, 1935. The Chateau d'Amboise is a chateau in Amboise, located in the Indre-et-Loire departement of the Loire Valley in France. Confiscated by the monarchy in the 15th century, it became a favoured royal residence and was extensively rebuilt. King Charles VIII died at the chateau in 1498 after hitting his head on a door lintel. The chateau fell into decline from the second half of the 16th century and the majority of the interior buildings were later demolished, but some survived and have been restored, along with the outer defensive circuit of towers and walls. It has been recognised as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture since 1840. The Chateau d'Amboise was built on a spur above the river Loire. The strategic qualities of the site were recognised before the medieval construction of the castle, and a Gallic oppidum was built there. In the late 9th century Ingelgarius was made viscount of Orleans and through his mother was related to Hugh the Abbot, tutors to the French kings. Ingelgarius married Adelais, a member of a prominent family who controlled Chateau d'Amboise. He was later made Count of the Angevins and his rise can be attributed to his political connections and reputation as a soldier. Chateau d'Amboise would pass through Ingelgarius and Adelais' heirs, and he was succeeded by their son, Fulk the Red. As Fulk the Red expanded his territory, Amboise, Loches, and Villentrois formed the core of his possessions. Amboise lay on the eastern frontier of the Angevins holdings. Amboise and its castle descended through the family to Fulke Nerra in 987. Fulk had to contend with the ambitions of Odo I, Count of Blois who wanted to expand his own territory into Anjou. Odo I could call on the support of many followers and instructed Conan, Count of Rennes, Gelduin of Saumur, and Abbot Robert of Saint-Florent de Saumur to harass Fulk's properties. While Conan was busy on Anjou's western border, Gelduin and Robert attempted to isolate the easternmost castles of Amboise and Loches by raiding the Saumurois and disrupting communications. To further threaten Amboise, fortifications were erected at Chaumont and Montsoreau, while Saint-Aignan was garrisoned. Expanded and improved over time, on 4 September 1434 it was seized by Charles VII of France, after its owner, Louis d'Amboise, Viscount of Thours , was convicted of plotting against Louis XI and condemned to be executed in 1431. However, the king pardoned him but took his chateau at Amboise. Once in royal hands, the chateau became a favourite of French kings, from Louis XI to Francis I. Charles VIII decided to rebuild it extensively, beginning in 1492 at first in the French late Gothic Flamboyant style and then after 1495 employing two Italian mason-builders, Domenico da Cortona and Fra Giocondo, who provided at Amboise some of the first Renaissance decorative motifs seen in French architecture. The names of three French builders are preserved in the documents: Colin Biart, Guillaume Senault and Louis Armangeart. Botany, also called plant science , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek word botane meaning "pasture", "herbs" "grass", or "fodder"; botane is in turn derived from boskein , "to feed" or "to graze". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants , and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes. Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify - and later cultivate - plants that were edible, poisonous, and possibly medicinal, making it one of the first endeavours of human investigation. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants possibly having medicinal benefit. They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden. These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, and led in 1753 to the binomial system of nomenclature of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day for the naming of all biological species. In the 19th and 20th centuries, new techniques were developed for the study of plants, including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging, electron microscopy, analysis of chromosome number, plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins. In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with contributions and insights from most other areas of science and technology. Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy. Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which study the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods, materials such as timber, oil, rubber, fibre and drugs, in modern horticulture, agriculture and forestry, plant propagation, breeding and genetic modification, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity. Male is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete known as sperm, which fuses with the larger female gamete, or ovum, in the process of fertilisation. A male organism cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a female, but some organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most male mammals, including male humans, have a Y chromosome, which codes for the production of larger amounts of testosterone to develop male reproductive organs. In humans, the word male can also be used to refer to gender, in the social sense of gender role or gender identity. The use of "male" in regard to sex and gender has been subject to discussion. The existence of separate sexes has evolved independently at different times and in different lineages, an example of convergent evolution. The repeated pattern is sexual reproduction in isogamous species with two or more mating types with gametes of identical form and behavior to anisogamous species with gametes of male and female types to oogamous species in which the female gamete is very much larger than the male and has no ability to move. There is a good argument that this pattern was driven by the physical constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction. Accordingly, sex is defined across species by the type of gametes produced and differences between males and females in one lineage are not always predictive of differences in another. A WikiProject, or Wikiproject, is an affinity group for contributors with shared goals within the Wikimedia movement. WikiProjects are prevalent within the largest wiki, Wikipedia, and exist to varying degrees within sibling projects such as Wiktionary, Wikiquote, Wikidata, and Wikisource. They also exist in different languages, and translation of articles is a form of their collaboration. During the COVID-19 pandemic, CBS News noted the role of Wikipedia's WikiProject Medicine in maintaining the accuracy of articles related to the disease. Another WikiProject that has drawn attention is WikiProject Women Scientists, which was profiled by Smithsonian for its efforts to improve coverage of women scientists which the profile noted had "helped increase the number of female scientists on Wikipedia from around 1,600 to over 5,000". Wikipedia has thousands of WikiProjects, primarily divided between specific topical areas and performing specific maintenance tasks. One task commonly performed by topical WikiProjects on Wikipedia is the assessment of the quality of articles that fall within that topic area. In Wikipedia and sibling projects, WikiProject pages are located in project space, and the meta information regarding the association between the article and the WikiProject is usually included on the talk page of the article. WikiProjects provide an additional avenue for engagement between editors with similar interests, and have thereby been found to increase the productivity of such editors. In order to spur participation and concentrate effectiveness, WikiProjects on Wikipedia may engage in activities like having a "collaboration of the week", or designating one article to be improved to the point of achieving "featured" status. The WikiProject Council is a group of editors that assists with the development of active WikiProjects, and acts as a central point for inter-WikiProject discussion and collaboration. </Text>

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<Text> :Construction is a general term meaning the art and science of forming objects, systems, or organizations. It comes from the Latin word constructio and Old French construction. To 'construct' is a verb: the act of building, and the noun is construction: how something is built or the nature of its structure. In its most widely used context, construction covers the processes involved in delivering buildings, infrastructure, industrial facilities, and associated activities through to the end of their life. It typically starts with planning, financing, and design that continues until the asset is built and ready for use. Construction also covers repairs and maintenance work, any works to expand, extend and improve the asset, and its eventual demolition, dismantling or decommissioning. The construction industry contributes significantly to many countries' gross domestic products . Global expenditure on construction activities was about $4 trillion in 2012. In 2022, expenditure on the construction industry exceeded $11 trillion a year, equivalent to about 13 percent of global GDP. This spending was forecasted to rise to around $14.8 trillion in 2030. Although the construction industry promotes economic development and brings many non-monetary benefits to many countries, it is one of the most hazardous industries. For example, about 20% of US industry fatalities in 2019 happened in construction. Building design, also called architectural design, refers to the broadly based architectural, engineering and technical applications to the design of buildings. All building projects require the services of a building designer, typically a licensed architect. Smaller, less complicated projects often do not require a licensed professional, and the design of such projects is often undertaken by building designers, draftspersons, interior designers , or contractors. Larger, more complex building projects require the services of many professionals trained in specialist disciplines, usually coordinated by an architect. An architect is a person trained in the planning, design and supervision of the construction of buildings. Professionally, an architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus an architect must undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a practicum for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture. In most of the world's jurisdictions, the professional and commercial use of the term "architect" is legally protected. A draftsperson or documenter has attained a certificate or diploma in architectural drafting , and provides services relating to preparing construction documents rather than building design. Some draftspersons are employed by architectural design firms and building contractors, while others are self-employed. In many places, building codes and legislation of professions allow persons to design single family residential buildings and, in some cases, light commercial buildings without an architectural license. As such, "Building designer" is a common designation in the United States, Canada, Australia and elsewhere for someone who offers building design services but is not a licensed architect or engineer. Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures. The term comes from Latin architectura; from Ancient Greek arkhitekton 'architect'; from arkhi- 'chief', and tekton 'creator'. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilisations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing culture by civilizations on all seven continents. For this reason, architecture is considered to be a form of art. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. The earliest surviving text on architectural theories is the 1st century AD treatise De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius, according to whom a good building embodies firmitas, utilitas, and venustas . Centuries later, Leon Battista Alberti developed his ideas further, seeing beauty as an objective quality of buildings to be found in their proportions. In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that "form follows function". "Function" began to replace the classical "utility" and was understood to include not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological, and cultural dimensions. The idea of sustainable architecture was introduced in the late 20th century. Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to successful replication. Ancient urban architecture was preoccupied with building religious structures and buildings symbolizing the political power of rulers until Greek and Roman architecture shifted focus to civic virtues. Indian and Chinese architecture influenced forms all over Asia and Buddhist architecture in particular took diverse local flavors. During the Middle Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name. Later, the roles of architects and engineers became separated. Modern architecture began after World War I as an avant-garde movement that sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures. Many architects became disillusioned with modernism which they perceived as ahistorical and anti-aesthetic, and postmodern and contemporary architecture developed. Over the years, the field of architectural construction has branched out to include everything from ship design to interior decorating. A white-collar worker is a person who performs professional service, desk, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work may be performed in an office or other administrative setting. White-collar workers include job paths related to government, consulting, academia, accountancy, business and executive management, customer support, design, economics, engineering, market research, finance, human resources, operations research, marketing, public relations, information technology, networking, law, healthcare, architecture, and research and development. In contrast: blue-collar workers perform manual labor or work in skilled trades; pink-collar workers work in care, health care, social work, or teaching; and grey-collar jobs combine manual labor and skilled trades with non-manual or managerial duties. The term refers to the white dress shirts of male office workers common through most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Western countries, as opposed to the blue overalls worn by many manual laborers. The term "white collar" is credited to Upton Sinclair, an American writer, in relation to contemporary clerical, administrative, and management workers during the 1930s, though references to white-collar work appear as early as 1935. White collar employees are considered highly educated and talented as compared to blue collar. Less physical activity among white-collar workers has been thought to be a key factor in increased life-style related health conditions such as fatigue, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and heart disease. Also, working at a computer could potentially lead to diseases associated with monotonous data entry such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Workplace interventions such as alternative activity workstations, sit-stand desks, and promotion of stair use are among measures being implemented to counter the harms of sedentary workplace environments. The quality of evidence used to determine the effectiveness and potential health benefits of many of these interventions is weak. More research is needed to determine which interventions may be effective in the long-term. Low quality evidence indicates that sit-stand desks may reduce sitting in the workplace during the first year of their use; however, it is not clear if sit-stand desks may be effective at reducing sitting in the longer-term. An intervention to encourage office workers to stand and move reduced their sitting time by 22 minutes after 1 year; the effect was 3-times greater when the intervention included a sit-to-stand desk. The intervention also led to small improvements in stress, wellbeing and vigour. Benedict of Nursia OSB , often known as Saint Benedict, was an Italian Christian monk, writer, and theologian. He is venerated in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Anglican Communion, and Old Catholic Churches. In 1964 Pope Paul VI declared Benedict a patron saint of Europe. Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at Subiaco in present-day Lazio, Italy to the east of Rome), before moving further south-east to Monte Cassino in the mountains of central Italy. The present-day Order of Saint Benedict emerged later and, moreover, is not an "order" as the term is commonly understood, but a confederation of autonomous congregations. Benedict's main achievement, his Rule of Saint Benedict, contains a set of rules for his monks to follow. Heavily influenced by the writings of John Cassian , it shows strong affinity with the earlier Rule of the Master, but it also has a unique spirit of balance, moderation and reasonableness , which persuaded most Christian religious communities founded throughout the Middle Ages to adopt it. As a result, Benedict's Rule became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. For this reason, Giuseppe Carletti regarded Benedict as the founder of Western Christian monasticism. Apart from a short poem attributed to Mark of Monte Cassino, the only ancient account of Benedict is found in the second volume of Pope Gregory I's four-book Dialogues, thought to have been written in 593, although the authenticity of this work is disputed. </Text>

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<Text> :Saint Barbara , known in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the Great Martyr Barbara, was an early Christian Greek saint and martyr. Saint Barbara is often portrayed with miniature chains and a tower. As one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, Barbara is a popular saint, perhaps best known as the patron of armourers, artillerymen, military engineers, miners and others who work with explosives because of her legend's association with lightning, and also of mathematicians. A 15th-century French version of her story credits her with thirteen miracles, many of which reflect the security she offered that her devotees would not die before getting to make confession and receiving extreme unction. Despite the legends detailing her story, the earliest references to her supposed 3rd-century life do not appear until the 7th century, and veneration of her was common, especially in the East, from the 9th century. Because of doubts about the historicity of her legend, she was removed from the General Roman Calendar in the 1969 revision, though not from the Catholic Church's list of saints. According to the hagiographies, Barbara was born either in Heliopolis or in Nicomedia, the daughter of a rich pagan named Dioscorus who carefully guarded her, keeping her locked up in a tower to preserve her from the outside world. After she secretly became a Christian, she rejected an offer of marriage that she received through her father. The HTML markup produced by this template includes an hCard microformat, which makes the person's details parsable by computers, either acting automatically to catalogue articles across Wikipedia or via a browser tool operated by a reader, to add the subject to an address book or database. For more information about the use of microformats on Wikipedia, please see the microformat project. Date-of-birth information will only be included in the microformat if {{birth date}}, or {{birth date and age}} are used in the infobox. . Be cautious about using these if the person is still living, per WP:DOB. The terms design computing and other relevant terms including design and computation and computational design refer to the study and practice of design activities through the application and development of novel ideas and techniques in computing. One of the early groups to coin this term was the Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognition at the University of Sydney in Australia, which for nearly fifty years pioneered the research, teaching, and consulting of design and computational technologies. This group organised the academic conference series "Artificial Intelligence in Design " published by Springer during that period. AID was later renamed "Design Computing and Cognition " and is currently a leading biannual conference in the field. Other notable groups in this area are the Design and Computation group at Massachusetts Institute of Technology's School of Architecture + Planning and the Computational Design group at Georgia Tech. Whilst these terms share in general an interest in computational technologies and design activity, there are important differences in the various approaches, theories, and applications. For example, while in some circles the term "computational design" refers in general to the creation of new computational tools and methods in the context of computational thinking, design computing is concerned with bridging these two fields in order to build an increased understanding of design. The Bachelor of Design Computing was created in 2003 at the University of Sydney and continues to be a leading programme in interaction design and creative technologies, now hosted by the Design Lab. In that context, design computing is defined to be the use and development of computational models of design processes and digital media to assist and/or automate various aspects of the design process with the goal of producing higher quality and new design forms. The main research groups working in this area span from Faculties of Architecture, Engineering and Computer Science. Australia has been a pioneer in this area. For the last five decades the Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognition , currently known as the Design Lab, at the University of Sydney has been active in establishing this area of research and teaching. The University of Sydney offers a Bachelor of Design Computing and the University of New South Wales also in Sydney a Bachelor of Computational Design . In the US this research area is also known as "Design and Computation", namely at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Other relevant research groups include: A Chartered Building Surveyor is a specialist type of Chartered Surveyor involved in all aspects of property and construction, from supervising large mixed-use developments to planning domestic extensions and diagnosing building pathologies. Building surveying is one of the widest areas of surveying practice. It has a varied workload and can include everything from the conservation and restoration of historic buildings to contemporary new developments. A Chartered building surveyor in the United Kingdom can only progress through the RICS membership route. A chartered building surveyor has completed an Assessment of Professional Competence with the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. The RICS was founded in London in 1868 and has more than 120,000 members globally, although less than 10% of RICS members have the specialist designation. They work closely with professional organisations around the globe. A chartered status is regarded as an enhancement to a building surveyor's professional status. Building surveyors work in most real estate markets including residential, commercial, retail, industrial, leisure, education and health. Consequently, there is a variety of opportunities for chartered building surveyors to work in the commercial, private, and public sectors. Many Chartered building surveyors work for property consultancies, public sector organisations, real estate owning clients and contractors as well as in a number of specialist niche areas such as insurance, rights to light, party wall matters etc. As well as technical skills, building surveyors need to have strong people skills and high levels of integrity. Clients, whether a large corporation or an individual member of the public, need to have confidence in the impartial advice given by chartered building surveyors. Chartered building surveyors are differentiated from the rest of their market by their enhanced technical knowledge and professional standards. Corporate titles or business titles are given to corporate officers to show what duties and responsibilities they have in the organization. Such titles are used by publicly and privately held for-profit corporations, cooperatives, non-profit organizations, educational institutions, partnerships, and sole proprietorships that also confer corporate titles. Within the corporate office or corporate center of a corporation, some corporations have a chairman and chief executive officer as the top-ranking executive, while the number two is the president and chief operating officer ; other corporations have a president and CEO but no official deputy. Typically, senior managers are "higher" than vice presidents, although many times a senior officer may also hold a vice president title, such as executive vice president and chief financial officer . The board of directors is technically not part of management itself, although its chairman may be considered part of the corporate office if he or she is an executive chairman. A corporation often consists of different businesses, whose senior executives report directly to the CEO or COO, but that depends on the form of the business. If organized as a division then the top manager is often known as an executive vice president . If that business is a subsidiary which has considerably more independence, then the title might be chairman and CEO. In many countries, particularly in Europe and Asia, there is a separate executive board for day-to-day business and supervisory board for control purposes. In these countries, the CEO presides over the executive board and the chairman presides over the supervisory board, and these two roles will always be held by different people. This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board. This seemingly allows for clear lines of authority. There is a strong parallel here with the structure of government, which tends to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service. Death is the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism. For organisms with a brain, death can instead be focused on this organ. Brain death is sometimes used as a legal definition of death. The remains of a former organism normally begin to decompose shortly after death. Death inevitably occurs in all organisms eventually. Some organisms, such as Turritopsis dohrnii, are biologically immortal, however they can still die from means other than aging. Determining when someone has definitively died has proven difficult. Initially, death was defined as occurring when breathing and the heartbeat ceased, a status still known as clinical death. However, the development of cardiopulmonary resuscitation meant that such a state was no longer strictly irreversible. Brain death was then considered a better option, but several definitions exist for this. Some people believe that all brain functions must cease. Others believe that even if the brainstem is still alive, the personality and identity are irretrievably lost, so therefore, the person should be considered entirely dead. Death is generally applied to whole organisms; the equivalent for individual components of an organism, such as cells or tissues, is necrosis. Something that is not considered an organism, such as a virus, can be physically destroyed but is not said to die, as a virus is not considered alive in the first place. As of the early 21st century, 56 million people die per year. The most common reason is cardiovascular disease, which is a disease that affects the heart. Many cultures and religions have a concept of an afterlife that may hold the idea of judgment of good and bad deeds in one's life. There are also different customs for honoring the body, such as a funeral, cremation, or sky burial. After a death, an obituary may be posted in a newspaper, and the "survived by" kin and friends usually go through the grieving process. In many legal jurisdictions, the manner of death is a determination, typically made by the coroner, medical examiner, police, or similar officials, and recorded as a vital statistic. Within the United States and the United Kingdom, a distinction is made between the cause of death, which is a specific disease or injury, versus manner of death, which is primarily a legal determination versus the mechanism of death which does not explain why the person died or the underlying cause of death and can include cardiac arrest or exsanguination. Different categories are used in different jurisdictions, but manner of death determinations include everything from very broad categories like "natural" and "homicide" to specific manners like "traffic accident" or "gunshot wound". In some cases an autopsy is performed, either due to general legal requirements, because the medical cause of death is uncertain, upon the request of family members or guardians, or because the circumstances of death were suspicious. International Classification of Disease codes can be used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that makes it easy to compile statistics and more feasible to compare events across jurisdictions. A death by natural causes results from an illness and its complications or an internal malfunction of the body not directly caused by external forces, other than infectious disease. For example, a person dying from complications from pneumonia, diarrheal disease or HIV/AIDS , cancer, stroke or heart disease , or sudden organ failure would most likely be listed as having died from natural causes. "Death by natural causes" is sometimes used as a euphemism for "dying of old age", which is considered problematic as a cause of death ; there are also many non-age-related causes of "natural" death, for legal manner-of-death purposes. There is particular ambiguity around the classification of cardiac deaths triggered by a traumatic incident, such as in stress cardiomyopathy. Liability for a death classified as by natural causes may still be found if a proximate cause is established, as in the 1969 California case People v. Stamp. </Text>

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<Text> :In many legal jurisdictions, the manner of death is a determination, typically made by the coroner, medical examiner, police, or similar officials, and recorded as a vital statistic. Within the United States and the United Kingdom, a distinction is made between the cause of death, which is a specific disease or injury, versus manner of death, which is primarily a legal determination versus the mechanism of death which does not explain why the person died or the underlying cause of death and can include cardiac arrest or exsanguination. Different categories are used in different jurisdictions, but manner of death determinations include everything from very broad categories like "natural" and "homicide" to specific manners like "traffic accident" or "gunshot wound". In some cases an autopsy is performed, either due to general legal requirements, because the medical cause of death is uncertain, upon the request of family members or guardians, or because the circumstances of death were suspicious. International Classification of Disease codes can be used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that makes it easy to compile statistics and more feasible to compare events across jurisdictions. A death by natural causes results from an illness and its complications or an internal malfunction of the body not directly caused by external forces, other than infectious disease. For example, a person dying from complications from pneumonia, diarrheal disease or HIV/AIDS , cancer, stroke or heart disease , or sudden organ failure would most likely be listed as having died from natural causes. "Death by natural causes" is sometimes used as a euphemism for "dying of old age", which is considered problematic as a cause of death ; there are also many non-age-related causes of "natural" death, for legal manner-of-death purposes. There is particular ambiguity around the classification of cardiac deaths triggered by a traumatic incident, such as in stress cardiomyopathy. Liability for a death classified as by natural causes may still be found if a proximate cause is established, as in the 1969 California case People v. Stamp. The ferret is a small, domesticated species belonging to the family Mustelidae. The ferret is most likely a domesticated form of the wild European polecat , as evidenced by the ferrets ability to interbreed with European polecats and produce hybrid offspring. Physically, ferrets resemble other mustelids because of their long, slender bodies. Including their tail, the average length of a ferret is about 50 cm ; they weigh between 0.7 and 2.0 kg ; and their fur can be black, brown, white, or a mixture of those colours. The species is sexually dimorphic, with males being considerably larger than females. Ferrets may have been domesticated since ancient times, but there is widespread disagreement because of the sparseness of written accounts and the inconsistency of those which survive. Contemporary scholarship agrees that ferrets were bred for sport, hunting rabbits in a practice known as rabbiting. In North America, the ferret has become an increasingly prominent choice of household pet, with over five million in the United States alone. The legality of ferret ownership varies by location. In New Zealand and some other countries, restrictions apply due to the damage done to native fauna by feral colonies of polecat-ferret hybrids. The ferret has also served as a fruitful research animal, contributing to research in neuroscience and infectious disease, especially influenza. The name "ferret" is derived from the Latin furittus, meaning "little thief", a likely reference to the common ferret penchant for secreting away small items. In Old English , the animal was called mearth. The word fyret seems to appear in Middle English in the 14th century from the Latin, with the modern spelling of "ferret" by the 16th century. The Greek word iktis iktis, Latinized as ictis occurs in a play written by Aristophanes, The Acharnians, in 425 BC. Whether this was a reference to ferrets, polecats, or the similar Egyptian mongoose is uncertain. Cecilia Gallerani was the favourite and most celebrated of the many mistresses of Ludovico Sforza, known as Lodovico il Moro, Duke of Milan. She is best known as the subject of Leonardo da Vinci's painting The Lady with an Ermine . While posing for the painting, she invited Leonardo, who at the time was working as court artist for Sforza, to meetings at which Milanese intellectuals discussed philosophy and other subjects. Cecilia herself presided over these discussions. Cecilia was born in early 1473 into a large family from Siena. Her father's name was Fazio Gallerani. He was not a member of the nobility, but he occupied several important posts at the Milanese court, including the position of ambassador to Republic of Florence and Duchy of Lucca. Her mother was Margherita Busti, the daughter of a noted doctor of law. She was educated alongside her six brothers in Latin and literature. In 1483 at the age of ten, Cecilia was betrothed to Stefano Visconti, but the betrothal was broken off in 1487 for unknown reasons. In May 1489, she left home for the Monastero Nuovo, and it was possibly there where she met Ludovico. Gallerani was a lifelong scholar with a musical gift and love of poetry, which she composed in Latin and Italian. She became a mistress of the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza "il Moro" when she was 16 or 18 and enjoyed entertaining the intellectual elite out of her apartments in his Milanese castle and seat of the ducal court at the Porta Giovia. It is supposed that she was Sforza's preferred partner but too low in social rank to be politically acceptable match; after their son Cesare was born May 3, 1491, Sforza continued to provide for the family with palatial homes, an arranged marriage for Gallerani with an Italian count, and senior church appointments for Cesare in Milan. The stoat , also known as the Eurasian ermine, Beringian ermine and ermine, is a mustelid native to Eurasia and the northern regions of North America. Because of its wide circumpolar distribution, it is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. It was introduced into New Zealand in the late 19th century to control rabbits, but had a devastating effect on native bird populations and was nominated as one of the world's top 100 "worst invaders". The name ermine is used for species in the genus Mustela, especially the stoat, in its pure white winter coat, or the fur thereof. Ermine fur was used in the 15th century by Catholic monarchs, who sometimes used it as the mozzetta cape. It has long been used on the ceremonial robes of members of the United Kingdom House of Lords. It was also used in capes on images such as the Infant Jesus of Prague. The root word for "stoat" is likely either the Dutch word stout or the Gothic word . According to John Guillim, in his Display of Heraldrie, the word "ermine" is likely derived from Armenia, the nation where it was thought the species originated, though other authors have linked it to the Norman French from the Teutonic harmin . This seems to come from the Lithuanian word sarmu. In Ireland , the stoat is referred to as a weasel, while in North America it is called a short-tailed weasel. A male stoat is called a dog, hob, or jack, while a female is called a jill. The collective noun for stoats is either gang or pack. Formerly considered a single species with a very wide circumpolar range, a 2021 study split M. erminea into three species: M. erminea sensu stricto , M. richardsonii , and M. haidarum . The Museum of Fine Arts is an art museum in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. It is the 20th-largest art museum in the world, measured by public gallery area. It contains 8,161 paintings and more than 450,000 works of art, making it one of the most comprehensive collections in the Americas. With more than 1.2 million visitors a year, it is the 79th-most visited art museum in the world as of 2022. The Museum of Fine Arts was founded in 1870 and was initially located on the top floor of the Boston Athenaeum. Most of its initial collection came from the Athenaeum's Art Gallery. In 1876, the museum moved to a highly ornamented brick Gothic Revival building designed by John Hubbard Sturgis and Charles Brigham, noted for its massed architectural terracotta. It was located in Copley Square at Dartmouth and St. James Streets. It was built almost entirely of brick and terracotta, which was imported from England, with some stone about its base. After the MFA moved out in 1909, this original building was demolished, and the Copley Plaza Hotel replaced it in 1912. During the early years of the museum, Charles Greely Loring, a former Union Army general, served as its first director, leading from 1876 to early 1902, when he resigned for health reasons.: 7 In 1907, plans were laid to build a new home for the museum on Huntington Avenue in Boston's Fenway-Kenmore neighborhood, near the recently opened Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. Museum trustees hired architect Guy Lowell to create a design for a museum that could be built in stages, as funding was obtained for each phase. Two years later, the first section of Lowell's neoclassical design was completed. It featured a 500-foot facade of granite and a grand rotunda. The museum moved to its new location in 1909. The second phase of construction built a wing along The Fens to house painting galleries. It was funded entirely by Maria Antoinette Evans Hunt, the wife of wealthy business magnate Robert Dawson Evans, and opened in 1915. From 1916 through 1925, the noted artist John Singer Sargent painted the frescoes that adorn the rotunda and the associated colonnades. The Kunsthistorisches Museum is an art museum in Vienna, Austria. Housed in its festive palatial building on the Vienna Ring Road, it is crowned with an octagonal dome. The term Kunsthistorisches Museum applies to both the institution and the main building. It is the largest art museum in the country and one of the most important museums worldwide. Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary opened the facility around 1891 at the same time as the Natural History Museum, Vienna which has a similar design and is directly across Maria-Theresien-Platz. The two buildings were constructed between 1871 and 1891 according to plans by Gottfried Semper and Baron Karl von Hasenauer. The emperor commissioned the two Ringstrasse museums to create a suitable home for the Habsburgs' formidable art collection and to make it accessible to the general public. The buildings are rectangular, with symmetrical Renaissance Revival facades of sandstone lined with large arched windows on the main levels and topped with an octagonal dome 60 metres high. The interiors of the museums are lavishly decorated with marble, stucco ornamentation, gold-leaf, and murals. The grand stairway features paintings by Gustav Klimt, Ernst Klimt, Franz Matsch, Hans Makart and Mihaly Munkacsy. The museum's primary collections are those of the Habsburgs, particularly from the portrait and armour collections of Ferdinand of Tirol, the collections of Emperor Rudolph II , and the collection of paintings of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm, of which his Italian paintings were first documented in the Theatrum Pictorium. In 2010, an Austrian government panel recommended that the Kunsthistorisches Museum should restitute two altar panels by the 16th-century Dutch artist, Maerten van Heemskerck to the heirs of Richard Neumann, a Jewish art collector in Vienna plundered by the Nazis. The Duchy of Milan was a state in Northern Italy, created in 1395 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, then the lord of Milan, and a member of the important Visconti family, which had been ruling the city since 1277. At that time, it included twenty-six towns and the wide rural area of the middle Padan Plain east of the hills of Montferrat. During much of its existence, it was wedged between Savoy to the west, Venice to the east, the Swiss Confederacy to the north, and separated from the Mediterranean by Genoa to the south. The duchy was at its largest at the beginning of the 15th century, at which time it included almost all of what is now Lombardy and parts of what are now Piedmont, Veneto, Tuscany, and Emilia-Romagna. From the late 15th century, the Duchy of Milan was contested between the forces of the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of France. It was ruled by Habsburg Spain from 1556 and it passed to Habsburg Austria in 1707 during the War of the Spanish Succession as a vacant Imperial fief. The duchy remained an Austrian possession until 1796 when a French army under Napoleon Bonaparte conquered it, and it ceased to exist a year later as a result of the Treaty of Campo Formio, when Austria ceded it to the new Cisalpine Republic. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored many other states which he had destroyed, but not the Duchy of Milan. Instead, its former territory became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, with the Emperor of Austria as its king. In 1859, Lombardy was ceded to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, which became the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. </Text>

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<Text> :The Museum of the Order of St John in Clerkenwell, London, tells the story of the Venerable Order of Saint John from its roots as a pan-European Order of Hospitaller Knights founded in Jerusalem during the Crusades, to its present commitment to providing first aid and care in the community through the St John Ambulance Brigade and running an Ophthalmic Hospital in Jerusalem. The museum is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine. The Museum is based in St John's Gate, Clerkenwell, a 16th-century gatehouse in London, England that once formed the entrance to the Priory of Clerkenwell. This dates back to the 11th century and was once the English headquarters of the Order of St John. From here Hospitaller Knights went out to the Holy Land and later to Cyprus, Rhodes and Malta. They served in hospitals treating pilgrims, and fought to defend Christian interests in the Holy Land and the Mediterranean. They then return to the Gate House, which after the Dissolution of the monasteries was put to many uses, with Shakespeare, Dr Johnson, Hogarth and Dickens all taking part in its story. The Gate was eventually bought back by the Order in the late nineteenth century, and is now beautifully decorated with heraldry, stained glass, gilding and carving to create glowing interiors, designed by John Oldrid Scott. Here visitors can see the fine furniture and painting collections. The Museum in the Gate House tells the story of the history of the Order of St John and St John Ambulance. The Museum completed a renovation in November 2010. It was supported by funders such as the Heritage Lottery Fund and was designed by leading architects Donald Insall Associates, who had previously written the building's Conservation Plan. Exhibition design company Metaphor undertook the internal exhibit design. This redevelopment has given the Order's internationally significant collection the context it needs, including updating interpretative techniques, bringing more of the collections out of storage, and improving conservation conditions. The Thyssen-Bornemisza National Museum , or simply the Thyssen, is an art museum in Madrid, Spain, located near the Prado Museum on one of the city's main boulevards. It is known as part of the "Golden Triangle of Art", which also includes the Prado and the Reina Sofia national galleries. The Thyssen-Bornemisza fills the historical gaps in its counterparts' collections: in the Prado's case this includes Italian primitives and works from the English, Dutch and German schools, while in the case of the Reina Sofia it concerns Impressionists, Expressionists, and European and American paintings from the 20th century. With over 1,600 paintings, it was once the second largest private collection in the world after the British Royal Collection. A competition was held to house the core of the collection in 1987-88 after Baron Thyssen, having unsuccessfully sought permission to enlarge his museum in Lugano , searched for a better-suited location elsewhere in Europe. The collection was started in the 1920s as a private collection by Heinrich, Baron Thyssen-Bornemisza de Kaszon. In a reversal of the movement of European paintings to the US during this period, one of the elder Baron's sources was the collections of American millionaires coping with the Great Depression and inheritance taxes. In this way he acquired old master paintings such as Ghirlandaio's portrait of Giovanna Tornabuoni and Carpaccio's Knight . The collection was later expanded by Heinrich's son Baron Hans Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza , who assembled most of the works from his relatives' collections and proceeded to acquire large numbers of new works . The collection was initially housed in the family estate in Lugano in a twenty-room building modelled after the Neue Pinakothek in Munich. In 1988, the Baron filed a request for building a further extension designed by British architects James Stirling and Michael Wilford, but the plan was rejected by the Lugano City Council. The Web Gallery of Art is a virtual art gallery website. It displays historic European visual art, mainly from the Baroque, Gothic and Renaissance periods, available for educational and personal use. The website contains reproductions of over 48,600 works and includes accompanying text on the artworks and artists, accessible through a searchable database. The site is a leading example of an independently established collection of high-quality historically important pictures. The viewer can select the size of the image; associated music is also included to accompany viewing, and posters of displayed artworks are available. The facility was created by Emil Kren and Daniel Marx. Most of the images in the gallery are of works that are out of copyright, as they were all produced before 1900 and all named artists in the collection were born well before 1900. However, copyright for the reproductions displayed on the website may apply within some legal systems. The WGA itself gives the following copyright statement: The Bowes Museum is an art gallery in the town of Barnard Castle, in County Durham in northern England. It was built to designs by Jules Pellechet and John Edward Watson to house the art collection of John Bowes and his wife Josephine Benoite Coffin-Chevallier, and opened in 1892. It contains paintings by El Greco, Francisco Goya, Canaletto, Jean-Honore Fragonard and Francois Boucher, together with items of decorative art, ceramics, textiles, tapestries, clocks and costumes, and objects of local historical interest. Some early works of Emile Galle were commissioned by Coffin-Chevallier. There is an eighteenth-century Silver Swan automaton, which periodically preens itself, looks round and appears to catch and swallow a fish. The Bowes Museum was purpose-built as a public art gallery for John Bowes and his wife Josephine Benoite Coffin-Chevallier, Countess of Montalbo, who both died before it opened in 1892. Bowes was the son of John Bowes, the 10th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, although he did not inherit the title as he was deemed illegitimate under Scottish law. His grandmother was Mary Bowes, Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne. It was designed with the collaboration of two architects, the French architect Jules Pellechet and John Edward Watson of Newcastle. The building is richly modelled, with large windows, engaged columns, projecting bays, and mansard roofs typical of the French Second Empire, set within landscaped gardens. An account in 1901 described it as "... some 500 feet in length by 50 feet high, and is designed in the French style of the First Empire. Its contents are priceless, consisting of unique Napoleon relics, splendid picture galleries, a collection of old china, not to be matched anywhere else in the world, jewels of incredible beauty and value; and, indeed, a wonderful and rare collection of art objects of every kind." The Indianapolis Museum of Art is an encyclopedic art museum located at Newfields, a 152-acre campus that also houses Lilly House, The Virginia B. Fairbanks Art & Nature Park: 100 Acres, the Gardens at Newfields, the Beer Garden, and more. It is located at the corner of North Michigan Road and West 38th Street, about three miles north of downtown Indianapolis, northwest of Crown Hill Cemetery. There are exhibitions, classes, tours, and events, many of which change seasonally. The entire campus and organization was previously referred to as the Indianapolis Museum of Art, but in 2017 the campus and organization were renamed "Newfields" as part of a branding campaign. The "Indianapolis Museum of Art" now specifically refers to the main art museum building that acts as the cornerstone of the campus, as well as the legal name of the organization doing business as Newfields. The Indianapolis Museum of Art is the ninth oldest and eighth largest encyclopedic art museum in the United States. The permanent collection comprises over 54,000 works, including African, American, Asian, and European pieces. Significant areas of the collection include: Neo-Impressionist paintings; Japanese paintings of the Edo period; Chinese ceramics and bronzes; paintings, sculptures, and prints by Paul Gauguin and the Pont-Aven School; a large number of works by J. M. W. Turner; and a growing contemporary art and design collection. Other areas of emphasis include textiles and fashion arts as well as a focus on modern design. Founded in 1883 as the Art Association of Indianapolis, the first permanent museum was opened in 1906 as part of the John Herron Art Institute. In 1969, the Art Association of Indianapolis changed its name to the Indianapolis Museum of Art, and in 1970 the museum moved to its current location. Among the Art Association's founders was May Wright Sewall , known for her work in the women's suffrage movement. Other supporters have included Booth Tarkington , Eli Lilly , Herman C. Krannert , and Caroline Marmon Fesler . The associated John Herron Art Institute was established with the help of notable Hoosier Group artists T. C. Steele and William Forsyth. The museum is widely recognized as innovative in its development of open source technologies, institutional transparency, and collaboration between museums. In 2008, the IMA became the first fine art museum to be named an Energy Star partner due to its greening initiative and efforts to reduce energy consumption. In 2009, the IMA was awarded the National Medal for Museum and Library Service for public service, specifically the museum's free admission policy and educational programming. The free admission policy began in 1941 and remained in place until 2007, when an admission fee for non-members was instated. Free admission returned a year later and remained until 2014, when a fee was reinstated for non-members. The Detroit Institute of Arts is a museum institution located in Midtown Detroit, Michigan. It has one of the largest and most significant art collections in the United States. With over 100 galleries, it covers 658,000 square feet with a major renovation and expansion project completed in 2007 that added 58,000 square feet . The DIA collection is regarded as among the top six museums in the United States with an encyclopedic collection which spans the globe from ancient Egyptian and European works to contemporary art. Its art collection is valued in billions of dollars, up to $8.1 billion USD according to a 2014 appraisal. The DIA campus is located in Detroit's Cultural Center Historic District, about 2 miles north of the downtown area, across from the Detroit Public Library near Wayne State University. The museum building is highly regarded by architects. The original building, designed by Paul Philippe Cret, is flanked by north and south wings with the white marble as the main exterior material for the entire structure. The campus is part of the city's Cultural Center Historic District listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The museum's first painting was donated in 1883 and its collection consists of over 65,000 works. With about 677,500 visitors annually for 2015, the DIA is among the most visited art museums in the world. The Detroit Institute of Arts hosts major art exhibitions; it contains a 1,150-seat theatre designed by architect C. Howard Crane, a 380-seat hall for recitals and lectures, an art reference library, and a conservation services laboratory. The museum contains 100 galleries of art from around the world. Diego Rivera's Detroit Industry cycle of frescoes span the upper and lower levels to surround the central grand marble court of the museum. The armor collection of William Randolph Hearst lines the main hall entry way to the grand court. The collection of American art at the DIA is one of the most impressive, and officials at the DIA have ranked the American paintings collection third among museums in the United States. Works by American artists began to be collected immediately following the museum's founding in 1883. Today the collection is a strong survey of American history, with acknowledged masterpieces of painting, sculpture, furniture and decorative arts from the 18th century, 19th century, and 20th century, with contemporary American art in all media also being collected. The breadth of the collection includes American artists including John James Audubon, George Bellows, George Caleb Bingham, Alexander Calder, Mary Cassatt, Dale Chihuly, Frederic Edwin Church, Thomas Cole, John Singleton Copley, Robert Colescott, Leon Dabo, Thomas Wilmer Dewing, Thomas Eakins, Childe Hassam, Robert Henri, Winslow Homer, George Inness, Martin Lewis, Georgia O'Keeffe, Charles Willson Peale, Rembrandt Peale, Tom Phardel, Duncan Phyfe, Hiram Powers, Sharon Que, Frederic Remington, Paul Revere, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, John Singer Sargent, John French Sloan, Tony Smith, Marylyn Dintenfass, Merton Simpson, Gilbert Stuart, Yves Tanguy, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Louis Comfort Tiffany, Andy Warhol, William T. Williams, Anne Wilson, Andrew Wyeth, and James McNeill Whistler. The early 20th century was a period of prolific collecting for the museum, which acquired such works as a dragon tile relief from the Ishtar Gate of Babylon, an Egyptian relief of Mourning Women and a statuette of a Seated Scribe, Pieter Bruegel the Elder's The Wedding Dance, Saint Jerome in His Study by Jan van Eyck and Giovanni Bellini's Madonna and Child. Early purchases included French paintings by Claude Monet, Odilon Redon, Eugene Boudin, and Edgar Degas, as well as Old Masters including Gerard ter Borch, Peter Paul Rubens, Albrecht Durer and Rembrandt van Rijn. The museum includes works by Vincent van Gogh including a self-portrait. The self-portrait of Vincent van Gogh and The Window by Henri Matisse were purchased in 1922 and were the first paintings by these two artists to enter an American public collection. Later important acquisitions include Hans Holbein the Younger's Portrait of a Woman, James Abbott McNeill Whistler's Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket, and works by Paul Cezanne, Eugene Delacroix, Auguste Rodin, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux and Francois Rude. German Expressionism was embraced and collected early on by the DIA, with works by Heinrich Campendonk, Franz Marc, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, Max Beckmann, Karl Hofer, Emil Nolde, Lovis Corinth, Ernst Barlach, Georg Kolbe, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Paula Modersohn-Becker, and Max Pechstein in the collection. Non-German artists in the Expressionist movement include Oskar Kokoschka, Wassily Kandinsky, Chaim Soutine and Edvard Munch. The Nut Gatherers by William-Adolphe Bouguereau is, by some accounts, the most popular painting in the collection. Georges d'Amboise was a French Roman Catholic cardinal and minister of state. He belonged to the house of Amboise, a noble family possessed of considerable influence: of his nine brothers, four were bishops. His father, Pierre d'Amboise, seigneur de Chaumont, was chamberlain to Charles VII and Louis XI and ambassador at Rome. Georges' eldest brother, Charles, was governor of the Ile-de-France, Champagne and Burgundy, and councillor of Louis XI. He was only fourteen when his father procured for him the bishopric of Montauban, and Louis XI appointed him one of his almoners. On arriving at manhood d'Amboise attached himself to the party of Louis, duc d'Orleans, in whose cause he suffered imprisonment at Corbeil, and on whose return to the royal favor he was elevated to the archbishopric of Narbonne, in which the pope refused to confirm him; after some time he changed his see for that of Rouen . On the appointment of Orleans as governor of Normandy, d'Amboise became his lieutenant-general. In 1498 the duc d'Orleans mounted the throne as Louis XII, and d'Amboise was suddenly raised to the high position of cardinal and prime minister. In December 1498, he obtained, for reasons of state, the annulment of the marriage of the king to Jeanne de Valois; the king married Anne de Bretagne, widow of the king, in January 1499. His foreign policy was animated by the aim of increasing French power in Italy by the conquest of the Milanese territories, in which he can be seen as the continuator of the policies of Etienne de Vesc. On 9 February 1499, he signed a treaty with Venice to which Pope Alexander VI adhered. He accompanied Louis and entered with him into Milan 6 October 1499; he was charged with organizing that province under French control, then returned to France in November. After the revolt of March 1500 in favor of Ludovico Sforza, the cardinal was appointed lieutenant general; he retook the duchy of Milan and sent Sforza to France as a prisoner. He made a triumphal entrance into Lyon on 23 June and received from Louis XII the countship of Lomello. The Cardinal returned to Italy at the beginning of 1501 for the attempted conquest of Naples; he went to Trent as ambassador in October 1501. He was born in Carona and apprenticed under his father Guiniforte Solari, who was the leading architect of the Duomo di Milano. In his father's workshop, he learned to draw plans and sculpture statues. In 1476, he was hired to contribute to the construction of the Duomo di Milano. At 26, he was appointed a deputy of his father by the Duke of the Duchy of Milan. When his father died, he was appointed his successor for the buildings of the Duke but not at the Catherdral of Milan. Later he also sculpted a tomb of the bishop Marco de Capitani in the Cathedral of Alessandria. In 1487, he was invited to Russia by Ivan III to construct the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin. Within the next two years, Solari built most of the walls and towers of the Kremlin, including the Borovitskaya, Konstantino-Eleninskaya, Spasskaya, Nikolskaya, and Corner Arsenalnaya towers. Engineering methods, technique and architectural forms, used by Solari, were reminiscent of the fortifications of Northern Italy. IOANNES VASILII DEI GRATIA MAGNUS DUX VOLODIMERIAE, MOSCOVIAE, NOVOGARDIAE, TFERIAE, PLESCOVIAE, VETICIAE, ONGARIAE, PERMIAE, BUOLGARIAE ET ALIAS TOTIUSQ RAXIE DNUS, ANO 30 IMPERII SUI HAS TURRES CODERE F ET STATUIT PETRUS ANTONIUS SOLARIUS MEDIOLANENSIS ANO N A DINI 1491 K M I P.</Text>

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<Text> :Christ Carrying the Cross on his way to his crucifixion is an episode included in the Gospel of John, and a very common subject in art, especially in the fourteen Stations of the Cross, sets of which are now found in almost all Roman Catholic churches, as well as in many Lutheran churches and Anglican churches. However, the subject occurs in many other contexts, including single works and cycles of the Life of Christ or the Passion of Christ. Alternative names include the Procession to Calvary, Road to Calvary and Way to Calvary, Calvary or Golgotha being the site of the crucifixion outside Jerusalem. The actual route taken is defined by tradition as the Via Dolorosa in Jerusalem, although the specific path of this route has varied over the centuries and continues to be the subject of debate. The carrying of the cross is mentioned, without much detail, in all the canonical Gospels: Matthew 27:31-33, Mark 15:20-22, Luke 23:26-32 and John 19:16-18. Only John specifically says Jesus carried his cross, and all but John include Simon of Cyrene, who was recruited by the soldiers from the crowd to carry or help carry the cross. Modern scholars, following descriptions of criminals carrying crossbars by Plautus and Plutarch, often take the Gospel description as meaning Jesus, then Simon, carried only a heavy patibulum, the crossbar, to a pole, stipes, which was permanently driven into the ground at Golgotha. However, in Christian imagery Jesus, and Simon, carry the complete cross--both patibulum and stipes. Only Luke mentions the "women of Jerusalem", who were in later patristic writings and Christian art taken to include the Three Marys and the Virgin Mary. This meeting was usually located at the city gates, as in the painting illustrated, which is also typical in following Luke and showing Jesus turning his head to speak to them. The other episodes were later elaborations, with the Veil of Veronica appearing from the 13th century, and the falls of Christ, eventually three, first found in the Late Middle Ages. Luke mentions that the two thieves were also in the group walking out to Golgotha, but does not say that they had to carry their crosses, and though they may be identifiable among the walking figures, their crosses are very rarely anywhere to be seen in depictions of the group. Some works, like Raphael's Il Spasimo, Bruegel's Vienna Procession , and the London Jacopo Bassano, have the thieves' two crosses already set up at the place of execution in the distant background. Also of relevance is Matthew 16:24, with which St Francis of Assisi began his first Rule of 1221: "Then Jesus said to his disciples, "Whoever wants to be my disciple must deny themselves and take up their cross and follow me". St Francis also used to be led with a cord around his neck as a penitential exercise, the cord being a detail added to many depictions of the episode from two Old Testament passages. These are Isaiah 53:7: "He was oppressed and afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before its shearers is silent, so he did not open his mouth" and Jeremiah 11:19 "I had been like a gentle lamb led to the slaughter...", both of which were very frequently cited by medieval commentaries. In medieval typology, Isaac carrying wood up the mountain for his sacrifice is the most common parallel for the episode, and often shown as a complementary scene; this scene is "Isaac Bearing the Faggots" in traditional art history terminology. Crucifixion is a method of capital punishment in which the condemned is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross, beam or stake and left to hang until eventual death. It was used as a punishment by the Persians, Carthaginians, and Romans, among others. Crucifixion has been used in some countries as recently as the early 20th century. Ancient Greek has two verbs for crucify: anastauroo , from stauros and apotumpanizo "crucify on a plank", together with anaskolopizo . In earlier pre-Roman Greek texts anastauro usually means "impale". The Greek used in the Christian New Testament uses four verbs, three of them based upon stauros , usually translated "cross". The most common term is stauroo , "to crucify", occurring 46 times; sustauroo , "to crucify with" or "alongside" occurs five times, while anastauroo , "to crucify again" occurs only once at the Epistle to the Hebrews 6:6. Prospegnumi , "to fix or fasten to, impale, crucify" occurs only once, at the Acts of the Apostles 2:23. The English term cross derives from the Latin word crux, which classically referred to a tree or any construction of wood used to hang criminals as a form of execution. The term later came to refer specifically to a cross. The related term crucifix derives from the Latin crucifixus or cruci fixus, past participle passive of crucifigere or cruci figere, meaning "to crucify" or "to fasten to a cross". The somewhat battered and denuded Chateau de Gaillon, begun in 1502 on ancient foundations was the summer archiepiscopal residence of Georges d'Amboise, Cardinal Archbishop of Rouen; he made of the old chateau-fort a palatial Early Renaissance structure of unparalleled luxury and magnificence, the most ambitious and significant French building project of its time. Isabella d'Este Gonzaga was kept abreast of its development from the Mantuan ambassador in France. When in 1498 his patron, the duc d'Orleans, acceded to the throne as Louis XII, d'Amboise, who had spent much time in northern Italy on diplomatic missions and had been viceroy in Milan in 1500, where he had met Leonardo da Vinci and other artists and humanists, was suddenly raised to the high position of cardinal and prime minister. He had access to the architect-engineer Fra Giocondo, who had been invited to France by the king, and to the Italian garden designer Pacello da Mercogliano. By 1508 Gaillon's splendid new ranges and gardens, one of the first Renaissance structures in France, were fit to receive Louis XII and his queen, Anne de Bretagne. The Gothic range that formed an irregular outer court is entered through a massive gatehouse, remodeled in 1509, with octagonal corner towers and steep-pitched slate roofs. The decorative elements of its shallow-relief carvings in panels and pilasters are drawn from the Classical repertory. Behind the first, irregular court Cardinal d'Amboise constructed a range, the Galerie des Cerfs with the central triumphal gateway, the Porte de Genes , which set apart a trapezoidal cour d'honneur surrounded by two-storey ranges, two facing one another with arcaded lower storeys. High pitched slate roofs were rhythmically pierced with dormers. A helical staircase tower stood in one corner. The north range was the new Grand'Maison, begun in 1502, which contained the suite of apartments of Cardinal d'Amboise. Between the chapel and the Tour de la Sirene at the northeast corner of the chateau, runs the vaulted gallery open to the view over the valley of the Seine. It is the first French loggia with an outward-looking aspect. Some of Solari's work can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the Daniel Katz Gallery in London, the Victoria & Albert Museum in London and multiple other locations across the world. In legal discourse, an author is the creator of an original work, whether that work is in written, graphic, or recorded medium. The creation of such a work is an act of authorship. Thus, a sculptor, painter, or composer, is an author of their respective sculptures, paintings, or compositions, even though in common parlance, an author is often thought of as the writer of a book, article, play, or other written work. In the case of a work for hire, the employer or commissioning party is considered the author of the work, even if they did not write or otherwise create the work, but merely instructed another individual to do so. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work, i.e. the author. If more than one person created the work, then a case of joint authorship takes place. Copyright laws differ around the world. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as "a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States to authors of 'original works of authorship.'" Some works are considered to be authorless. For example, the monkey selfie copyright dispute in the 2010s involved photographs taken by Celebes crested macaques using equipment belonging to a nature photographer. The photographer asserted authorship of the photographs, which the United States Copyright Office denied, stating: "To qualify as a work of 'authorship' a work must be created by a human being". More recently, questions have arisen as to whether images or text created by a generative artificial intelligence have an author. Holding the title of "author" over any "literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, certain other intellectual works" gives rights to this person, the owner of the copyright, especially the exclusive right to engage in or authorize any production or distribution of their work. Any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material. In legal discourse, an author is the creator of an original work, whether that work is in written, graphic, or recorded medium. The creation of such a work is an act of authorship. Thus, a sculptor, painter, or composer, is an author of their respective sculptures, paintings, or compositions, even though in common parlance, an author is often thought of as the writer of a book, article, play, or other written work. In the case of a work for hire, the employer or commissioning party is considered the author of the work, even if they did not write or otherwise create the work, but merely instructed another individual to do so. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work, i.e. the author. If more than one person created the work, then a case of joint authorship takes place. Copyright laws differ around the world. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as "a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States to authors of 'original works of authorship.'" Some works are considered to be authorless. For example, the monkey selfie copyright dispute in the 2010s involved photographs taken by Celebes crested macaques using equipment belonging to a nature photographer. The photographer asserted authorship of the photographs, which the United States Copyright Office denied, stating: "To qualify as a work of 'authorship' a work must be created by a human being". More recently, questions have arisen as to whether images or text created by a generative artificial intelligence have an author. Holding the title of "author" over any "literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, certain other intellectual works" gives rights to this person, the owner of the copyright, especially the exclusive right to engage in or authorize any production or distribution of their work. Any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material. An artist is a person engaged in an activity related to creating art, practicing the arts, or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse refers to a practitioner in the visual arts only. However, the term is also often used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers . "Artiste" is a variant used in English in this context, but this use has become rare. The use of the term "artist" to describe writers is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts such as critics' reviews. The Greek word "techne", often translated as "art", implies mastery of any sort of craft. The adjectival Latin form of the word, "technicus", became the source of the English words technique, technology, and technical. No muse was identified with the visual arts of painting and sculpture. In ancient Greece sculptors and painters were held in low regard, somewhere between freemen and slaves, their work regarded as mere manual labour. During the Middle Ages the word artist already existed in some countries such as Italy, but the meaning was something resembling craftsman, while the word artisan was still unknown. An artist was someone able to do a work better than others, so the skilled excellency was underlined, rather than the activity field. In this period, some "artisanal" products were much more precious and expensive than paintings or sculptures. New stub templates and categories should not be created without prior proposal at Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting/Proposals. This allows for the proper coordination of all stub types across Wikipedia, and for the checking of any new stub type for possible problems prior to its creation. </Text>

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New Haven <p> shares border with <o> North Haven <s> New Haven <p> shares border with <o> East Haven <s> New Haven <p> topic's main category <o> Category:New Haven, Connecticut <s> New Haven <p> described by source <o> The Nuttall Encyclopædia <s> New Haven <p> described by source <o> New Encyclopedic Dictionary <s> New Haven <p> described by source <o> The New Student's Reference Work <s> New Haven <p> described by source <o> Collier's New Encyclopedia, 1921 <s> New Haven <p> described by source <o> The American Cyclopædia <s> New Haven <p> located in time zone <o> Eastern Time Zone <s> New Haven <p> described by source <o> Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition <s> New Haven <p> category for people born here <o> Category:Births in New Haven, Connecticut <s> New Haven <p> category of associated people <o> Category:People from New Haven, Connecticut <s> New Haven <p> category for people who died here <o> Category:Deaths in New Haven, Connecticut </Graph>

<Text> :If there is a dispute between editors over what is or is not a notable work, it should be brought up on the article's talk page. If no consensus can be developed for a particular person, the notable_works parameter should be marked with: Use {{URL}} as in {{URL|ExampleCompany.com}}. Do not include the "http://" or "www." parts unless the server requires it. Use camel case capitalization to make multiword domain names easier to read. If there is a dispute between editors over whether this parameter should be used in the article, it should be brought up on the article's talk page. If no consensus can be developed for a particular person, the portaldisp parameter should be marked with: This infobox may be used to create a genre-specific section within {{Infobox person}} for cases where a person may be notable in more than one field; a generic example is shown below. For guidance on usage, see Wikipedia:Infobox modules. Also see the Template:Infobox documentation which explains embedding and subboxes. Writing is the act of creating a persistent representation of human language. A writing system uses a set of symbols and rules to encode aspects of spoken language, such as its lexicon and syntax. However, written language may take on characteristics distinct from those of any spoken language. Writing is a cognitive and social activity involving neuropsychological and physical processes. The outcome of this activity, also called "writing", and sometimes a "text", is a series of physically inscribed, mechanically transferred, or digitally represented symbols. The interpreter or activator of a text is called a "reader". In general, writing systems do not constitute languages in and of themselves, but rather a means of encoding language such that it can be read by others across time and space. While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend the capacities of spoken language by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space and stored over time . Writing can also have knowledge-transforming effects, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise. Any instance of writing involves a complex interaction among available tools, intentions, cultural customs, cognitive routines, genres, tacit and explicit knowledge, and the constraints and limitations of the writing system deployed. Inscriptions have been made with fingers, styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many styles of lithography; surfaces used for these inscriptions include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo slats, papyrus, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, slate, porcelain, and other enameled surfaces. The Incas used knotted cords known as quipu for keeping records. Countless writing tools and surfaces have been improvised throughout history . Book signing is the affixing of a signature to the title page or flyleaf of a book by its author. Book signings are events, usually at a bookstore or library, where an author sits and signs books for a period. Book signing is popular because an author's signature increases the value of books for collectors. The author may add a short message to the reader, called a dedication, to each book, which may be personalized with the recipient's name upon request. A simple author's signature without a dedication is typically more valuable to collectors . Sometimes an author will sign additional copies for future sale. An additional advantage to authors for doing this is that once a book has been signed, it cannot be returned to the publisher for a refund. Many authors today spend a great deal of time signing their books, and sign many thousands of copies. For example, John Green signed all 150,000 copies of the first printing of his 2012 novel The Fault in Our Stars. An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and reflection about the reality of society, and who proposes solutions for its normative problems. Coming from the world of culture, either as a creator or as a mediator, the intellectual participates in politics, either to defend a concrete proposition or to denounce an injustice, usually by either rejecting, producing or extending an ideology, and by defending a system of values. The term "man of letters" derives from the French term belletrist or homme de lettres but is not synonymous with "an academic". A "man of letters" was a literate man, able to read and write, and thus highly valued in the upper strata of society in a time when literacy was rare. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term Belletrist came to be applied to the literati: the French participants in--sometimes referred to as "citizens" of--the Republic of Letters, which evolved into the salon, a social institution, usually run by a hostess, meant for the edification, education, and cultural refinement of the participants. In the late 19th century, when literacy was relatively common in European countries such as the United Kingdom, the "Man of Letters" denotation broadened to mean "specialized", a man who earned his living writing intellectually about literature: the essayist, the journalist, the critic, et al. Examples include Samuel Johnson, Walter Scott and Thomas Carlyle. In the 20th century, such an approach was gradually superseded by the academic method, and the term "Man of Letters" became disused, replaced by the generic term "intellectual", describing the intellectual person. The archaic term is the basis of the names of several academic institutions which call themselves Colleges of Letters and Science. The earliest record of the English noun "intellectual" is found in the 19th century, where in 1813, Byron reports that 'I wish I may be well enough to listen to these intellectuals'.: 18 Over the course of the 19th century, other variants of the already established adjective 'intellectual' as a noun appeared in English and in French, where in the 1890s the noun formed from the adjective intellectuel appeared with higher frequency in the literature.: 20 Collini writes about this time that "mong this cluster of linguistic experiments there occurred ... the occasional usage of 'intellectuals' as a plural noun to refer, usually with a figurative or ironic intent, to a collection of people who might be identified in terms of their intellectual inclinations or pretensions.": 20 The work of scribes can involve copying manuscripts and other texts as well as secretarial and administrative duties such as the taking of dictation and keeping of business, judicial, and historical records for kings, nobles, temples, and cities. The profession of scribe first appears in Mesopotamia. Scribes contributed in fundamental ways to ancient and medieval cultures, including Egypt, China, India, Persia, the Roman Empire, and medieval Europe. Judaism, Buddhism, and Islam have important scribal traditions. Scribes have been essential in these cultures for the preservation of legal codes, religious texts, and artistic and didactic literature. In some cultures, social functions of the scribe and of the calligrapher overlap, but the emphasis in scribal writing is on exactitude, whereas calligraphy aims to express the aesthetic qualities of writing apart from its content. Scribes, previously so widespread across cultures, lost most of their prominence and status with the advent of the printing press. The generally less prestigous profession of scrivener continued to be important for copying and writing out legal documents and the like. In societies with low literacy rates, street-corner letter-writers may still be found providing scribe service. The Sumerians developed one of the earliest writing systems, the first body of written literature, and an extensive scribal profession to further these activities. The work of Near Eastern scribes primarily exists on clay tablets and stone monuments written in cuneiform, though later in the period of cuneiform writing they begin to use papyrus, parchment, and writing tablets. The body of knowledge that scribes possessed belonged to an elite urban culture, and few had access to it. Traveling scribes played a vital role in the dissemination of literary culture. A monograph is a specialist written work or exhibition on one subject or one aspect of a usually scholarly subject, often by a single author or artist. Although a monograph can be created by two or more individuals, its text remains a coherent whole and it keeps being an in-depth academic work that presents original research, analysis, and arguments. As a focused, in-depth and specialised written work in which one or more authors develop a uniform and continuous argument or analysis over the course of the book, a monograph is essentially different from an edited collection of articles. In an edited collection, a number of original and separate scholarly contributions by different authors are edited and compiled into one book by one or more academic editors. In library cataloguing, monograph has a broader meaning: a non-serial publication complete in one volume or a definite number of books. Thus it differs from a serial or periodical publication such as a magazine, academic journal, or newspaper. In this context only, books such as novels are considered monographs. The English term "monograph" is derived from modern Latin "monographia", which has its root in Greek. In the English word, "mono-" means "single" and "-graph" means "something written". Unlike a textbook, which surveys the state of knowledge in a field, the main purpose of a monograph is to present primary research and original scholarship. This research is presented at length, distinguishing a monograph from an article. For these reasons, publication of a monograph is commonly regarded as vital for career progression in many academic disciplines. Intended for other researchers and bought primarily by libraries, monographs are generally published as individual volumes in a short print run. In Britain and the U.S., what differentiates a scholarly monograph from an academic trade title varies by publisher, though generally it is the assumption that the readership has not only specialized or sophisticated knowledge but also professional interest in the subject of the work. New Haven is a city in New Haven County, Connecticut, United States. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the northern shore of Long Island Sound and is part of the New York City metropolitan area. With a population of 135,081 as determined by the 2020 U.S. census, New Haven is the third largest city in Connecticut after Bridgeport and Stamford, the largest city in the South Central Connecticut Planning Region, and the principal municipality of Greater New Haven, which had a total population of 864,835 in 2020. Prior to 1960, it was the county seat of New Haven County until the county governments were abolished that year. New Haven was one of the first planned cities in the U.S. A year after its founding by English Puritans in 1638, eight streets were laid out in a four-by-four grid, creating the "Nine Square Plan". The central common block is the New Haven Green, a 16-acre square at the center of Downtown New Haven. The Green is now a National Historic Landmark, and the "Nine Square Plan" is recognized by the American Planning Association as a National Planning Landmark. New Haven is the home of Yale University, New Haven's biggest taxpayer and employer, and an integral part of the city's economy. Health care, professional and financial services and retail trade also contribute to the city's economic activity. The city served as co-capital of Connecticut from 1701 until 1873, when sole governance was transferred to the more centrally located city of Hartford. New Haven has since billed itself as the "Cultural Capital of Connecticut" for its supply of established theaters, museums, and music venues. New Haven had the first public tree planting program in the U.S., producing a canopy of mature trees that gave the city the nickname "The Elm City". </Text>

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<Text> :Yale University Press is the university press of Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day and Clarence Day, grandsons of Benjamin Day, and became a department of Yale University in 1961, but it remains financially and operationally autonomous. As of 2020, Yale University Press publishes approximately 300 new hardcover and 150 new paperback books annually and has a backlist of about 5,000 books in print. Its books have won five National Book Awards, two National Book Critics Circle Awards and eight Pulitzer Prizes. The press maintains offices in New Haven, Connecticut and London, England. Yale is the only American university press with a full-scale publishing operation in Europe. It was a co-founder of the distributor TriLiteral LLC with MIT Press and Harvard University Press. TriLiteral was sold to LSC Communications in 2018. Since its inception in 1919, the Yale Series of Younger Poets Competition has published the first collection of poetry by new poets. The first winner was Howard Buck; the 2011 winner was Katherine Larson. Verlag C.H. BECK oHG, established in 1763 by Carl Gottlob Beck, is one of Germany's oldest publishing houses. It operates in two main divisions: Legal - Tax - Business and Literature - Nonfiction - Science . It has an annual production of up to 1,500 titles including many electronic publications, about 70 professional journals and more than 9,000 titles in print. Its headquarters are in Munich, with a branch office in Frankfurt. Historically, its headquarters were in Nordlingen, the initials of the founder's son and successor, Carl Heinrich Beck, survive in the company's present name. 650 employees work in the Munich headquarters. The 120 scientific editors combined work at the Munich and Frankfurt offices, supporting over 14,000 authors. The Frankfurt office houses the editorial departments of most of C.H. Beck's law journals. Since 1999 the Nomos publishing house belongs to C.H. Beck group, which also has subsidiaries in Switzerland, Poland, the Czech Republic and Romania. As a group of publishing houses, in turnover C.H.Beck ranks among the 10 largest groups in Germany and the 50 largest worldwide. He is the younger brother of Gary Kemp, who is also a member of Spandau Ballet and an actor. In 2012, Kemp finished third in the tenth series of Celebrity Big Brother, and in 2017 he appeared as a judge on the BBC series Let It Shine. Kemp was born to Frank and Eileen Kemp at their house in Islington, north London, and attended Rotherfield Junior School. From the age of 7 he attended the Anna Scher Theatre drama club with his brother Gary, and appeared in many TV shows, including Jackanory, The Tomorrow People and Dixon of Dock Green. In his last year with Anna Scher, he won a role in The Glittering Prizes, appearing alongside Tom Conti and Nigel Havers. Kemp's life changed when Steve Dagger, the manager of his brother Gary's band the Gentry, suggested Martin should replace the band's bass-player. Kemp learned to play bass in three months and performed for the first time with the Gentry at a college party. Eventually the band was renamed Spandau Ballet and Kemp left his printing job to concentrate on the band full-time. Spandau Ballet went on to have a great deal of success in the New Romantic era, with four of their albums reaching the top ten of the UK Albums Chart. True also gave the band their first UK number-one album and, with the album's title track, single. Kemp also performed with the band on the popular 1984 famine-relief-project song "Do They Know It's Christmas?", written by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure. Because of a dispute over royalties, the band split up in the early 1990s. Vigevano is a comune in the province of Pavia, in the Italian region of Lombardy. A historic art town, it is also renowned for shoemaking and is one of the main centres of Lomellina, a rice-growing agricultural district. Vigevano received the honorary title of city with a decree of Duke Francis II Sforza on 2 February 1532. It is famed for its Renaissance Piazza Ducale in the centre of the town. Vigevano was a Ghibelline commune, favoring the Emperor and was accordingly besieged and taken by the Milanese in 1201 and again in 1275. In 1328 it finally surrendered to Azzone Visconti, and thereafter shared the political fortunes of Milan. The Church of San Pietro Martire was built, with the adjacent Dominican convent, by Filippo Maria Visconti in 1445. In the last years of Visconti domination it sustained a siege by Francesco Sforza. Once he was settled in power in Lombardy, Sforza arranged for Vigevano to be set up as the seat of a bishop and provided its revenues. Vigevano is crowned by the Castello Sforzesco, a stronghold rebuilt 1492-94 for Ludovico Maria Sforza , the great patron born in the town, who transformed the fortification/hunting lodge of Luchino Visconti into a rich noble residence, at the cusp of Gothic and Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci was his guest at Vigevano, as was Bramante, who is ascribed with the tall tower that watches over the piazza from the Castello Sforzesco. The old castle has a unique raised covered road, high enough for horsemen to ride through, that communicates between the new palace and the old fortifications; there is a Falconry, an elegant loggiato supported by 48 columns, and, in the rear area of the mastio, the Ladies' Loggia made for Duchess Beatrice d'Este. Vigevano's main attraction is the Piazza Ducale, an elongated rectangle that is almost in the proportions 1:3, built for Ludovico Sforza, starting in 1492-93 and completed in record time, unusual for early Renaissance town planning. Piazza Ducale was actually planned to form a noble forecourt to his castle, unified by the arcades that completely surround the square, an amenity of the new North Italian towns built in the 13th century. The town's main street enters through a sham arcaded facade that preserves the unity of the space as at the Place des Vosges. Ludovico demolished the former palazzo of the commune of Vigevano to create the space. Bianca Maria Sforza was Queen of Germany and Empress of the Holy Roman Empire as the third spouse of Maximilian I. She was the eldest legitimate daughter of Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza of Milan by his second wife, Bona of Savoy. Bianca was born in Pavia as the eldest daughter of Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza of Milan, by his second wife, Bona of Savoy. She was named after her paternal grandmother, Bianca Maria Visconti. When Bianca was not yet five years old, her father was assassinated inside the Church of Santo Stefano in Milan on 26 December 1476, which was the Feast Day of St. Stephen. He was stabbed to death by three high-ranking officials of the Milanese court. On 6 January 1474 the 21-month-old Bianca was betrothed to her first cousin Duke Philibert I of Savoy, the son of her uncle Amadeus IX of Savoy, and Yolande of France. Duke Philibert I died in the spring of 1482, leaving Bianca a widow at the age of ten. She returned to Milan, under the tutelage of her uncle Ludovico Il Moro, who cared little about her education and allowed her to indulge her own interests, mainly needlework. On 31 July 1485, the engagement between Bianca and John Corvinus, the only son of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, was formally announced. With this marriage, the Hungarian ruler wanted to secure his son's future inheritance of Hungary and Bohemia and to make him Duke of Austria. The marriage by proxy was signed on 25 November 1487, and according to the terms of the contract, Bianca received several Hungarian counties. However, due to the opposition and intrigues of Queen Beatrix, wife of King Matthias, the formal marriage never took place. In March 1492 a marriage between Bianca and King James IV of Scotland was considered, but the idea was soon abandoned. The House of Sforza was a ruling family of Renaissance Italy, based in Milan. They acquired the Duchy of Milan following the extinction of the Visconti family in the mid-15th century, Sforza rule ending in Milan with the death of the last member of the family's main branch in 1535. The first son of Muzio Attendolo Sforza, Francesco I Sforza, married Bianca Maria in 1441. She was the daughter and only heir of the last Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti. He thus acquired the title of Duke of Milan , ruled Milan for 16 years, and made the Sforzas the heirs of the house of Visconti. Muzio's third son, Bosio , founded the branch of Santa Fiora, who held the title of count of Cotignola; the Sforza ruled the small county of Santa Fiora in southern Tuscany until 1624. Members of this family also held important ecclesiastical and political positions in the Papal States, and moved to Rome in 1674, taking the name of Sforza Cesarini. The Sforza became allied with the Borgia family through the arranged marriage between Lucrezia Borgia and Giovanni . This alliance failed, as the Borgia family annulled the marriage once the Sforza family were no longer needed. Lucrezia Crivelli was a mistress of Ludovico Sforza "il Moro", Duke of Milan. She was the mother of Sforza's son, Giovanni Paolo I Sforza, Marquess of Caravaggio. Crivelli has been thought to be the subject of Leonardo da Vinci's painting, La belle ferronniere. While unproven, Crivelli has long been presumed to be the subject of Leonardo da Vinci's painting La belle ferronniere, which is displayed in the Louvre. The rationale for the Crivelli identification has been primarily based on da Vinci's earlier depiction of Cecilia Gallerani, in his painting, Lady with an Ermine. Gallerani had been an earlier mistress of Sforza. In a 2011 exhibition at the National Gallery, London entitled, Leonardo Da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan , the gallery listed the painting as a possible portrait of Beatrice d'Este, wife of Ludovico Sforza, rather than his mistress, Crivelli. It has been initially suspected by Adolfo Venturi and then recently found that the Lucrezia Crivelli is not the Belle Ferronniere at all. In recent years, the original painting of Lucrezia Crivelli, that has been kept in the family for centuries, has been shown to the public, during an important exhibition in Speyer (Historisches Museum from June 19 to November 19, 1995) . But regardless of the enormous success of the painting amongst the general public, the striking elements of the real Crivelli painting are to be found in the examination made by Pinin Barcillon Brambilla who found that some pigments are the same of the Milanese mural . Crivelli was a lady-in-waiting to Ludovico Sforza's wife, Beatrice d'Este . During this time, she also became the mistress of Sforza. In 1497, she gave birth to his son, Giovanni Paolo. Sforza's affair with Crivelli caused much distress to his wife, who was considered accomplished and cultured. Upon learning of the affair, d'Este tried without success to have Crivelli banished from court. Luis is a given name. It is the Spanish form of the originally Germanic name Hludowig or Chlodovech. Other Iberian Romance languages have comparable forms: Luis in Portuguese and Galician, Lluis in Aragonese and Catalan, while Luiz is archaic in Portugal, but common in Brazil. The Germanic name Chlodowig is usually said to be composed of the words for "fame" and "warrior" and hence may be translated to famous warrior or "famous in battle". According to Dutch onomatologists however, it is more likely that the first stem was lod-, meaning fame, which would give the meaning 'warrior for the gods' for the full name. Modern forms of the name are the German name Ludwig and the Dutch form Lodewijk. Luis and the other Iberian forms more closely resemble the French name Louis, a derivation of the Latinized form Clovis, known from the kings of the Franks. The sanctified French king Louis IX contributed much to the popularity of the name. </Text>

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<Text> :The First Italian War, sometimes referred to as the Italian War of 1494 or Charles VIII's Italian War, was the opening phase of the Italian Wars. The war pitted Charles VIII of France, who had initial Milanese aid, against the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and an alliance of Italian powers led by Pope Alexander VI, known as the League of Venice. Pope Innocent VIII, in conflict with King Ferdinand I of Naples over Ferdinand's refusal to pay feudal dues to the papacy, excommunicated and deposed Ferdinand by a bull of 11 September 1489. Innocent then offered the Kingdom of Naples to Charles VIII of France, who had a remote claim to its throne because his grandfather, Charles VII, King of France, had married Marie of Anjou of the Angevin dynasty, the ruling family of Naples until 1442. Innocent later settled his quarrel with Ferdinand and revoked the bans before dying in 1492, but the offer to Charles remained an apple of discord in Italian politics. Ferdinand died on 25 January 1494 and was succeeded by his son Alfonso II. A third claimant to the Neapolitan throne was Rene II, Duke of Lorraine. He was the oldest son of Yolande, Duchess of Lorraine , the only surviving child of Rene of Anjou , the last effective Angevin King of Naples until 1442. In 1488 the Neapolitans had already offered the crown of Naples to Rene II, who set an expedition to gain possession of the realm, but he was then halted by Charles VIII of France, who intended to claim Naples himself. Charles VIII was arguing that his grandmother Marie of Anjou, the sister of Rene of Anjou, had a closer connection than Rene II's mother Yolande, the daughter of Rene of Anjou, and therefore he came first in the Angevin line of Neapolitan succession. Casus belli of the conflict was the rivalry that arose between the Duchess of Bari, Beatrice d'Este, wife of Ludovico Sforza, known as the Moor, and the Duchess of Milan, Isabella of Aragon, wife of Gian Galeazzo, who both aspired to control of the Duchy of Milan and to the hereditary title for their children: since 1480 Ludovico Sforza ruled that duchy as regent of his little nephew Gian Galeazzo, not being therefore duke by right, but only de facto. The situation remained calm until 1489, when the marriage between Gian Galeazzo and Isabella of Aragon, granddaughter of King Ferrante of Naples as the daughter of Alfonso Duke of Calabria, took effect. Isabella immediately realized that all power was reduced to the hands of Louis and suffered from the ineptitude of her husband, listless and totally disinterested in the government; nevertheless he endured in silence until, in 1491, Ludovico married Beatrice d'Este, daughter of the Duke of Ferrara Ercole I d'Este and cousin of Isabella on her mother's side. Determined and ambitious young woman, Beatrice was soon associated by her husband with the government of the state, nor Isabella, "angry and desperate for envy", could bear to see herself surpassed in all honors by her cousin. The Italian Wars of 1499-1504 are divided into two connected, but distinct phases: the Second Italian War , sometimes known as Louis XII's Italian War, and the Third Italian War or War over Naples. The first phase was fought for control of the Duchy of Milan by an alliance of Louis XII of France and the Republic of Venice against Ludovico Sforza, the second between Louis and Ferdinand II of Aragon for possession of the Kingdom of Naples. In the aftermath of the Italian War of 1494-1498, Louis was determined to pursue French claims to Milan and Naples and in October 1499 he captured Milan, which remained in French hands for the next thirteen years. His invasion of Naples in 1501 eventually led to war with Ferdinand of Aragon, who expelled the French in 1504. The Italian War of 1494-1498 began when Ludovico Sforza, then Regent of Milan, invited Charles VIII of France to invade Italy, using the Angevin claim to the Kingdom of Naples as a pretext. This in turn was driven by the intense rivalry between Ludovico's wife, Beatrice d'Este, and that of his nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza, son of Isabella of Aragon. Despite being the hereditary Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo had been sidelined by his uncle in 1481 and exiled to Pavia. Both women wanted to ensure their children inherited the Duchy and when Isabella's father became Alfonso II of Naples in January 1494, she asked for his help in securing their rights. In September Charles invaded the peninsula, which he justified by claiming he wanted to use Naples as a base for a crusade against the Ottoman Turks. Although Charles conquered Naples with relative ease, after his return to France, Ferdinand II of Naples quickly regained his kingdom. He did so with support from his distant Trastamaran relative Ferdinand II of Aragon, who as ruler of the neighbouring Kingdom of Sicily viewed French expansion in Southern Italy as a threat. In September 1496, Ferdinand of Naples was succeeded by his uncle Frederick. Loches grew up around a monastery founded about 500 by St. Ours and belonged to the Counts of Anjou from 886 until 1205. In the latter year it was seized from King John of England by Philip Augustus, and from the middle of the 13th century until after the time of Charles IX of France the castle was a residence of the kings of France, apart for a brief interlude in 1424 when it was heritably granted to Archibald Douglas, Duke of Touraine. Antoine Guenand, Lord of La Celle-Guenand was appointed Captain-Governor of Loches in 1441. The town, one of the most picturesque in central France, lies at the foot of the rocky eminence on which stands the Chateau de Loches, the castle of the Anjou family, surrounded by an outer wall 4 m thick, and consisting of the old collegiate church of St Ours, the royal lodge and the donjon or keep. The church of St Ours dates from the tenth century to the twelfth century; among its distinguishing features are the huge stone pyramids surmounting the nave and the beautiful carving of the west door. It contains the tomb of Agnes Sorel. The royal lodge, built by Charles VII of France and once used as the subprefecture, contains the oratory of Anne of Brittany. It was here on 11 May 1429 that Joan of Arc arrived, fresh from her historic victory at Orleans, to meet the king. Ippolita Maria Sforza was an Italian noblewoman, a member of the Sforza family which ruled the Duchy of Milan from 1450 until 1535. She was the first wife of the Duke of Calabria, who later reigned as King Alfonso II of Naples. Ippolita was a very intelligent and cultured young woman. Ippolita was born on April 18 1445 in Cremona to Francesco Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti, the only daughter of the Duke of Milan Filippo Maria Visconti. Since she was a child she showed precocity of intellect, love for letters and a certain passion for hunting, favored in this by her father who often gave her greyhounds for their country estates. Francesco Sforza sometimes asked his young daughter to act as an intermediary between him and his mother, so that she could help him to return to the graces of Bianca Maria, the times when he and his wife entered into a quarrel for some reason. She had four masters Guiniforte Barzizza, by Baldo Martorelli, humanist from the Marche region heir to the humanist pedagogy of Vittorino da Feltre, and Costantino Lascaris, who gave her the study of Greek and dedicated a Greek Grammarto her. When she was 14 years old she made a Latin address to pope Pius II at the diet of Mantua, which became well known after it was circulated in manuscript. An alleged portrait of Ippolita was painted Domenico Ghirlandaio. Beautiful, white, blonde, she had beautiful eyes, a slightly aquiline nose that gave her gratia. She had beautiful teeth, an aspect of great majesty. She was soon taller than mediocre. Her hands had beautiful, as if ivory-colored, with long fingers. Her aspect was of great majesty, meek and graceful. She was fluent and eloquent in her speech. She read very well in sweet accents and resonance, and she meant, very poorly, Latin. she was of sweet cholera. Her ire of her, her indignations and her peace were always with charity, gentleness and prudence, so that she was held in singular love, fear and reverence by the peoples. Where she required reason and her need was familiar, very affable and prudent, for which reason the people said that she was benign to them. She took pity on those miserable women who did not keep themselves in modest fame; she admonished them in a sancto manner. The grudges and discords she felt about her among her, she took away, reducing them to benevolence and peace. She was a devoted woman; she often fasted on bread and water, prayed, contemplated and lived holy, as a religious she was a beggar much she helped, in what she could, of her own substances to marry damsels, and she secretly donated poor people, without being asked, so that it seemed that she herself had experienced the miseries of poverty the modesty of her breast and the integrity of her mind were judged as the holy fame of her illustrious works. she hated vices with anguish and especially of shameless women she knew with great modesty with each generation to behave, objecting to the flatterers, mischievous and evils-takers, whom she escaped as a pestiferous diseaseBorn in Abbiategrasso, he was only seven years old when in 1476 his father, Galeazzo Maria Sforza, was assassinated and he became the Duke of Milan. His uncle, Ludovico Sforza, acted as regent to the young duke, but quickly wrested all power from him and became the de facto ruler of Milan. Ludovico imprisoned Gian Galeazzo and later became the duke after Gian Galeazzo's death, which was widely viewed as suspicious. In 1491 Ludovico Sforza had Gian Galeazzo Sforza and his wife Isabella of Aragon transferred to the Visconti Castle of Pavia where they created a brilliant court. Gian Galeazzo died in 1494 in the Visconti Castle, the summer home of the Visconti and Sforza families. During that time, he received a visit from Charles VIII of France. According to the Italian historian Francesco Guicciardini in his History of Italy , he was poisoned by his uncle, Ludovico il Moro. The rumor was widespread that Giovan Galeazzo's death had been provoked by immoderate coitus; nevertheless, it was widely believed throughout Italy that he had died not through natural illness nor as a result of incontinence, but had been poisoned ... one of the royal physicians ... asserted that he had seen manifest signs of it. Nor was there anyone who doubted that if it had been poison, it had been administered through his uncle Ludovico Sforza's machinations ...Ascanio Maria Sforza Visconti was an Italian Cardinal of the Catholic Church. Generally known as a skilled diplomat who played a major role in the election of Rodrigo Borgia as Pope Alexander VI, Sforza served as Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church from 1492 until 1505. A member of the House of Sforza, Ascanio Sforza was born in Cremona, Lombardy. His parents were Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, and Bianca Maria Visconti. He was also the brother of two Milanese dukes, Galeazzo Maria Sforza and Ludovico Sforza , and the uncle of a third, Gian Galeazzo Sforza . Ascanio was a student of Francesco Filelfo, a courtier of Duke Francesco Sforza, who introduced him to government and literature. Other cardinals of the family were Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora , Alessandro Sforza , Francesco Sforza and Federico Sforza . Aged 10 he was named commendatory abbot of Chiaravalle. While still an adolescent, Ascanio was promised the red hat of a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church by Guillaume d'Estouteville, who wanted to gain Galeazzo Maria Sforza's support for his candidacy for the papal throne in 1471. However, it was in fact Francesco della Rovere who won the papal election, and Ascanio's promotion to cardinal was delayed. In September 1473, Ascanio's niece Caterina, the daughter of Duke Galeazzo Maria, was married to the nephew of Pope Sixtus IV, Girolamo Riario . Girolamo was one of the leading members of the Pazzi Conspiracy against the life of Lorenzo the Magnificent of Florence. He was the second son of Ludovico Sforza and Beatrice d'Este. When Ludovico was ousted from Milan in the course of the Italian Wars, he brought Francesco with him to the court of the Emperor Maximilian I, who had married a Sforza, Francesco's cousin Bianca Maria. Francesco was assigned to an ecclesiastical career. His father was imprisoned in Loches by Louis XII of France, and died in 1508, but when Charles V re-conquered Milan from the French in 1521, Francesco was appointed its duke, the last of the family to hold that title. His sovereignty, however, remained circumscribed by the military occupation of Milan by Spanish troops. He returned to his state, depleted by twenty years of combat, promoting a cultural and economic recovery. Francesco fought at the Battle of Bicocca, on the side of the emperor, in 1522. In 1526 he switched sides, joining the League of Cognac, together with Francis I of France, Pope Clement VII and the Republic of Florence, and was besieged in the Castello Sforzesco. On 4 May 1534, he married the 12-year-old niece of Charles V, Christina of Denmark, the daughter of Christian II of Denmark and Isabella of Burgundy. The union remained childless. His death in 1535 sparked the Italian War of 1535. His half-brother Giovanni Paolo reclaimed briefly the Duchy of Milan after his death, but died in the same year under mysterious circumstances. Maximilian Maria Sforza was a Duke of Milan from the Sforza family, the son of Ludovico Sforza. He was installed as a ruler of Milan in 1512 after the capture of Milan by the Holy League, supported by a Swiss militia led by Jakob Meyer zum Hasen. He ruled from 1512 to 1515, between the occupations of Louis XII of France , and Francis I of France in 1515. After the French victory at the Battle of Marignano, Maximilian was imprisoned by the returning French troops. When Maximilian was three his father tried to arrange a marriage between him and Mary Tudor, the younger daughter of King Henry VII of England. However, Henry VII rejected the proposal citing Mary's young age as the issue. Bianca Maria Visconti also known as Bianca Maria Sforza or Blanca Maria was Duchess of Milan from 1450 to 1468 by marriage to Francesco I Sforza. She was regent of Marche during the absence of her spouse in 1448. She served as Regent of the Duchy of Milan during the illness of her spouse in 1462, as well as in 1466, between the death of her spouse and until her son, the new Duke, who was absent, was able to return to Milan to assume power. Born near Settimo Pavese, Bianca Maria was the illegitimate daughter of Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan and last of the Visconti rulers, and Agnese del Maino. Agnese was the daughter of Ambrogio del Maino, a Milanese nobleman and ducal questore. Agnese served as lady-in-waiting to Filippo's wife, Beatrice di Tenda. The couple had a second daughter, called Caterina Maria or Lucia Maria, also born in Settimo in 1426, but she died shortly after her birth. When she was six months old, Visconti and her mother were sent to a castle in Abbiate, where a rich residence had been established for the two of them. The Duke spent much of his time in Abbiategrasso, where he was impressed by Visconti's strong character. Visconti spent her childhood and adolescence in Abbiategrasso, where she received a humanist education. The Ducal library contained a wide variety of works: Latin classics, narrative texts in Provencal and French, scientific and didactical works, as well as texts in Italian and volgare, mainly by Tuscan authors. Both Bianca and her father were passionate hunters and lovers of horses. </Text>

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<Text> :Milanese is the central variety of the Western dialect of the Lombard language spoken in Milan, the rest of its metropolitan city, and the northernmost part of the province of Pavia. Milanese, due to the importance of Milan, the largest city in Lombardy, is considered one of the most prestigious Lombard variants and the most prestigious one in the Western Lombard area. In Italian-language contexts, Milanese is often called a "dialect" of Italian. However, linguistically, Lombard is a Western Romance language and is more closely related to French, Romansh, Occitan and to other Gallo-Italic languages than it is to standard Italian. Milanese has an extensive literature, reaching as far back as the 13th century and including the works of important writers such as Bonvesin da la Riva , Carlo Maria Maggi Carlo Porta . In addition to the large literary corpus, various dictionaries, a few grammar books and a recent translation of the Gospels are available in the language. The Milanese dialect as commonly defined today is essentially concentrated around Milan and its metropolitan city, reaching into the northernmost part of the province of Pavia. Subdialects of Milanese - also known as dialett arios - are spoken in the western part of the province , the eastern part , the parts to the north of the Naviglio Martesana , certain areas where the dialect becomes transitional , the southern parts , and the northern parts of the Province of Pavia . Bianca Giovanna Sforza was an Italian noblewoman, she was the illegitimate daughter, then legitimized of Ludovico Sforza and his lover Bernardina de Corradis, wife of Galeazzo Sanseverino and favorite of Beatrice d'Este. Recent historical-artistic studies and confirmed scientific hypotheses have shown that the landscape that is the background to Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa is taken from Bobbio. The landscape that forms the background to the picture is that of Bobbio seen from the Malaspina Dal Verme Castle, according to the scientific researcher Carla Glori. Furthermore, on the basis of these historical-artistic studies, she is identified as Bianca Giovanna Sforza, the girl portrayed in the painting by Leonardo da Vinci. Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows on another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that princes, popes, and other wealthy and influential people have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptors. It can also refer to the right of bestowing offices or church benefices, the business given to a store by a regular customer, and the guardianship of saints. The word patron derives from the Latin patronus , one who gives benefits to his clients . In some countries the term is used to describe political patronage or patronal politics, which is the use of state resources to reward individuals for their electoral support. Some patronage systems are legal, as in the Canadian tradition of the prime minister to appoint senators and the heads of a number of commissions and agencies; in many cases, these appointments go to people who have supported the political party of the prime minister. As well, the term may refer to a type of corruption or favoritism in which a party in power rewards groups, families, or ethnicities for their electoral support using illegal gifts or fraudulently awarded appointments or government contracts. The opposite of this structure, where all individuals advance based on their personal traits and abilities, is meritocracy. In many Latin American countries, patronage developed as a means of population control, concentrating economic and political power in a small minority which held privileges that the majority of the population did not. In this system, the patron holds authority and influence over a less powerful person, whom he protects by granting favors in exchange for loyalty and allegiance. With roots in feudalism, the system was designed to maintain an inexpensive, subservient labor force, which could be utilized to limit production costs and allow wealth and its privileges to be monopolized by a small elite. Long after slavery, and other forms of bondage like the encomienda and repartimiento systems were abolished, patronage was used to maintain rigid class structures. With the rise of a labor class, traditional patronage changed in the 20th century to allow some participation in power structures, but many systems still favor a small powerful elite, who distribute economic and political favors in exchange for benefits to the lower classes. From the ancient world onward, patronage of the arts was important in art history. It is known in greatest detail in reference to medieval and Renaissance Europe, though patronage can also be traced in feudal Japan, the traditional Southeast Asian kingdoms, and elsewhere--art patronage tended to arise wherever a royal or imperial system and an aristocracy dominated a society and controlled a significant share of resources. Samuel Johnson defined a patron as "one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and, when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help". He was a legitimized son of Ludovico il Moro, duke of Milan, and Lucrezia Crivelli. In 1513, when his half-brother Massimiliano shortly restored the family seignory in Milan, he took part in the defence of Novara against the French. When his other half-brother Francesco II made a similar attempt , Giovanni Paolo was besieged in the Castello Sforzesco by the Spaniards under Antonio de Leyva; three years later he was again besieged by them in Lodi, this time with victorious results. In 1532, after the peace of Bologna between Francesco II and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, he received in reward the title of marquess of Caravaggio. Three years later, after Francesco's death, he moved to the Kingdom of Naples to reclaim the Duchy of Milan for himself, but died midway at Florence under mysterious circumstances. Some sources says that he was poisoned by de Leyva. He was married to Violante Bentivoglio whose maternal great-grandfather was Galeazzo Maria Sforza Duke of Milan. Giovanni's son Muzio I Sforza succeeded him in Caravaggio and in the county of Galliate. The House of Sforza was a ruling family of Renaissance Italy, based in Milan. They acquired the Duchy of Milan following the extinction of the Visconti family in the mid-15th century, Sforza rule ending in Milan with the death of the last member of the family's main branch in 1535. The first son of Muzio Attendolo Sforza, Francesco I Sforza, married Bianca Maria in 1441. She was the daughter and only heir of the last Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti. He thus acquired the title of Duke of Milan , ruled Milan for 16 years, and made the Sforzas the heirs of the house of Visconti. Muzio's third son, Bosio , founded the branch of Santa Fiora, who held the title of count of Cotignola; the Sforza ruled the small county of Santa Fiora in southern Tuscany until 1624. Members of this family also held important ecclesiastical and political positions in the Papal States, and moved to Rome in 1674, taking the name of Sforza Cesarini. The Sforza became allied with the Borgia family through the arranged marriage between Lucrezia Borgia and Giovanni . This alliance failed, as the Borgia family annulled the marriage once the Sforza family were no longer needed. Italian is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire. Italian is the least divergent Romance language from Latin, together with Sardinian. Spoken by about 85 million people including 67 million native speakers , Italian is an official language in Italy, San Marino, and Switzerland , and is the primary language of Vatican City. It has official minority status in Croatia and in some areas of Slovenian Istria. Italian is also spoken by large immigrant and expatriate communities in the Americas and Australia. Italian is included under the languages covered by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Romania, although Italian is neither a co-official nor a protected language in these countries. Some speakers of Italian are native bilinguals of both Italian and a local language of Italy, most frequently the language spoken at home in their place of origin. Italian is a major language in Europe, being one of the official languages of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and one of the working languages of the Council of Europe. It is the second-most-widely spoken native language in the European Union with 67 million speakers and it is spoken as a second language by 13.4 million EU citizens . Including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is approximately 85 million. Italian is the main working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian has a significant use in musical terminology and opera with numerous Italian words referring to music that have become international terms taken into various languages worldwide. Almost all native Italian words end with vowels and has a 7-vowel sound system . Italian has contrast between short and long consonants and gemination of consonants. During the Middle Ages, the established written language in Europe was Latin, though the great majority of people were illiterate, and only a handful were well versed in the language. In the Italian Peninsula, as in most of Europe, most would instead speak a local vernacular. These dialects, as they are commonly referred to, evolved from Vulgar Latin over the course of centuries, unaffected by formal standards and teachings. They are not in any sense "dialects" of standard Italian, which itself started off as one of these local tongues, but sister languages of Italian. Mutual intelligibility with Italian varies widely, as it does with Romance languages in general. The Romance languages of Italy can differ greatly from Italian at all levels and are classified typologically as distinct languages. Francesco I Sforza KG was an Italian condottiero who founded the Sforza dynasty in the duchy of Milan, ruling as its duke from 1450 until his death. In the 1420s, he participated in the War of L'Aquila and in the 1430s fought for the Papal States and Milan against Venice. Once the war between Milan and Venice ended in 1441 under mediation by Sforza, he successfully invaded southern Italy alongside Rene of Anjou, pretender to the throne of Naples, and after that returned to Milan. He was instrumental in the Treaty of Lodi which ensured peace in the Italian realms for a time by ensuring a strategic balance of power. He died in 1466 and was succeeded as duke by his son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza. While Sforza was recognized as duke of Milan, his son Ludovico would be the first to have formal investiture under the Holy Roman Empire by Maximilian I in 1494. Francesco Sforza was born in Cigoli, near San Miniato, Tuscany, one of the seven illegitimate sons of the condottiero Muzio Sforza and Lucia de Martini. He was the brother of Alessandro Sforza. He spent his childhood in Tricarico , the marquisate of which he was granted in 1412 by King Ladislaus of Naples. In 1418, he married Polissena Ruffo, a Calabrese noblewoman. From 1419, he fought alongside his father, soon gaining fame for being able to bend metal bars with his bare hands. He later proved himself to be an expert tactician and a very skilled field commander. After the death of his father during the War of L'Aquila, he participated in Braccio da Montone's final defeat in that campaign; he fought subsequently for the Neapolitan army and then for Pope Martin V and the Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti. After some successes, he fell in disgrace and was sent to the castle of Mortara as a prisoner. He regained his status after leading an expedition against Lucca. He married into the Gonzaga family; on the death of his first wife Dorotea Gonzaga, he married Bona of Savoy. Cruel and vengeful, he was "a man who did great follies and dishonest things not to write." Galeazzo Maria Sforza was born in Fermo, near the family's castle of Girifalco. He was the first son of Francesco Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti. At the death of his father on 8 March 1466, Sforza was in France heading a military expedition to help King Louis XI against Charles I of Burgundy. Called back home by his mother, Sforza returned to Italy under a false name. The false identity was necessary as he had to pass by the territories of the family's enemy, the Duke of Savoy, who made an unsuccessful attempt on Sforza's life. He entered Milan on 20 March 1466, and was acclaimed by the populace. Sforza was famous as a patron of music. Under his direction, financial backing and encouragement, his chapel grew into one of the most famous and historically significant musical ensembles in Europe. Composers from the north, especially the Franco-Flemish composers from the present-day Low Countries, came to sing in his chapel and write masses, motets and secular music for him. Some of the figures associated with the Sforza chapel include Alexander Agricola, Johannes Martini, Loyset Compere, and Gaspar van Weerbeke. However, most of the singers at the Sforza chapel fled after Sforza's murder and took positions elsewhere; as a result, there was soon a rise in musical standards in other cities such as Ferrara. Bernardino Corio describes Sforza Veronese, his favorite, to whom he cut off a testicle. The twenty-two-year-old Ambrogio instead, in order to escape his flattery , castrated himself. He had the young Pietro Drego buried alive and out of jealousy he had both hands amputated by Pietrino da Castello, slandering him as a forger, since he had caught him conversing with his mistress. When he surprised a farmer who had caught a hare against the hunting ban, he forced him to swallow it whole with all his skin until he suffocated. Since an astrologer priest had predicted the date of his death, Sforza had him walled up alive and wanted to see him starve. He raped both men and women, and was known for appropriating the wives of others. Once he had finished, he had them raped in turn by his favorites. Resentment against this behavior formed the basis of the conspiracy that crushed him in 1476. The lightest punishment of all went instead to his barber, the Travaglino, who, having cut it by mistake, received four lashes. The Corio also describes him as greedy, and an imposer of unusual taxes. </Text>

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<Text> :In 1395, Gian Galeazzo Visconti was titled Duke of Milan by King Wenceslaus, who sold the title under the payment of circa 100,000 florins. Since that moment, all the following rulers of Milan were styled as dukes. After the death of Filippo Maria in 1447, the main line of Visconti went extinct. Benefited by political chaos, a cabal of wealthy citizens, academics and clerics declared the Duchy dissolved and proclaimed the oligarchical Golden Ambrosian Republic. The republic was never recognized and the neighboring states of Venice and Savoy tried to expand their fiefdoms in Lombardy, as well as France. Taking advantage of the state's weakness and the resurgent Guelph-Ghibelline conflict, the commander-in-chief of the Milanese forces, Francesco I Sforza, defected from Milan to Venice in 1448, and two years later, after several side switches and cunning strategies, Sforza entered the city during Annunciation. He was then declared the new Duke of Milan by the City Council, using as a claim his marriage with Bianca Maria Visconti, illegitimate daughter of Filippo Maria. In 1494, Ludovico Sforza usurped the throne of Milan, after probably poisoning his nephew Gian Galeazzo. After the threats of the Venetians, Ludovico solicited French king Charles VIII to descend into Italy, starting the First Italian War. After Ludovico's betrayal and alliance with the League of Venice in 1495, the French were defeated in the Battle of Fornovo and were unable to expand in Italy. Charles VIII's top general and cousin, Louis II, Duke of Orleans , was humiliated and due to his personal hate toward Ludovico Sforza, started to claim the Duchy of Milan for himself, quoting his paternal descendance from Valentina Visconti and Gian Galeazzo's last will. After Louis XII's ascension to the French Throne in 1499, he started the Second Italian War to conquer Milan and Naples. With French armies near Pavia, Ludovico and his loyalists left Milan on 17 September 1499 to flee toward Germany. This left Louis XII as the only Duke of Milan, entering the city on 6 October 1499. Ludovico Sforza was captured on February 1500, dying in prison in 1508. His son Massimiliano became the Sforza claimant to the Milanese Throne, which he finally re-gained in January 1513, six months after the Swiss army's entrance in Milan. In 1415 he was jailed in the Castel Nuovo of Naples together with his father and his brothers. Leone fought mainly alongside Francesco, and in 1432 he escorted to Piacenza the emperor Sigismund. In 1434-1435 he fought against Niccolo Fortebraccio in Lazio and Umbria: taken prisoner, he was freed after the death of that condottiero. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. The Encyclopaedia Britannica has been published continuously since 1768, appearing in fifteen official editions. Several editions have been amended with multi-volume "supplements" , consisted of previous editions with added supplements or gone drastic re-organizations . In recent years, digital versions of the Britannica have been developed, both online and on optical media. Since the early 1930s, the Britannica has developed several "spin-off" products to leverage its reputation as a reliable reference work and educational tool. Encyclopedias of various types had been published since antiquity, beginning with the collected works of Aristotle and the Natural History of Pliny the Elder, the latter having 2493 articles in 37 books. Encyclopedias were published in Europe and China throughout the Middle Ages, such as the Satyricon of Martianus Minneus Felix Capella , the Speculum majus of Vincent of Beauvais , and Encyclopedia septem tomis distincta by Johann Heinrich Alsted . Most early encyclopedias did not include biographies of living people and were written in Latin, although some encyclopedias were translated into English, such as De proprietatibus rerum by Bartholomeus Anglicus. However, English-composed encyclopedias appeared in the 18th century, beginning with Lexicon technicum, or A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences by John Harris , which contained articles by such contributors as Isaac Newton. Ephraim Chambers wrote a very popular two-volume Cyclopedia in 1728, which went through multiple editions and awakened publishers to the enormous profit potential of encyclopedias. Although not all encyclopedias succeeded commercially, their elements sometimes inspired future encyclopedias; for example, the failed two-volume A Universal History of Arts and Sciences of Dennis de Coetlogon grouped its topics into long self-contained treatises, an organization that likely inspired the "new plan" of the Britannica. The first encyclopedia to include biographies of living people was the 64-volume Grosses Universal-Lexicon of Johann Heinrich Zedler, who argued that death alone should not render people notable. The Britannica was the idea of Colin Macfarquhar, a bookseller and printer, and Andrew Bell, an engraver, both of Edinburgh. They conceived of the Britannica as a conservative reaction to the French Encyclopedie of Denis Diderot , which was widely viewed as heretical. Ironically, the Encyclopedie had begun as a French translation of the popular English encyclopedia, Cyclopaedia published by Ephraim Chambers in 1728. Although later editions of Chambers' Cyclopaedia were still popular, and despite the commercial failure of other English encyclopedias, Macfarquhar and Bell were inspired by the intellectual ferment of the Scottish Enlightenment and thought the time ripe for a new encyclopedia "compiled upon a new plan". Needing an editor, the two chose a 28-year-old scholar named William Smellie who was offered 200 pounds sterling to produce the encyclopedia in 100 parts , which were later bound into three volumes. The first number appeared on 10 December 1768 in Edinburgh, priced sixpence or 8 pence on finer paper. The Britannica was published under the pseudonym "A Society of Gentlemen in Scotland", possibly referring to the many gentlemen who had bought subscriptions. By releasing the numbers in weekly instalments, the Britannica was completed in 1771, having 2,391 pages. The numbers were bound in three equally sized volumes covering A-B, C-L, and M-Z; an estimated 3,000 sets were eventually sold, priced at 12 pounds sterling apiece. The 1st edition also featured 160 copperplate illustrations engraved by Bell. Three of the engravings in the section on midwifery, depicting childbirth in clinical detail, were sufficiently shocking to prompt some readers to tear those engravings out of the volume. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. </Text>

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<Text> :There are currently 6,794,633 articles on the English Wikipedia, some of which have been selected as vital articles. They are organized into five levels of vitality. Level 1 contains the ten most vital articles, and each further level expands on the selection of the previous level, as follows: The vital article lists are meant to guide the prioritization of improvements to vital articles and to monitor their quality. They are tailored to the English Wikipedia, unlike the list of articles every Wikipedia should have on Meta-Wiki. They are actively maintained by the dedicated WikiProject Vital Articles. For more on the history, process and purpose behind the vital article lists, please visit the FAQ page. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and most of the smaller islands within the British Isles. Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland; otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea, and the Irish Sea. The total area of the United Kingdom is 94,354 square miles , with an estimated population of just over 67 million people in 2021. The United Kingdom has evolved from a series of annexations, unions and separations of constituent countries over several hundred years. The Treaty of Union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707 resulted in their unification to become the Kingdom of Great Britain. Its union in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Most of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which formally adopted its name in 1927. The nearby Isle of Man, Guernsey and Jersey are not part of the UK, being Crown Dependencies, but the British government is responsible for their defence and international representation. The UK became the first industrialised country and was the world's foremost power for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the "Pax Britannica" between 1815 and 1914. The British Empire, at its height in the 1920s, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's landmass and population, and was the largest empire in history; however, its involvement in the First World War and the Second World War damaged Britain's economic power and a global wave of decolonisation led to the independence of most British colonies. British influence can be observed in the legal and political systems of many of its former colonies, and the UK's culture remains globally influential, particularly in language, literature, music and sport. English is the world's most widely spoken language and the third-most spoken native language. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. The capital and largest city of the United Kingdom is London. The cities of Edinburgh, Cardiff, and Belfast are respectively the national capitals of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Other major cities include Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow, and Leeds. The UK consists of three distinct legal jurisdictions: England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. This is due to these areas retaining their existing legal systems even after joining the UK. Since 1998, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland also have their own devolved governments and legislatures, each with varying powers. The Lycurgus Cup is a 4th-century Roman glass cage cup made of a dichroic glass, which shows a different colour depending on whether or not light is passing through it: red when lit from behind and green when lit from in front. It is the only complete Roman glass object made from this type of glass, and the one exhibiting the most impressive change in colour; it has been described as "the most spectacular glass of the period, fittingly decorated, which we know to have existed". The cup is also a very rare example of a complete Roman cage-cup, or diatretum, where the glass has been painstakingly cut and ground back to leave only a decorative "cage" at the original surface-level. Many parts of the cage have been completely undercut. Most cage-cups have a cage with a geometric abstract design, but here there is a composition with figures, showing the mythical King Lycurgus, who tried to kill Ambrosia, a follower of the god Dionysus . She was transformed into a vine that twined around the enraged king and restrained him, eventually killing him. Dionysus and two followers are shown taunting the king. The cup is the "only well-preserved figural example" of a cage cup. The dichroic effect is achieved by making the glass with tiny proportions of nanoparticles of gold and silver dispersed in colloidal form throughout the glass material. The process used remains unclear, and it is likely that it was not well understood or controlled by the makers, and was probably discovered by accidental "contamination" with minutely ground gold and silver dust. The glass-makers may not even have known that gold was involved, as the quantities involved are so tiny; they may have come from a small proportion of gold in any silver added , or from traces of gold or gold leaf left by accident in the workshop, as residue on tools, or from other work. The very few other surviving fragments of Roman dichroic glass vary considerably in their two colours. It is estimated that to a conventionally composed Roman glass flux 330 parts per million of silver and 40 of gold were added: "These particles were precipitated as colloids and form a silver-gold alloy. When viewed in reflected light the minute metallic particles are just coarse enough to reflect enough of the light without eliminating the transmission. In transmitted light the fine particles scatter the blue end of the spectrum more effectively than the red end, resulting in red transmission, and this is the colour observed. Since it is impossible that the Roman artisans managed to add these incredibly low levels of silver and gold to the volume of the glass used to make the vessel deliberately, the levels were probably added at higher levels to a larger volume of glass-melt, and increasingly diluted by adding more glass." The particles are only about 70 nanometers across, and embedded in the glass, so they cannot be seen by optical microscopy, and a transmission electron microscope is needed instead. At this size they approach the size of the wavelengths of visible light, and a surface plasmon resonance effect takes place. The Crouching Venus is a Hellenistic model of Venus surprised at her bath. Venus crouches with her right knee close to the ground, turns her head to the right and, in most versions, reaches her right arm over to her left shoulder to cover her breasts. To judge by the number of copies that have been excavated on Roman sites in Italy and France, this variant on Venus seems to have been popular. A number of examples of the Crouching Venus in prominent collections have influenced modern sculptors since Giambologna and have been drawn by artists since Martin Heemskerck, who made a drawing of the Farnese Crouching Venus that is now in Naples. The model is often related to a corrupt passage in Pliny the Elder's Natural History , enumerating sculptures in the Temple of Jupiter Stator in the Portico of Octavia, near the Roman Forum; the text has been emended to a mention of Venerem lavantem sese Daedalsas, stantem Polycharmus , recording a sculpture of a Venus who was not standing, by the otherwise unknown Doidalses or Daedalsas. Such terse archival references and so many existing ancient versions make archival identification of the Roman copies insecure, though some include a water jar and/or an additional figure of Eros which make identification easier . The Crouching Venus was often paired with the other famous crouching sculpture of Antiquity, the Arrotino. The Ancient of Days is a design by William Blake, originally published as the frontispiece to the 1794 work Europe a Prophecy. It draws its name from one of God's titles in the Book of Daniel and shows Urizen crouching in a circular design with a cloud-like background. His outstretched hand holds a compass over the darker void below. Related imagery appears in Blake's Newton, completed the next year. As noted in Alexander Gilchrist's 1863 book, Life of William Blake, the design of The Ancient of Days was "a singular favourite with Blake and as one it was always a happiness to him to copy". As such there are many versions of the work extant, including one completed for Frederick Tatham only weeks before Blake's death. The British Museum notes that one copy, accessioned in 1885, was excluded from Martin Butlin's 1982 catalogue raisonne of Blake's paintings and drawings, suggesting the author doubted that attribution. Early critics of Blake noted the work as amongst his best, and a favourite of the artist himself. A description by Richard Thompson in John Thomas Smith's Nollekens and His Times, was of "... an uncommonly fine specimen of art, and approaches almost to the sublimity of Raffaelle or Michel Angelo", and as representing the event given in the Book of Proverbs viii. 27 , "when he set a compass upon the face of the earth". The subject is said to have been one of the 'visions' experienced by Blake and that he took an especial pleasure in producing the prints. The copy commissioned by Tatham in the last days of Blake's life, for a sum of money exceeding any previous payment for his work, was tinted by the artist while propped up in his bed. After his revisions, it is said that Blake There are currently thirteen known extant copies of Europe a Prophecy. Because of Blake's production process of hand colouring each print, each image has its own unique qualities. The following images of The Ancient of Days are those available via the digital archiving project, the William Blake Archive: The body of the cup was created by hammering a single piece of gold, with the handle cut from a flat strip of gold and attached by rivets. Although badly crushed by recent plough damage it can be seen to have been 14 cm high with corrugated sides. The cup resembles a late Neolithic ceramic beaker with Corded Ware decoration, but dates to a much later period. It is thought that the cup was not a grave good, but a votive offering independent of any inhumation, which was placed at the centre of the barrow in about 1700-1500 BC. No contemporary burials have been found at the site, although later Iron Age ones have since been found, along with a Saxon cemetery. Only seven similar gold "unstable handled cups" have been found in Europe, all dating to the period between 1700 and 1500 BC. The Ringlemere cup is most similar to the other British example, the Rillaton gold cup found in Cornwall in 1837. The other examples are two from Germany, two from Switzerland, one now lost from Brittany, and an unprovenanced, perhaps German, example. Two other silver cups and, from Britain, two amber and some shale cups all share the same basic shapes . The finds in Britain are in the approximate Wessex area, and on the continent near the Rhine or the Channel coast, suggesting that the vessels, though probably all made fairly locally to their find spots, related to a specific cross-channel trading zone. The cup was discovered by metal detectorist Cliff Bradshaw on 4 November 2001. He reported the find to the local coroner's office, and through the Portable Antiquities Scheme and the Treasure Act 1996 the cup was recorded and declared to be treasure in 2002. It was bought by the British Museum for PS270,000 , with the money paid split between Bradshaw and the Smith family who own Ringlemere Farm. The money to secure the cup for the nation was raised through donations by the Heritage Lottery Fund, the National Art Collections Fund and The British Museum Friends. The Akan Drum is a drum that was made in West Africa and was later found in the Colony of Virginia in North America. It is now one of the oldest African-American objects in the British Museum and possibly one of the oldest surviving anywhere. The drum is a reminder of all three continents' involvement in the estimated twelve million people transported across the Atlantic Ocean as part of the transatlantic slave trade. The drum is normally displayed in Room 26, the North American gallery, in the British Museum. The drum is made from two species of wood that are native to sub-Saharan Africa, Baphia and Cordia africana. The latter fine-grained hardwood is known for its ability to be carved and its resonance, which makes it suited to musical instruments. The drumskin came from a deer hide and was stretched over the wooden structure using vegetable fibre. The drum was made in the Ghana region of West Africa between 1700 and 1745, and is presumed to have travelled to America on board a slave ship. As enslaved people had either been prisoners of war or kidnapped from their homes, they wouldn't have been able to carry any personal possessions. So it is presumed that the drum was either brought by a member of the crew or possibly by a son of the African chief who had sold the enslaved people for transportation. To exercise their human property, the slave traders would "dance the slaves". It is supposed that this was why the drum was transported. The word Akan refers to the culture in what is today Ghana and includes the Fante, Asante and Akuapem people. This particular drum was obtained in Virginia by the Rev. Clerk on behalf of the Anglo-Irish scientist Sir Hans Sloane. Sloane had travelled through Jamaica and had observed at first hand enslaved people playing instruments including those that were to evolve into the banjo. Sloane gathered examples of the tools of slavery and other artifacts which included this drum. Clerk and Sloane thought erroneously that this drum was made by Native Americans. Sloane's collection is a founding collection of the British Museum, his collection was purchased by the British government in 1753. The drum is still displayed at the British Museum as part of the "Sloane collection". Sloane's catalogue records this item as "drum made of a hollowed tree carved the top being brac'd wt. peggs & thongs wt. the bottom hollow from Virginia". The Mold gold cape is a ceremonial cape of solid sheet-gold from Wales dating from about 1900-1600 BCE in the British Bronze Age. It was found at Bryn yr Ellyllon burial mound near Mold, Flintshire in 1833. The cape was within a Bronze Age burial mound known as Bryn yr Ellyllon, which translates to "Goblins' Hill". The gold cape had been placed on the body of a person who was interred in a rough cist within the mound. The preserved remains of the skeleton were fragmentary, and the cape was badly crushed. An estimated 200-300 amber beads, in rows, had originally been on the cape, but only a single bead survives today. Also associated with the cape were remains of coarse cloth and 16 fragments of sheet bronze which are likely to have been the backing for the gold: in places the gold was attached to the bronze sheeting with bronze rivets. Among the artefacts found there also were two gold 'straps'. An urn, with large quantities of burnt bone and ash, was found 60-90 cm from the grave. The cape is 458 mm wide. It was designed to fit someone of a very slight build, perhaps a teenager, and although the sex of the person buried in this grave remains unclear, the associated finds are likely, by comparison with similar contemporary graves discovered, to be those accompanying the burial of a woman. The cape shows signs of having been worn, and appears to have had a leather lining. The cape is considered to be one of the most spectacular examples of prehistoric sheet-gold working yet discovered. It is of particular interest as both its form and its design are unparalleled. The cape is oval in shape and would cover the shoulders, upper arms, and upper chest of the person wearing it, being higher at the back and lower in the front. As the cape extends so far down the upper body, it would have severely restricted arm movement by pinning them to the wearer's side, so that only the lower arms were usable. For this reason, the cape would not have been suitable for everyday wear. It seems most probable that the cape was used for ceremonial purposes, and may have signified the wearer as a person of spiritual or temporal power: the Bronze Age equivalent of a chasuble, perhaps. It has been described as a "masterpiece" and among the finest examples of Easter Island sculpture. Though relatively small, it is considered to be typical of the island's statue form, but distinguished by carvings added to the back, associated with the island's birdman cult. The statue was identified as Hoa Hakananai'a by islanders at the time it was removed; the British crew first recorded the name in the form 'Hoa-haka-nana-ia' or 'Hoa-haka-nama-ia'. It has been variously translated from the Rapa Nui language to mean 'breaking wave', 'surfriding', 'surfing fellow', 'master wave-breaker', 'lost or stolen friend', 'stolen friend', 'hidden friend' or 'doing robberies/mockeries friend'. In 1868, Hoa Hakananai'a was standing erect, part buried inside a freestone ceremonial "house" in the Orongo village at the south-western tip of the island. It faced towards an extinct volcanic crater known as Rano Kau, with its back turned to the sea. It may have been made for this location, or first erected elsewhere before being moved to where it was found. The statue is thought to date from 1000- 1200 CE. No Easter Island statues have been scientifically dated, but statue making in general is said to have begun by at least 1000 CE, and occurred mostly between 1300 and 1500 CE. Manufacture is said to have ended by 1600 CE, when islanders began to topple them. The Y on the chin and the clavicles are rare on Easter Island statues, and said to be late innovations. </Text>

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<Text> :The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. In the Abrahamic religions , Gabriel is an archangel with the power to announce God's will to mankind. He is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, the Quran and the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Many Christian traditions - including Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Anglicanism - revere Gabriel as a saint. In the Hebrew Bible, Gabriel appears to the prophet Daniel to explain his visions . The archangel also appears in the Book of Enoch and other ancient Jewish writings not preserved in Hebrew. Alongside the archangel Michael, Gabriel is described as the guardian angel of Israel, defending its people against the angels of the other nations. In the New Testament, the Gospel of Luke relates the Annunciation, in which the angel Gabriel appears to Zechariah foretelling the birth of John the Baptist with the angel Gabriel foretelling the Virgin Mary the birth of Jesus Christ, respectively . Islam regards Gabriel as an archangel sent by God to various prophets, including Muhammad. The first five verses of the Al-Alaq, the 96th chapter of the Quran, are believed by Muslims to have been the first verses revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. The Catechism of the Catholic Church is a reference work that summarizes the Catholic Church's doctrine. It was promulgated by Pope John Paul II in 1992 as a reference for the development of local catechisms, directed primarily to those responsible for catechesis and offered as "useful reading for all other Christian faithful". It has been translated into and published in more than twenty languages worldwide. The decision to publish an official catechism was taken at the Second Extraordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops that was convened by Pope John Paul II on 25 January 1985, to evaluate the progress of implementing the Vatican II council's goals on the 20th anniversary of its closure. The assembly participants expressed the desire that "a catechism or compendium of all Catholic doctrine regarding both faith and morals be composed, that it might be, as it were, a point of reference for the catechisms or compendiums that are prepared in various regions. The presentation of doctrine must be biblical and liturgical. It must be sound doctrine suited to the present life of Christians". John Paul II says that in 1986 he formed a commission composed of 12 cardinals and bishops chaired by cardinal Joseph Ratzinger to prepare the first draft of the Catechism. The commission was assisted by a committee consisting of seven diocesan bishops, experts in theology and catechesis. The first principal part of the Catechism, which deals with the Profession of Faith, was drafted by Bishop Jose Manuel Estepa Llaurens and Bishop Alessandro Maggiolini. The second principal part, on the sacraments, was drafted by future Cardinals Jorge Medina and Estanislao Esteban Karlic. The third principal part, on life in Christ, was drafted by the future Cardinal Jean Honore and Bishop David Konstant. The final principal part, on prayer, was drafted by Fr. Jean Corbon, a Lebanese Melkite priest. Future CDF Prefect William Levada wrote the Catechism's glossary. The project's editorial secretary was the future Cardinal Christoph Schonborn, OP. The Bible is a collection of religious texts or scriptures, some, all, or a variant of which, are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, Islam, the Baha'i Faith, and many other Abrahamic religions. The Bible is an anthology, a compilation of texts of a variety of forms, originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek. These texts include instructions, stories, poetry, and prophecies, and other genres. The collection of materials that are accepted as part of the Bible by a particular religious tradition or community is called a biblical canon. Believers in the Bible generally consider it to be a product of divine inspiration, but the way they understand what that means and interpret the text varies. The religious texts were compiled by different religious communities into various official collections. The earliest contained the first five books of the Bible, called the Torah in Hebrew and the Pentateuch in Greek. The second oldest part was a collection of narrative histories and prophecies . The third collection contains psalms, proverbs, and narrative histories. "Tanakh" is an alternate term for the Hebrew Bible composed of the first letters of those three parts of the Hebrew scriptures: the Torah , the Nevi'im , and the Ketuvim . The Masoretic Text is the medieval version of the Tanakh, in Hebrew and Aramaic, that is considered the authoritative text of the Hebrew Bible by modern Rabbinic Judaism. The Septuagint is a Koine Greek translation of the Tanakh from the third and second centuries BC; it largely overlaps with the Hebrew Bible. Christianity began as an outgrowth of Second Temple Judaism, using the Septuagint as the basis of the Old Testament. The early Church continued the Jewish tradition of writing and incorporating what it saw as inspired, authoritative religious books. The gospels, Pauline epistles, and other texts quickly coalesced into the New Testament. With estimated total sales of over five billion copies, the Bible is the best-selling publication of all time. It has had a profound influence both on Western culture and history and on cultures around the globe. The study of it through biblical criticism has indirectly impacted culture and history as well. The Bible is currently translated or is being translated into about half of the world's languages. </Text>

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<Text> :The Rosary , also known as the Dominican Rosary , refers to a set of prayers used primarily in the Catholic Church, and to the physical string of knots or beads used to count the component prayers. When referring to the prayer, the word is usually capitalized ; when referring to the prayer beads as an object, it is written with a lower-case initial letter . The prayers that compose the Rosary are arranged in sets of ten Hail Marys, called "decades". Each decade is preceded by one Lord's Prayer , and traditionally followed by one Glory Be. Some Catholics also recite the "O my Jesus" prayer after the Glory Be; it is the best-known of the seven Fatima prayers that appeared in the early 20th century. Rosary prayer beads are an aid for saying these prayers in their proper sequence. Usually, five decades are recited in a session. Each decade provides an opportunity to meditate on one of the Mysteries of the Rosary, which recall events in the lives of Jesus Christ and his mother Mary. In the 16th century Pope Pius V established a standard 15 Mysteries of the Rosary, based on long-standing custom. This groups the mysteries in three sets: the Joyful Mysteries, the Sorrowful Mysteries, and the Glorious Mysteries. In 2002, Pope John Paul II said it is fitting that a new set of five be added, termed the Luminous Mysteries, bringing the total number of mysteries to 20. The mysteries are prayed on specific days of the week; with the addition of the Luminous Mysteries on Thursday, the others are the Glorious on Sunday and Wednesday, the Joyful on Monday and Saturday, and the Sorrowful on Tuesday and Friday. The Life of the Virgin, showing narrative scenes from the life of Mary, the mother of Jesus, is a common subject for pictorial cycles in Christian art, often complementing, or forming part of, a cycle on the Life of Christ. In both cases the number of scenes shown varies greatly with the space available. Works may be in any medium: frescoed church walls and series of old master prints have many of the fullest cycles, but panel painting, stained glass, illuminated manuscripts, tapestries, stone sculptures and ivory carvings have many examples. The Life of the Virgin sometimes merges into a cycle of the Life of Christ, sometimes includes scenes from the Passion of Christ, but often jumps from the childhood of Christ to the Death of the Virgin. The Finding in the Temple, the last episode in the childhood of Christ, often ends the cycle. Important examples whose scenes are listed in the table below, include those in the Tornabuoni Chapel by Domenico Ghirlandaio and his workshop between 1485 and 1490, the Scrovegni Chapel by Giotto, completed about 1305, and the Maesta by Duccio completed in 1308. The important and extended Late Byzantine mosaic cycle of the Chora Church shows some differences between East and West - the First seven steps of the Virgin were celebrated by an Orthodox feast day - but the 16 scenes taken to reach a point before the Visitation are similar to the 15 taken in Giotto's near-contemporary cycle. When the Chora cycle resumes, it has become part of the Life of Christ beginning with his Incarnation, as has Giotto's and many Western examples. The Giotto cycle is very full at 26 scenes, but in a small ivory only two scenes may be shown. The commonest pair in such a case is the Annunciation and the Nativity of Jesus, although there were times when the Coronation of the Virgin might displace one of these. The Tornabuoni Chapel has nine scenes . In this case, as very often, other scenes, such as the Visitation, including Mary are contained in the complementary cycle of the Life of St John the Baptist on the walls. A Life of Christ has many more scenes that overlap with the Life of Mary, as the Scrovegni Chapel demonstrates. Albrecht Durer produced a highly popular and influential series of 19 scenes in woodcut. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the feast of the Resurrection of Jesus, called Pascha , is the greatest of all holy days and as such it is called the "feast of feasts". Immediately below it in importance, there is a group of Twelve Great Feasts . Together with Pascha, these are the most significant dates on the Orthodox liturgical calendar. Eight of the great feasts are in honor of Jesus Christ, while the other four are dedicated to the Virgin Mary -- the Theotokos. With the exception of the Presentation/Entrance of the Theotokos, appointed hymns for all of the Twelve Great Feasts are found in the Georgian Iadgari of Jerusalem which was compiled in approximately the middle of the 6th century. Thus eleven of the twelve feasts were celebrated in the Greek East for some time prior, as most of the hymnographic content is datable to the 5th century. Besides the Twelve Great Feasts, the Orthodox Church knows five other feasts that rank as great feasts, yet without being numbered among the twelve. They are: the Circumcision of Christ , the Nativity of St. John the Baptist , the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul , the Beheading of St John the Baptist , and the Intercession of the Theotokos . In Byzantine art a slightly different group were often depicted as a set, omitting the first three in the list above, and adding the Raising of Lazarus, Crucifixion of Jesus, and Harrowing of Hell. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. The twenty-ninth day of the Coptic month of Paremhat, the seventh month of the Coptic year. In common years, this day corresponds to March 25, of the Julian calendar, and April 7, of the Gregorian calendar. This day falls in the Coptic season of Shemu, the season of the Harvest. On this day, the Coptic church celebrates the Feast of the Annunciation, one of the Major Feasts of the Lord, as well as the annual commemoration of the Resurrection. The Annunciation with St. Margaret and St. Ansanus is a painting by the Italian Gothic artists Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi, now housed in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy. It is a wooden triptych painted in tempera and gold, with a central panel having double size. Considered Martini's masterwork and one of the most outstanding works of Gothic painting, the work was originally painted for a side altar in the Siena Cathedral. The painting originally decorated the altar of St. Ansanus in the Cathedral of Siena, and had been commissioned as part of a cycle of four altarpieces dedicated to the city's patrons saints during 1330-1350. These included the Presentation at the Temple by Ambrogio Lorenzetti , the Nativity of the Virgin by Pietro Lorenzetti , and a Nativity, now disassembled, attributed to Bartolomeo Bulgarini from 1351 . All the paintings should represent stories of the Life of the Madonna, and were crowned by Duccio di Buoninsegna's Maesta. The artists' use of expensive lacquer, extensive gold leafing and the difficult to obtain lapis lazuli in the painting demonstrates the communal prestige of the commission. The date of the painting is specified in a fragment of the original frame, now embedded in the 19th-century renovation. It lists the name of Simone Martini and his brother-in-law Lippo Memmi , although it is unknown which parts they executed. A hypothesis is that Martini painted the central panel, while Memmi was responsible for the side saints and the tondoes with prophets in the upper part. The work, in both size and style, has no similarities with any other contemporary painting in Italy. It can be compared instead to French illuminated manuscripts of that time, as well as to paintings from Germany or England. His "northern European" style granted Martini a call from the papal court in Avignon, where there were Italian but no Florentine painters, as the Giottesque classical manner was met with little interest by the Gothic culture of the area. Luke 1 is the first chapter of the Gospel of Luke in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. With 80 verses, it is one of the longest chapters in the New Testament. This chapter describes the birth of John the Baptist and the events leading up to the birth of Jesus. Two canticles, the canticle of Mary and the canticle of Zechariah , are both contained within this chapter. The unnamed author of Luke names its recipient, Theophilus, who is most likely a real person, but the term could simply mean a fellow believer, since theo philus is Greek for God lover. Early Christian tradition uniformly affirms that Luke composed this Gospel as well as the Acts of the Apostles, the companion volume to Luke, which is addressed to Theophilus in the same way. The title "The Gospel of Luke", found in many Bibles and some manuscripts, was added later with no indication that it was originally part of the text. The narratives are claimed to be an accurate history and meant to confirm the things that Theophilus has already been taught about Jesus, being written by a believer for the purpose of confirming belief. The writer clearly states there are other accounts about Jesus circulating and he is aware of them. Protestant theologian Heinrich August Wilhelm Meyer and Lutheran biblical commentator Johann Albrecht Bengel think that Mark is among those Luke has in mind, but Bengel suggests that Matthew and John were not. Luke also states he is not himself an eyewitness but belongs to another generation that received its information from "eyewitnesses" to these events in a previous generation. Some argue Luke thus states that he is getting his information from the disciples and Apostles, which the tradition about Luke being a follower of Paul accords with. Luke, however, does not say explicitly that he knew or interviewed Jesus' disciples, at least in the Gospel, and so some think "handed down to us" means the traditions and other documents about Jesus that came from witnesses of the previous generation, which Luke carefully researched, not necessarily from someone Luke actually knew. Some sections of Acts, however, have the author relating events with the author and Paul together. According to Franciscan theologian Robert J. Karris, "Luke alone of the evangelists introduces his work with ... finely crafted, periodic Greek." The first sentence gives the "since" clause, the main clause is given in the first part of the second sentence, and the purpose clause is given by "so that you may know...". Luke uses the word Greek: epeideper, epeideper, "inasmuch as", or "since indeed", to commence his account. This literary word which does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament or in the Septuagint, the Greek text of the Hebrew Bible, although it was frequently used by other classical writers. Luke uses diegesis for "an account", which taken alone seems to mean a personal storytelling, but when compared to other usages at the time, such as with the works of Josephus, is to be taken as meaning a well planned account, although he might use it in the original meaning in Luke 8:39. He uses the word kathexes for orderly account, which would mean a logical, spatial, or chronological account. Karris argues that the use of the word as well in Acts indicated that Luke is composing in a logical sequence, with Luke building a logical argument for his view of God fulfilling his promises through Jesus. Many scholars have seen parallels between this style and the openings to the Greek histories of Herodotus and Thucydides as well as scientific manuals and treatises of the Hellenistic world. The Feast of the Annunciation commemorates the visit of the archangel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary, during which he informed her that she would be the mother of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. It is celebrated on 25 March each year. It is called in Greek O Euaggelismos tes Theotokou, other names are Solemnity of the Annunciation, Lady Day, Feast of the Incarnation , and Conceptio Christi . The Feast of the Annunciation is observed almost universally throughout Christianity, especially within the Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglicanism, the Catholic Church, and Lutheranism. It is a major Marian feast, classified as a solemnity in the Catholic Church, a Festival in Lutheranism, and a Principal Feast in the Anglican Communion. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, because it announces the incarnation of Christ, it is counted as one of the eight great feasts of the Lord. The importance attached to the Annunciation, especially in the Catholic Church, are the Angelus and the Hail Mary prayers, the event's position as the first Joyful Mystery of the Dominican Rosary, the Novena for the Feast of the Annunciation, and the numerous depictions of the Annunciation in Christian art. The "angelic salutation" of Gabriel to Mary is recorded in the Gospel of Luke: "Hail, full of grace, the LORD is with thee" , and Mary's response to God's will; "be it done to me according to thy word" . The earliest evidence for a Feast of the Annunciation or Incarnation is from the fifth century. The first certain mentions of the feast are in a canon, of the Council of Toledo in 656, where it was described as celebrated throughout the Church, and in another of the Council of Constantinople "in Trullo" in 692, which forbade the celebration of any festivals during Lent, excepting the Lord's Day and the Feast of the Annunciation. A Synod of Worcester, England in 1240 forbade all servile work on the feast. As this feast celebrates the Incarnation of the Second Person of the Trinity, many Church Fathers, including St. Athanasius, St. Gregory of Nyssa, and St. Augustine, have expounded on it. The Annunciation is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus. According to Luke 1:26, the Annunciation occurred "in the sixth month" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus. The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation. And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God. </Text>

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<Text> :Trafalgar Square is a public square in the City of Westminster, Central London, established in the early 19th century around the area formerly known as Charing Cross. The square's name commemorates the Battle of Trafalgar, the British naval victory in the Napoleonic Wars over France and Spain that took place on 21st October 1805 off the coast of Cape Trafalgar. The site around Trafalgar Square has been a significant landmark since the 1200s. For centuries, distances measured from Charing Cross have served as location markers. The site of the present square formerly contained the elaborately designed, enclosed courtyard, King's Mews. After George IV moved the mews to Buckingham Palace, the area was redeveloped by John Nash, but progress was slow after his death, and the square did not open until 1844. The 169-foot Nelson's Column at its centre is guarded by four lion statues. A number of commemorative statues and sculptures occupy the square, but the Fourth Plinth, left empty since 1840, has been host to contemporary art since 1999. Prominent buildings facing the square include the National Gallery, St Martin-in-the-Fields, Canada House, and South Africa House. The square has been used for community gatherings and political demonstrations, including Bloody Sunday in 1887, the culmination of the first Aldermaston March, anti-war protests, and campaigns against climate change. A Christmas tree has been donated to the square by Norway since 1947 and is erected for twelve days before and after Christmas Day. The square is a centre of annual celebrations on New Year's Eve. It was well known for its feral pigeons until their removal in the early 21st century. The square is named after the Battle of Trafalgar, a British naval victory in the Napoleonic Wars with France and Spain that took place on 21 October 1805 off the coast of Cape Trafalgar, southwest Spain, although it was not named as such until 1835. The City of Westminster is a city and borough in London. It is the site of the United Kingdom's Houses of Parliament and much of the British government. It occupies a large area of central London, including most of the West End. Many London landmarks are within the borough, including Buckingham Palace, Westminster Abbey, Whitehall, Westminster Cathedral, 10 Downing Street, and Trafalgar Square. Westminster became a city in 1540, and historically, it was a part of the ceremonial county of Middlesex. Its southern boundary is the River Thames. To the City of Westminster's east is the City of London near Temple Bar, and to its west is the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. To its north is the London Borough of Camden. Charing Cross in Westminster is the notional centre of London, and the point from which distances from London are measured. The borough is divided into a number of localities including the ancient political district of Westminster; the shopping areas around Oxford Street, Regent Street, Piccadilly and Bond Street; and the night-time entertainment district of Soho. Much of the borough is residential, and in 2019 it was estimated to have a population of 261,000. Despite large swaths of parks and open spaces, including Hyde Park and most of Regent's Park, the population density of the district is high. The London Westminster borough was created with the 1965 establishment of Greater London. Upon the creation, it inherited the city status previously held by the then Metropolitan Borough of Westminster from 1900, which was first awarded to Westminster in 1540. The local government body is Westminster City Council, and there has been a Lord Mayor of the City of Westminster since 1966. The area is also within the authority of the Mayor of London, an office created in 2000. The Arnolfini Portrait is a 1434 oil painting on oak panel by the Early Netherlandish painter Jan van Eyck. It forms a full-length double portrait, believed to depict the Italian merchant Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini and his wife, presumably in their residence at the Flemish city of Bruges. It is considered one of the most original and complex paintings in Western art, because of its beauty, complex iconography, geometric orthogonal perspective, and expansion of the picture space with the use of a mirror. According to Ernst Gombrich "in its own way it was as new and revolutionary as Donatello's or Masaccio's work in Italy. A simple corner of the real world had suddenly been fixed on to a panel as if by magic... For the first time in history the artist became the perfect eye-witness in the truest sense of the term". The portrait has been considered by Erwin Panofsky and some other art historians as a unique form of marriage contract, recorded as a painting. Signed and dated by van Eyck in 1434, it is, with the Ghent Altarpiece by the same artist and his brother Hubert, the oldest very famous panel painting to have been executed in oils rather than in tempera. The painting was bought by the National Gallery in London in 1842. Van Eyck used the technique of applying several layers of thin translucent glazes to create a painting with an intensity of both tone and colour. The glowing colours also help to highlight the realism, and to show the material wealth and opulence of Arnolfini's world. Van Eyck took advantage of the longer drying time of oil paint, compared to tempera, to blend colours by painting wet-in-wet to achieve subtle variations in light and shade to heighten the illusion of three-dimensional forms. The wet-in-wet , technique, also known as alla prima, was highly utilized by Renaissance painters including Jan van Eyck. The medium of oil paint also permitted van Eyck to capture surface appearance and distinguish textures precisely. He also rendered the effects of both direct and diffuse light by showing the light from the window on the left reflected by various surfaces. It has been suggested that he used a magnifying glass in order to paint the minute details such as the individual highlights on each of the amber beads hanging beside the mirror. The illusionism of the painting was remarkable for its time, in part for the rendering of detail, but particularly for the use of light to evoke space in an interior, for "its utterly convincing depiction of a room, as well of the people who inhabit it". Whatever meaning is given to the scene and its details, and there has been much debate on this, according to Craig Harbison the painting "is the only fifteenth-century Northern panel to survive in which the artist's contemporaries are shown engaged in some sort of action in a contemporary interior. It is indeed tempting to call this the first genre painting - a painting of everyday life - of modern times". Sir George Howland Beaumont, 7th Baronet was a British art patron and amateur painter. He played a crucial part in the creation of London's National Gallery by making the first bequest of paintings to that institution. Born in Great Dunmow, Essex, he was the only surviving child of the landowner Sir George Beaumont, 6th Baronet, from whom he inherited the baronetcy in 1762 and Rachel daughter of Michael Howland of Stone Hall, Matching Green. Beaumont was educated at Eton College, where he was taught drawing by the landscape painter Alexander Cozens. The first paintings to enter Beaumont's collection were by artists he knew, but a Grand Tour which he undertook in 1782 with his wife Margaret widened his taste to include the Old Masters. On his return he began to assemble a collection of Old Master paintings despite his relatively modest means. His first important acquisition was A Landscape with Hagar and the Angel by Claude Lorrain, and this always remained his favourite painting, accompanying him on coach journeys in a specially-designed case. In 1785 Lady Beaumont inherited the lease of 34 Grosvenor Square, which provided the Beaumonts with a much-needed escape from the tedium of Dunmow and introduced them to a more diverse social circle. This circle expanded when Beaumont became Tory MP for Beer Alston in Devon from 1790 to 1796, but his enthusiasm for politics was short-lived and he soon returned to his artistic pursuits. A picture gallery was added to the house in 1792 to accommodate their growing art collection. Despite the cool reception by critics of an early work, A View of Keswick , Beaumont became a frequent exhibitor at the Royal Academy from 1794 to 1825, eventually earning a reputation as the leading amateur painter of his day. The Adoration of the Golden Calf is a painting by Nicolas Poussin, produced between 1633 and 1634. It depicts the adoration of the golden calf by the Israelites, from chapter 32 of the Book of Exodus. It was made as part of a pair of paintings commissioned by Amadeo dal Pozzo, Marchese di Voghera of Turin, a cousin to Cassiano dal Pozzo, Poussin's main sponsor in Rome. By 1685 the pair had passed to the Chevalier de Lorraine and in 1710 they were bought by Benigne de Ragois de Bretonvillers. In 1741 they were bought from Samuel by Sir Jacob Bouverie, whose son William became the first Earl of Radnor. The Earls of Radnor owned the pair from then until 1945, when it was split for the first time and The Adoration of the Golden Calf bought by the National Gallery in London for PS10,000, half of which was contributed by the Art Fund. It now hangs in Room 19 of the National Gallery, where it and Poussin's The Adoration of the Shepherds were vandalised with red spray paint on 17 July 2011. The French-speaking vandal covered up most of the nude figures. The Portrait of Dona Isabel de Porcel is an oil-on-canvas painting by the Spanish artist Francisco de Goya, painted around 1805. The portrait depicts Isabel Lobo Velasco de Porcel, who was born at Ronda around 1780 and was the second wife of Antonio Porcel. Isabel's husband was 25 years older than she; they met when she was 20 years old. Antonio Porcel was a liberal and associate of Manuel Godoy, Prince of Peace, who was a friend of Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, who in turn brought him in contact with Goya, who lived nearby; the painting is said to have been a gift from the artist in return for hospitality. A Goya portrait of Antonio Porcel, though much larger and so not a matching piece, was lost in a fire when the Jockey Club in Buenos Aires was destroyed in a riot in 1953. The half-length portrait depicts a young woman dressed in typical Spanish attire, a white shirt and a black mantilla. In spite of her "maja" attire, the richness of the textiles and her ladylike appearance give the picture an aristocratic elegance; at this time wealthy Spanish "people of fashion" often wore the styles of lower class urban dandies and their female equivalents, as seen in Goya's famous clothed version of La Maja. The decisive gesture of her arms in the akimbo position and her confidence stand out. Her eyes and hair are light brown, her skin is pale, and her body is slightly turned to the left side, while her head gives balance by being turned to the opposite side. Goya achieves realism and deepness without adding secondary objects to the composition. One of the unique aspects of this painting is that the woman is looking towards the left side of the viewer and not towards him, which is the case of the majority of Goya's paintings. The Death of Actaeon is a late work by the Italian Renaissance painter Titian, painted in oil on canvas from about 1559 to his death in 1576 and now in the National Gallery in London. It is very probably one of the two paintings the artist stated he had started and hopes to finish in a letter to their commissioner Philip II of Spain during June 1559. However, most of Titian's work on this painting possibly dates to the late 1560s, but with touches from the 1570s. Titian seems never to have resolved it to his satisfaction, and the painting apparently remained in his studio until his death in 1576. There has been considerable debate as to whether it is finished or not, as with other very late Titians, such as the Flaying of Marsyas, which unlike this has a signature, perhaps an indication of completion. It is a sequel of Titian's work Diana and Actaeon showing the story's tragic conclusion, which approximately follows the Roman poet Ovid's account in the Metamorphoses: after Actaeon surprised the goddess Diana bathing naked in the woods, she transformed him into a stag and he was attacked and killed by his own hounds. Both paintings belong to a group of large-scale mythological paintings inspired by the Metamorphoses and referred to by Titian himself as 'poesie', the visual equivalent of poetry, which he began producing for Philip II of Spain in 1551 and which also include Danae , Venus and Adonis , Perseus and Andromeda , The Rape of Europa , Diana and Actaeon and Diana and Callisto . However, as The Death of Actaeon was never delivered to Philip, it is not always counted in the series. Ovid's account does not include Diana herself pursuing Actaeon, or shooting at him, though in some other classical accounts she does chase him. She seems to have just loosed an arrow, but there is no sign of the arrow in the painting, nor is the bowstring visible. The goddess does not have her attribute of the small crescent in her hair that Titian's other two depictions in the poesie do, which troubled one early critic. </Text>

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<Text> :Mary Magdalene was a woman who, according to the four canonical gospels, traveled with Jesus as one of his followers and was a witness to his crucifixion and resurrection. She is mentioned by name twelve times in the canonical gospels, more than most of the apostles and more than any other woman in the gospels, other than Jesus's family. Mary's epithet Magdalene may be a toponymic surname, meaning that she came from the town of Magdala, a fishing town on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in Roman Judea. The Gospel of Luke chapter 8 lists Mary Magdalene as one of the women who travelled with Jesus and helped support his ministry "out of their resources", indicating that she was probably wealthy. The same passage also states that seven demons had been driven out of her, a statement which is repeated from Mark 16. In all four canonical gospels, Mary Magdalene is a witness to the crucifixion of Jesus and, in the Synoptic Gospels, she is also present at his burial. All four gospels identify her, either alone or as a member of a larger group of women which includes Jesus's mother, as the first to witness the empty tomb, and, either alone or as a member of a group, as the first to witness Jesus's resurrection. Mary Magdalene is considered to be a saint by the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran denominations. In 2016, Pope Francis raised the level of liturgical memory on July 22 from memorial to feast, and for her to be referred to as the "Apostle of the apostles". Other Protestant churches honor her as a heroine of the faith. The Eastern Orthodox churches also commemorate her on the Sunday of the Myrrhbearers, the Orthodox equivalent of one of the Western Three Marys traditions. The portrayal of Mary Magdalene as a prostitute began in 591, when Pope Gregory I conflated Mary Magdalene, who was introduced in Luke 8:2, with Mary of Bethany and the unnamed "sinful woman" who anointed Jesus's feet in Luke 7:36-50. Pope Gregory's Easter sermon resulted in a widespread belief that Mary Magdalene was a repentant prostitute or promiscuous woman. Elaborate medieval legends from Western Europe then emerged, which told exaggerated tales of Mary Magdalene's wealth and beauty, as well as of her alleged journey to southern Gaul . The identification of Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany and the unnamed "sinful woman" was still a major controversy in the years leading up to the Reformation, and some Protestant leaders rejected it. During the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church emphasized Mary Magdalene as a symbol of penance. In 1969, Pope Paul VI removed the identification of Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany and the "sinful woman" from the General Roman Calendar, but the view of her as a former prostitute has persisted in popular culture. Finaldi was born in Barnet and raised in Catford in south London, the son of a Neapolitan father and a half-Polish-half-English mother. He was educated at Dulwich College before studying art history at The Courtauld Institute of Art where he completed his doctorate in 1995 on the 17th-century Spanish Baroque painter Jusepe de Ribera. Finaldi has curated exhibitions in the UK, Spain, Italy and Belgium and has written catalogues and scholarly articles on Velazquez and Zurbaran, on Italian Baroque painting, on religious iconography, and on Picasso. Finaldi was a curator at the National Gallery between 1992 and 2002. He was responsible for the later Italian paintings in the collection and the Spanish collection . In 2002 he was appointed Deputy Director for Collections and Research at the Museo Nacional del Prado in Madrid, Spain. At the Prado he oversaw the project to build a new extension in 2007, the creation of the Research Centre, and curated major exhibitions on Ribera and Bartolome Esteban Murillo . Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is named after the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover, George I, George II, George III, and George IV, who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The Georgian cities of the British Isles were Edinburgh, Bath, pre-independence Dublin, and London, and to a lesser extent York and Bristol. The style was revived in the late 19th century in the United States as Colonial Revival architecture and in the early 20th century in Great Britain as Neo-Georgian architecture; in both it is also called Georgian Revival architecture. In the United States, the term Georgian is generally used to describe all buildings from the period, regardless of style; in Britain it is generally restricted to buildings that are "architectural in intention", and have stylistic characteristics that are typical of the period, though that covers a wide range. The Georgian style is highly variable, but marked by symmetry and proportion based on the classical architecture of Greece and Rome, as revived in Renaissance architecture. Ornament is also normally in the classical tradition, but typically restrained, and sometimes almost completely absent on the exterior. The period brought the vocabulary of classical architecture to smaller and more modest buildings than had been the case before, replacing English vernacular architecture for almost all new middle-class homes and public buildings by the end of the period. </Text>

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<Text> :</Text>

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<Text> :The work's alternative title, "Suffer the little children to come unto me" is based on a passage from the gospel of Matthew in which Jesus was instructing his disciples through the example of children. The painting is part of the artist's body of religious work, which is less well-known than her depictions of strong women. The painting's first home was the collection of Fernando Enriquez Afan de Ribera, the 3rd Duke of Alcala, from 1626 to 1637. He purchased the painting in Rome while he was ambassador to the Holy See during 1625-1626. In 1626, he became viceroy of Naples, and then later returned to Seville in 1631. The work was intended for the charterhouse at Santa Maria della Cueves, which contained his family's chapel. It was later in the collection of the Duke of Sutherland at Stafford House, before being sold on to a collector in New York. The painting was first recognised as a Gentileschi based on a view of a black and white photograph in 2001, but the whereabouts were unknown; it had previously belonged to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, but had been deaccessioned in 1979 as a work of Carlo Rosa. In 2012, art historian Gianni Papi rediscovered the work in a church in Rome, but has yet to determine how it came to be there. The Tower of Babel narrative in Genesis 11:1-9 is an origin myth and parable meant to explain why the world's peoples speak different languages. According to the story, a united human race speaking a single language and migrating eastward, comes to the land of Shinar . There they agree to build a city and a tower with its top in the sky. Yahweh, observing their city and tower, confounds their speech so that they can no longer understand each other, and scatters them around the world. Some modern scholars have associated the Tower of Babel with known structures, notably Etemenanki, a ziggurat dedicated to the Mesopotamian god Marduk in Babylon. A Sumerian story with some similar elements is told in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta. 1 Now the whole earth had one language and the same words. 2 And as they migrated from the east, they came upon a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there. 3 And they said to one another, "Come, let us make bricks and fire them thoroughly." And they had brick for stone and bitumen for mortar. 4 Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves; otherwise we shall be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth." 5 The LORD came down to see the city and the tower, which mortals had built. 6 And the LORD said, "Look, they are one people, and they have all one language, and this is only the beginning of what they will do; nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. 7 Come, let us go down and confuse their language there, so that they will not understand one another's speech." 8 So the LORD scattered them abroad from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. 9 Therefore it was called Babel, because there the LORD confused the language of all the earth, and from there the LORD scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.</Text>

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<Text> :The Paradiesgartlein is a panel painting created around 1410 by an unknown painter referred to as Upper Rhenish Master. It belongs to the Mary in the rose bower type. The Paradiesgartlein is one of the earliest paintings to naturalistically depict flora and fauna The panel painting is created about 1410. The painter is unknown, referred to as the Upper Rhenish Master or formerly Master of the Paradiesgartlein. The painting is executed in mixed techniques on wood; it measures about 26 by 33 centimetres. It is on display at the Stadel Museum in Frankfurt, Germany. The painting belongs to the Maria im Rosenhag type, but the painter adapted that style uniquely. In contrast to depictions current at the time, the Virgin Mary is not depicted in the centre of the image, but in the upper left corner, engrossed in a book. She is surrounded by Saints. To her right, Saint Dorothy is plucking a cherry, Saint Barbara is drawing water from a well, and Saint Cecilia holds a psaltery, on which the Child Jesus is plucking the strings. At the feet of Saint George, there is a small dead dragon, and at those of Archangel Michael, a small black demon. Saint Oswald is leaning against a tree trunk. The Paradiesgartlein is one of the earliest paintings to naturalistically depict plants; they are all clearly recognisable. Most are Marian symbols. Near the wall, the birds are also realistic. The painting depicts: Johann Friedrich Stadel was a German banker and patron of the arts. He founded the Stadel Art Institute in his will, donating his entire fortune, art collection and house to the institute. Stadel was born to Johann Daniel Stadel, a spice trader who moved to Frankfurt in 1718, and Maria Dorothea Petzel, the daughter of a wealthy merchant. After his parents' deaths in 1777 and 1778, Stadel took over the business, but soon transferred to banking. He was very successful in this business, doubling his wealth between 1783 and his death in 1816. He lived in his parents' house in the Kornmarkt until 1777 before moving into his own home on the Rossmarkt . Stadel began collecting paintings and drawings in 1770. By the time of his death, his collection contained around 500 paintings, mostly by Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the 17th and 18th centuries. The collection also contained over 4000 drawings. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the famous playwright and poet, visited the collection several times. Stadel did not marry and had no children. Since 1793 he had planned to create an art institute. In 1811 he requested permission to found an institute from Karl Theodor von Dalberg, the Grand Duke of Frankfurt. In Stadel's will, he stipulated that both a public art collection as well as an art school be created in his name. He also stated that his paintings could be sold, and the institute should seek the "best" possible collections. All of the artworks owned by Stadel were transferred to the collection upon his death in 1816. </Text>

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<Text> :In Greek mythology, Calliope is the Muse who presides over eloquence and epic poetry; so called from the ecstatic harmony of her voice. Hesiod and Ovid called her the "Chief of all Muses". Calliope had two famous sons, Orpheus and Linus, by either Apollo or King Oeagrus of Thrace. She taught Orpheus verses for singing. According to Hesiod, she was also the wisest of the Muses, as well as the most assertive. Calliope married Oeagrus in Pimpleia, a town near Mount Olympus. She is said to have defeated the daughters of Pierus, king of Thessaly, in a singing match, and then, to punish their presumption, turned them into magpies. She was sometimes believed to be Homer's muse for the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Roman epic poet Virgil invokes her in the Aeneid In some cases, she is said to be the mother of Sirens by the river-god Achelous. Another account adds that Calliope bore Rhesus to the river-god Strymon. Here rise to life again, dead poetry! Let it, O holy Muses, for I am yours, And here Calliope, strike a higher key, Accompanying my song with that sweet air which made the wretched Magpies feel a blow that turned all hope of pardon to despair The Stadel is an art museum in Frankfurt, Germany. It was founded by Johann Friedrich Stadel, a wealthy banker who bequeathed his fortune and collection to create the museum as well as the Stadelschule.Wiktionary is a multilingual, web-based project to create a free content dictionary of terms in all natural languages and in a number of artificial languages. These entries may contain definitions, images for illustration, pronunciations, etymologies, inflections, usage examples, quotations, related terms, and translations of terms into other languages, among other features. It is collaboratively edited via a wiki. Its name is a portmanteau of the words wiki and dictionary. It is available in 192 languages and in Simple English. Like its sister project Wikipedia, Wiktionary is run by the Wikimedia Foundation, and is written collaboratively by volunteers, dubbed "Wiktionarians". Its wiki software, MediaWiki, allows almost anyone with access to the website to create and edit entries. Because Wiktionary is not limited by print space considerations, most of Wiktionary's language editions provide definitions and translations of terms from many languages, and some editions offer additional information typically found in thesauri. Wiktionary was brought online on December 12, 2002, following a proposal by Daniel Alston and an idea by Larry Sanger, co-founder of Wikipedia. On March 28, 2004, the first non-English Wiktionaries were initiated in French and Polish. Wiktionaries in numerous other languages have since been started. Wiktionary was hosted on a temporary domain name until May 1, 2004, when it switched to the current domain name. As of July 2021, Wiktionary features over 30 million articles across its editions. The largest of the language editions is the English Wiktionary, with over 7.5 million entries, followed by the French Wiktionary with over 4.7 million and the Malagasy Wiktionary with over 3.5 million entries. Forty-three Wiktionary language editions contain over 100,000 entries each. Many of the definitions at the project's largest language editions were created by bots that found creative ways to generate entries or automatically imported thousands of entries from previously published dictionaries. Seven of the 18 bots registered at the English Wiktionary in 2007 created 163,000 of the entries there. </Text>